REPORT ON

VOCATIONAL TRAINING

AT

AIRPORT AUTHORITY OF INDIA

Submitted by:

Abhishek Yadav
Ashutosh Vishwakarma
Ashvini Gupta
Deepesh Jain
Mohit Nathani
Pranay Gurve
Rohit Kumar
Sanchita Narnaware
Shivam Mishra
Vijeta Parteti
 DECLARATION

This is to certify that all the research and

project work described below is a part of three
week industrial training is done by students of
SATI, Vidisha and SGSITS, Indore , VI year
Electronics and Communication Engineering,
under the proper g u i d a n c e f r o m t h e c o m p a n y
o f f i c i a l s a n d n o c o n f i d e n t i a l d a t a related to
the company has been disclosed in the report.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Its a great pleasure to present this

r e p o r t o f s u m m e r t r a i n i n g i n AIRPORTS
AUTHORITY OF INDIA (BHOPAL) in partial
fulfillment of B-E Programme under SATI and
SGSITS , Indore, we would like to express my
immense gratitude to my training guide Mr. Sandeep
Yadav (Sr. Manager (CNS), Airports Authority Of
India) for guiding us right from the inception till the
successful completion of the training. We a r e f a l l i n g
short of words for expressing my feelings
o f g r a t i t u d e towards him for extending his
val uable guidance about technology, equipment
and support for literature, critical reviews of project
and the r e p o r t a n d a b o v e a l l t h e m o r a l
s u p p o r t h e h a d p r o v i d e d u s w i t h a l l stages of
this training. We would also like to thank my friends
and all my group members for their help and
cooperation throughout the training
 Contents

1.
Introduction…………………………….…………...…05
1.1 Functions of AAI
1.2 International Projects
1.3 Organizational Structure
2.Security
System………………………………………..10
2.1 Security Equipment
2.1.1 X-BIS
2.1.2 WTMD
2.1.3 HHMD
2.1.4 ETD
2.2 5FIDS
2.2 PA System
3. Communication
Equipment...……………………...….19
3.1 Air to Ground Communication
3.1.1 Air Traffic Control
3.1.2 The DR100 multimode VHF receiver
3.2 Ground-to-Ground Communication
3.2.1 Wacky-Talky
3.3 Other Important Equipment
3.3.1 DVTR
3.3.2 DATIS
3.4 Conversions
4. IT Unit……………………………………………..….27
4.1 Functions of IT.
 4.2 Basics
4.2.1 Hub
4.2.2 Switch
4.2.3 Router
4.3 Networking
4.3.1 LAN
4.3.2 WAN
4.3.3 Internet
4.4 Network Topologies
4.4.1 Bus
4.4.2 Star
4.4.3 Ring
4.4.4 Mesh
5.
Navigation...……………………………………………….40
5.1 Navigational aids
5.1.1 ILS
5.1.2 DME
5.1.3 DVOR
6. References……………………………..…………….……53
 1.Introduction
The Airports Authority of India (AAI) is an
organization working under the Ministry of
Civil Aviation that manages all the airports in
India. The AAI manages and operates 126 airports
including 12 international airports, 89 domestic
airports and 26civil enclaves. The corporate
headquarters (CHQ) are at Rajiv Gandhi Bhawan,
Safdarjung Airport,and New Delhi. V.P Agrawal
is the current chairman of the AAI.

The Airports Authority of India (AAI) was

formed on 1st April 1995 by merging the
International Airports Authority of India and the
National Airports Authority with a view to accelerate
the integrated development, expansion and
modernization of the operational, terminal and cargo
facilities at the airports in the country conforming
to international standards. AAI provides air
navigation services over 2.8 million square nautical
miles of airspace.

The new domestic terminal building at Luknow

Airport was inaugurated on 2 June 2012. The new
terminal has an area of 20,000spm, is made of
glass and steel structure having modern
passenger friendly facilities such ascentral heating
system, central air conditioning, in linex-ray baggage

inspection system integrated with the departure

conveyor system, inclined arrival baggage claim
carousals, escalators, public address system, Flight
information display system(FIDS), CCTV for
surveillance, Airport check- in cou nters with
Common Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE),
car parking, etc. The Internati onal Terminal
Building has peak hour passenger handling
capacity of 650 passengers and annual handling
capacity of 2.2 million.
Besides five custom counters, the new terminal also
has 12 immigration counters.
The new terminal has departure and arrival ports
on the ground level. The first floor has a swanky lounge
connected to two aerobridges, enabling passengers to
walk straight into the waiting aircraft on the tarmac.
Built at an estimated cost of Rs. 120 crore, the new
terminal has duty-free shops, cyber cafes, and snack
bars, shopping arcade and book shops. Indigo, Jet Lite,
Indian Airlines and Air India operate from Lucknow to
various destinations in India and abroad.
1.1 Functions of AAI

•To control and manage the entire Indian airspace

(excluding the special user airspace) extending
beyond the territorial limits of the country, as accepted
by ICAO.

•To Design, Construct, Operate and Maintain

International Airports, Domestic Airports, and Civil
Enclaves at Defense Airports.

•Development and Management of Cargo Terminals at

Airports.

•Provision of Passenger Facilities and Information

System at the Passenger Terminals at airports.

•Expansion and strengthening of operation area viz.

Runways, Aprons, Taxi way, etc.

•Provision of visual aids.

•Provision of Communication and Navigational

aids viz. ILS, DVOR, DME, Radar, etc.
1.2 International Projects

The AAI has been involved in various

c o n s u l t a n c y p r o j e c t s with Libya, Algeria,
Yemen, Maldives, Nauru and Afghanistan. The AAI
also provides trained personnel for operation,
maintenance and management of airports in these
countries
1.3 Organizational Structure
 2. Security System
The main objectives of the Security system are as
follows:

•Prevent attacks on airports or aircraft’s.

•Prevents accidents & fatalities due to transport of

hazardous materials.

•To ensure safety & security of passengers.

2.1 Security Equipment

The main security equipment are-

1. X-BIS
2. WTMD
3. HHMD
4. ETD
5. CCTV
2.1.1 X-BIS

The luggage carried by the passengers is checked by

using the X-Ray Baggage Inspection System.

Generation of X-Rays

X-Ray is generated when a very high voltage DC supply

is applied between cathode and anode in a vacuum tube.
When Cathode heats up , electrons are emitted. These
electron moves from cathode to anode. When there is
change in energy of electron X-Ray generates and
passes through a 1mm hole in the form of narrow beam.
Beam direction is set at the angle of 45 degree
diagonally so as to cover the total area as well as to
make 3-D projection.
Figure 1 (X-BIS)
 Specifications

 Tunnel Dimensions 620(w)*418(h)[mm]

 Max object size 615(w)*410(h)[mm]
 Conveyor Speed 0.2m/sec
 Max. Conveyor load 160kg
Even distributed

Operation

When the start key is pressed from the

keyboard then the command goes to the
microprocessor, then to the interface board. The
interface board starts the motor hence conveyor
belt starts running. But at this time X-Rays
doesn’t generate. The speed of conveyor belt is
normally 0.2m/sec. When baggage is run on the
conveyor belt and passes through the light barriers then
interruption occurs. The microprocessor reads the
interrupt through interface board. Microprocessor
again gives the command to the X-Ray generator to
generate X-Rays through the interface board. X-Rays
falls on the baggage some absorb and rest passes
through it. The X-Rays now converts into the voltage by
a transducer. Now a VGA (Voltage Graphic Adopter)
converts the input voltage signal into the output graphic
image on the monitor. At the monitor slice-by-slice
screening is achieved. The X-BIS shows the different
color patterns according to the material inside the
baggage, such as:

 Organic Orange color

 Inorganic green
 Metal blue

The X-ray-BIS contain an emergency stop switch

from the safety point of view.

2.1.2 WTMD

The metal objects which passengers a carrying

with them is detected during passenger screening by
WTMD. The system is used for weapons detection as
well as passenger screening.

Main components are-

1. Transmitter panel (TX)
2. Receiver panel (RX)
3. Cro ss piece.
4. Remote control unit.
5. Electronics unit.

The operation of WTMD is based on

“electromagnetic pulsed-field technology”. Transmitter
pulses causes decaying eddy currents in metal objects
inside the sensing area of the WTMD. The signal
induced to the receiver by the eddy currents is sampled
and processed in the electronic unit. Moving metal
objects are detected when the signal exceeds the alarm
threshold. The individual detection zones producing
superior discrimination detect metal objects at different
heights separately.

Figure 2 (WTMD)

2.1.3 HHMD

Hand Held Metal Detector is based on the

principle of Electromagnetic induction. A Hand
Held Metal Detector is also used to detect metal and
objects passengers are carrying with them. Basic
principle is when ever there is change in
magnetic links of force associated with a conductor
an EMF is generated. It consists of two coils, primary
and secondary or transmitter and receiver coil.
Transmitter and receiver coils are isolated to
each other. When the switch is ON HHMD
starts working, as soon as it set to check the metal or
non metal due to change in magnetic field eddy currents
are being traced from the metal. A threshold is set for
the HHMD below this no alarm ring but when the
magnetic field crosses the threshold then audio and
visual alarming.

Figure 3 (HHMD)

2.1.4 ETD

An Explosive Trace Detector is used to detect

the explosives and narcotics. It consists normally a
vacuum tube. The operator on swap takes a sample
from the luggage. In the ETD machine the sample
is melted and then vaporized, by applying high
voltage. Thus there is displacement occurs in the
atomic weight of the substance. By the LUT (Look up
Table) the displacement can be measured, and thus
substance can be detected. The screen of ETD shows
the information about the sample with necessary graph
etc.

Figure 4 (FIDS)

A Flight Information Display system (FIDS) is a

computer system used in airports to display flight
information to passengers, in which a computer system
controls mechanical or electronic display boards or TV
screens in order to display arrivals and departures
flight information in real-time. The displays are located
inside or around an airport terminal. A virtual version
of FIDS can also be found on most airport web sites and
teletext systems. In large airports, there are
different sets of FIDS for each terminal or even
each major airline. FID systems are used to assist
passengers during air travel and people who want to
pick-up passengers after the flight.

Each line on FIDS indicates a different flight

number accompanied by:

•the airline name/logo and/or its IATA or ICAO airline

designator

•the city of origin or destination, and any intermediate

points

•the expected arrival or departure time and/or

the updated time (reflecting any delays)

•the gate number

•the check-in counter numbers or the name of the

airline handling the check-in

•the status of the flight, such as "Landed", "Delayed",

"Boarding", etc. Due to code sharing, one single
flight may be represented by a series of different
flight numbers, thus lines (for example,LH474
andAC9099), although one single
aircraft operates that route at that given time. Lines
may be sorted by time, airline name, or city.
2.2 PA System

It is called Public Address System. At the

Airport it is use to address the passengers.
Information about the arrival and departure of flights,
security checking etc is announced by this system. Here
three or more power amplifiers are used in series to
amplify the audio power from where the audio output is
announced in different sections through loudspeakers.
 3. Communication Equipment

It can be categorized into two parts :

3.1 Air to Ground Communication

It works on very high frequency range i.e.

30MHz-300MHz. Transmitter frequency at
Lucknow Airport is 125.250MHz.An Equipment Room
contains the VHF equipment as well as the remote
control of other navigational equipment. Staggered
Dipole Antenna is used in Omni direction for this
purpose. Amplitude Modulation is used for
communication.

3.1.1 Air traffic control

Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided

by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft on
the ground and in the air. The primary purpose of ATC
systems worldwide is to separate aircraft to prevent
collisions, to organize and expedite the flow of
traffic, and to provide information and other support
for pilots when able.
In some countries, ATC may also play a security or
defense role (as in the United States), or be
run entirely by the military (as in Brazil).Preventing
collisions is referred to as separation which is a term
used to prevent aircraft from coming too close to
each other by use of lateral, vertical and longitudinal
separation minima; many aircraft now have collision
avoidance systems installed to act as a backup to ATC
observation and instructions. In addition to its primary
function, the ATC can provide additional services
such as providing information to pilots,
weather and navigatio n information and NOTAMs
(Notices to Air Men).
Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace,
ATC may issue instructions that pilots are required to
follow, or merely flight information (in some
countries known as advisories) to assist pilots
operating in the airspace. In all cases, however, the
pilot in command has final responsibility for the
safety of the flight, and may deviate from AT
instructions in an emergency.

3.1.2 The DR100 multimode VHF receiver

It is a communication unit specifically designed to

operate as radio core part of Air Traffic Control
ground stations. It supports a huge number of operating
modes, ranging from the traditional AM-DSB mode
for analog speech communications, to the latest
VDL 3 and 4modes for voice and data links.
Due to its DSP (Digital Signal Processing)-based
architecture, software-radio approach, and
modular design, it allows eas y update and re-
configuration in terms of type of modulation,
channel spacing and interface to external controllers.
The equipment has outstanding performances in
terms of noise radiation and unwanted emissions
together with the high grade of immunity to external
interference.

Figure 5 (DR 100)

This equipment has been designed to fulfill

operating requirements in any possible system layout.
This results in an extreme degree of flexibility and
operability. It can also be used as direct replacement of
analog VHF equipment in traditional ATC systems.
Power consumption Transmitter 400 W (DC main)
Power consumption receiver 40 W (DC
main)
Efficiency 10%
Operating frequency band 108-156 MHz

Technical Description and Architecture

The DR100 comprises independent modules,

each of them accomplishing a different and specific
function. The equipment can be provided in different
configurations according to the type of fitted
modules. The following block diagram
highlights the modularity of DR100.The following
are the different modules of DR 100 Multimode VHF
receiver: -

1. Receiver module (RX)

2. Base Band module (BB)
3. Power Supply Unit (PSU)
4. IMC/MSIC cards
5. Control Panel (standard and enhanced HMI)
6. Line Barrier card (e.g. ALB_S, ALB_M)
 Figure 6 (Block diagram of DR 100)

• The Receiver module mainly performs the related

radio frequency functions. The RX module is based
on a super-heterodyne layout that provides the full
down-conversion of received AM-DSB/D8PSK/GFSK
modulated RF signals, and amplification to
required level for the analogue to digital
conversion. The RX module sends the digitized I/Q
format data stream to the Base band module via
anRS422 serial interface

• The BB module handles carrier digital processing. The

Base band module is a full digital module that is
mainly charged of carrier processing and the
associated control tasks. The type and amount of
BB signal processing tasks is dependent on the
operating mode (AM-DSB or VDL mode

• The PSU module provides all the required

internal supply voltages for DR100modules
operation. It also provides EMI filtering and over-
voltage/under-voltage line protections. It is fed by
external DC power source.

• The AC/DC converter module provides a DC

output to feed the PS module by conversion of the
110 - 230 VAC main supply.

• The IMC card, located on CPCI back plane, is the

simplest management card that allows for DR100
full O&M tasks management, interfacing with
Analogue Line Barrier cards, supporting of VDL
modes default data interface to an external station
controller through an RS232 port.

• The MSIC card alternative to IMC is still located on

CPCI back plane. It is the full-sized management card
that, in addition to IMC features,

• The Control Panel, which is managed by the IMC

or MSIC, absolves any local HMI functions. Two
types of Control Panels are available:

 The Standard-HMI Control Panel

  The Enhanced-HMI Control Panel

• Analogue Line Barrier (ALB), are used in AM-DSB

and AM-DATA mode, when the equipment must
process analogue speech communication, and analogue
interfacing with external Voice Communication
Switching Systems, or external ACARS modem.

3.2 Ground-to-Ground Communication

3.2.1 Walkie-Talkie

A walkie-talkie, or handie talkie, (more formally

known as a handheld transceiver) is a hand-held,
portable, two-way radio transceiver . Its development
during the Second World War has been variously
credited to Donald L. Hings, radio engineer Alfred J.
Gross, and engineering teams at Motorola. Similar
designs were created for other armed forces, and
after the war, walkie-talkies spread to public safety and
eventually commercial and jobsitework. Major
characteristics include a half-duplex channel (only
one radio transmits at a t i m e , t h o u g h a n y
n u m b e r c a n l i s t e n ) a n d a " push-to-talk "
(P.T.T ) switch that starts transmission. Typical
walkie-talkies resemble a telephone handset, possibly
slightly larger but still a single unit, with antenna
sticking out of the top. Where a phone's earpiece is
only loud enough to be heard by the user, a walkie-
talkie's built-in speaker can be heard by the user and
those in the user's immediate vicinity. Hand-held
transceivers may be used to communicate between each
other. It’s frequency at Lucknow Airport is 166.2 MHz.

3.3 Other Important Equipment

3.3.1 Digital Voice Tape Recorder

The Digital Voice Tape Recorder is used for audio

recording and it can record 24 channels simultaneously.
Recording is done on magnetic tape and saved about 2
months.

3.3.2 Digital Airport Terminal Information System

A DATIS gives the information about weather,

runway condition etc. to the aircraft from ATC (Air
Traffic Control). It repeats the same information again
within 15 seconds.

3.4 Conversions

• Decibel or dB is defined by logarithmic ratio

of output by input (power and voltages).

DB= 10log(pout/Pin)
 Pout= Output Power

Pin= Input Power

• A dBm is a decibel relative to 1 mw. It is defined by

the decibel equation with Pin set at 1*10-3

DBm = 10 log (Pout/1* 10-3)

• A dBW is a decibel with respect to 1W.

DBW = 10log {Pout/1W}

 4. IT Unit

IT or the information technology is used

basica lly for transmitting and receiving the
Information from one place to another place, fast and in
an efficient way.

4.1 Functions of IT Department

• Planning & implementation of suitable

information security & protection system w i t h
FIREWALL to ensure safety & security of
D a t a b a s e & p r e v e n t i o n o f unauthorized access
to AAI server.

• Planning & implementation of AAI Internet. LAN

/WAN planning connecting all AAI establishments
throughout the country on AAI Internet.

• Standardization of IT systems, procurement,

implementation & integration. Integration of all
existing systems with AAI Internet.

• Development & hosting of AAI web site & web site

management. Use of Web based Information
Technology as strategic business tool to improve the
business process& efficiency of the Organization.
• Internet & E-mail services to all the executives of
AAI & sections on need basis, initially using dial-up
& subsequently using Leased Line & AAI Proxy Server.

• Hyper link connection for downloading of

information on latest flight schedules,
arrival/departures of flights on registration basis
to third parties such as Hotels, Tour & Travel
Operators, Cell Phone & Cable Operators etc.

• Planning, development & commissioning of

Centralized Software & other application using
Centralized Database Servers & Web Enable
Application Software.

• Assessment & planning of IT related Training & in-

house application development.

4.2 Basics

4.2.1Hub

In general, a hub is the central part of a wheel

where the spokes come together. The term is familiar
to frequent fliers who travel through airport
"hubs" to make connecting flights from one point to
another. In data communications, a hub is a place of
convergence where data arrives from one or more
directions and is forwarded out in one or more
other directions. A hub usually includes a switch of
some kind. (And a product that is called a
"switch" could usually be considered a hub as well.)
The distinction seems to be that the hub is the
place where data comes together and the switch is
what determines how and where data is
forwarded from the place where data comes
togeth er. Regarded in its switching aspects, a hub
can also include a router .

1) In describing network topologies, a hub topology

consists of a backbone(main circuit)to which a
number of outgoing lines can be attached
("dropped"), each providing one or more connection
port for device to attach to. For Internet users not
connected to a local area network, this is the
general topology used by your access provider.
Other common network topologies are the bus
network and the ring network. (Either of these
could possibly feed into a hub network, using abridge.)

2) As a network product, a hub may include a

group of modem cards for dial-in users, a gateway
card for connections to a local area network (for
example, an Ether net or a Token Ring), and a
connection to a line (the main line in this example).
4.2.2Switch

In a telecommunications network, a switch is a

device that channels incoming data from any of
multiple input ports to the specific output port that
will take the data toward its intended destination.
In the traditional circuit-switched telephone
network, one or more switches are used to set up
a dedicated though temporary connection
or circuit for an exchange between two or more
parties. On an Ether net local area network (LAN), a
switch determines from the physical device (Media
Access Control or MAC) address in each incoming
message frame which output port to forward it to
and out of. In a wide are a packet-switched
network such as the Internet, a switch determines
from the IP address in each packet which output port to
use for the next part of its trip to the intended
destination

4.2.3 Router

In packet-switched networks such as the

Internet, a router is a device or, in some cases,
software in a computer, that determines the next
network point to which a packet should be forwarded
toward its destination. The router is connected to
at least two networks and decides which way to
send each information packet based on its current
understanding of the state of the networks it is
connected to. A router is located at any
gateway(where one network meets another), including
each point-of-presence on the Internet. A router is often
included as part of a network switch.

4.3Networking

In information technology, networking is the

construction, design, and use of a network ,including
the physical (cabling, hub, bridge, switch, router , and so
forth), the selection and use of telecommunication
protocol and computer software for using and
managing the network, and the establishment of
operation policies and procedures related to the
network.

4.3.1 Local Area Network (LAN).

A local area network (LAN) is a group of

computers and associated devices that share a common
communications line or wireless link. Typically,
connected devices share the resources of a single
processor or server within a small geographic area (for
example, within an office building). Usually, the server
has applications and data storage that are shared in
common by multiple computer users. A local area
network may serve as few as two or three users (for
example, in a home network) or as many as thousands
of users
 Figure 7 (Local area connection)

4.3.2 Wide Area network (WAN)

A wide area network (WAN) is a

geographically dispersed telecommunications
network .The term distinguishes a broader
telecommunication structure from a local area
network (LAN). A wide area network may be
privately owned or rented, but the term
usually connotes the inclusion of public (shared user)
networks. An intermediate form of network in terms of
geography is a metropolitan area network (MAN).
Figure 8 (Wide Area Network)
 Figure 8 (Wide area network)

4.3.3. Internet

The Internet, sometimes called simply "the

Net," is a worldwide system of
computer networks - a network of networks in
which users at any one computer can, if they have
permission, get information from any other computer
(and sometimes talk directly to users at other
computers). It was conceived by the Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA)of the U.S. government in
1969 and was first known as the ARPANET. The
original aim was to create a network that would allow
users of a research computer at one university to be
able to "talk to" research computers at other
universities. A side benefit of ARPANET's design was
that, because messages could be routed or rerouted in
more than one direction, the network could continue to
function even if parts of it were destroyed in the event
of a military attack or other disaster. Today, the
Internet is a public, cooperative, and self-
sustaining facility accessible to hundreds of
millions of people worldwide. Physically, the
Internet uses a portion of the total resources of the
currently existing public telecommunication networks.
Technically, w h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e I n t e r n e t i s
its use of a set of protocol s called
TCP/IP(for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol).The most widely used part of the
Internet is the World Wide Web(often abbreviated
"WWW" or called "the Web"). Its outstanding
feature is hypertext, a method of instant cross-
referencing. In most Web sites, certain words or
phrases appear in text of a different color than the rest;
often this text is also underlined. When you select one of
these words or phrases, you will be transferred to
the site or page that is relevant to this word or
phrase. Sometimes there are buttons, images, or
portions of images that are "click able". If you
move the pointer over a spot on a Web site and
the pointer changes into a hand, this indicates
that you can click and be transferred to another site.

4.4 Network Topologies

4.4.1 Bus:

A bus network is an arrangement in a local

area network (LAN) in which each
node (workstation or other device) is connected
to a main cable or link called the bus. T h e
illustration shows a bus network with five nodes. Each
node is shown as a sphere, the bus appears as a heavy
horizontal line, and connections to the bus appear as
vertical lines.

A bus network is simple and reliable. If one

node fails to operate, all the rest can still
communicate with each other. For a major
disruption to take place, the bus itself must be
broken somewhere. Bus networks are easy to
expand. Additional nodes can be added
anywhere along the bus.

Figure 9

There are several limitations to the bus network

topology. The length of the bus is limited by cable loss.
A bus network may not work well if the nodes are
located at scattered points that do not lie near a
common line. In situations like this, a ring network,
mesh network, or star network may prove more flexible
and more cost effective.

4.4.2 Star:

A star network is a local area network (LAN)

in which all nodes (workstations or other devices)
are directly connected to a common central
computer. Every workstati on is indirectly
connected to every other through the central
computer. In some star networks, the central
computer can also operate as a workstation. The
illustration shows a star network with five workstations
(or six, if the central computer acts as a workstation).
Each workstation is shown as a sphere, the central
computer is shown as a larger sphere, and connections
are shown as straight lines. The connections can be
wired or wireless links.

Figure 10

The star network topology works well when

workstations are at scattered points. It is easy to add or
remove work stations. If the workstations are
reasonably close to the vertices of a convex polygon and
the system requirements are modest, the ring
network topology may serve the intended purpose
at lower cost than the star network topology. If the
workstations lie nearly along a straight line, the bus
network topology may be best. In a star network, a
cable failure will isolate the workstation that it
links to the central computer, but only tha t
workstation wil l be isolated. All the other
workstations will continue to function normally,
except that they will not be able to communicate
with the isolated workstation. If any workstation goes
down, none of the other workstations will be affected.
But if the central computer goes down, the entire
network will suffer degraded performance or
complete failure. If redundancy is required, the
mesh network topology may be preferable

4.4.3 Ring:

A ring network is a local area network (LAN)

in which the nodes (workstations or other devices) are
connected in a closed loop configuration. Adjacent pairs
of nodes are directly connected. Other pairs of nodes
are indirectly connected, the data passing through
one or more intermediate nodes. The illustration shows
a ring network with five nodes. Each node is shown as a
sphere, and connections are shown as straight lines.
The connections can consist of wired or wireless
links.
 Figure 11

The ring topolog y ma y prove optimu m

when sy stem re quir ements ar e mo de st and
workstations are at scattered points. If the workstations
are reasonably close to the vertices of a convex polygon
(such as the pentagon shown in the illustration), the cost
can be lower than that of any other topology when cable
routes are chosen to minimize the total length of cable
needed. A break in the cable of a ring network may
result in degraded data speed between pairs
of workstations for which the data path is
increased as a result of the break. If two breaks
occur and they are not both in the same section of cable,
some workstations will be cut off from some of the
others. When system reliability is a critical concern, a
bus network or star network may prove superior to
a ring net work. If redundancy is required, the
mesh network topology may be preferable.
4.4.4 Mesh:

A mesh network is a local area network (LAN) that

employs one of two connection arrangements, full mesh
topology or partial mesh topology. In the full mesh
topology, each node(workstation or other device) is
connected directly to each of the others. In the partial
mesh topology, some nodes are connected to all the
others, but some of the nodes are connected only to
those other nodes with which they exchange the most
data. The illustration shows a full mesh network with
five nodes. Each node is shown as a sphere, and
connections are shown as straight lines. The connections
can be wired or wireless.

Figure 12

A mesh network is reliable and offers

redundancy. If one node can no longer operate, all
the rest can still communicate with each other,
directly or through one or more intermediate
nodes. Mesh networks work well when the nodes
are located at scattered points that do not lie near a
common line. The chief drawback of the mesh
topology is expense, because of the large
number of cables and connections required. In
some scenarios, a ring network or star network may
prove more cost effective than a mesh network. If all the
nodes lie near a common line, the bus network topology
is often the best alternative in terms of cost.
 5. Navigation
Navigation is the process of reading, and
controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from
one place to another. It is also the term of art used
for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to
perform navigation tasks. The word navigate is
derived from the Latin "navigate", which is the
command "sail". Radio Navigation is based on the
use of Radio Transmitter, Radio Receiver and
propagation of electromagnetic waves to find
navigational parameter such as direction, distance,
position of the aircraft etc. According to service range
the radio navigational aids are broadly classified into
three categories –
1. Long Range
2. Medium Range
3. Short range.

1.Long Range navigational aids

• Operate in very low frequency and low frequency,

i.e. 10 KHz, 50-100 KHz and100-200KHz respectively.

• Provide very long ranges of the order of 7000Kms and

700Kms.

• They are based on the hyperbolic system of navigation.

• LORAN and OMEGA falls in this category.

2.Medium range navigational aids

• It operates in the LF or MF band of frequency .

• It gives the range of 150-250 nautical miles.

• NDB (Non Directional Beacons) falls in this category.

3.Short-range navigational aids

• These aids operate in and above VHF bands.

• The coverage is dependent upon line of sight
propagation.

• VHF, ILS, DME, VOR and RADAR are some widely

used short-range aids.

5.1 Navigational Aids

5.1.1 ILS

An instrument landing system(ILS) is a ground-

based instrument approach system that provides
precision guidance to an aircraft approaching and
landing on a runway, using a combination of radio

signals and, in many cases, high-intensity lighting

arrays to enable a safe landing during instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC), such as low ceilings
or reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or blowing snow.
Instrument approach procedure charts
(or approach plates) are published for each ILS
approach, providing pilots with the needed
information to fly an ILS approach during
instrument flight rules (IFR)operations, including the
radio frequencies used by the ILS components or
navaids and the minimum visibility requirements
prescribed for the specific approach. Radio-
navi gation aids must keep a certain deg ree of
accuracy (set by internati onal standards of
CAST/ICAO); to assure this is the case, flight
inspection organization
periodically check critical parameters with
properly equipped aircraft to calibrate and certify
ILS precision.

Principle of operation

An ILS consists of two independent sub-systems,

one providing lateral guidance(localizer ), the other
vertical guidance (glide slope or glide path) to aircraft
approaching a runway. Aircraft guidance is provided
by the ILS receivers in the aircraft by performing a
modulation depth comparison.

Figure 13
 (The emission patterns of the localizer and glideslope
signals. Note that the glide slope beams are partly
formed by the reflection of the glide slope aerial in the
ground plane.)

A localizer (LOC, or LLZ until ICAO designated

LOC as the official acronym)antenna array is normally
located beyond the departure end of the runway and
generally consists of several pairs of directional
antennas. Two signals are transmitted on one out
of 40 ILS
channels between the carrier frequency range
108.10 MHz and 111.95 MHz (with the100 kHz
digit always odd, so 108.10, 108.15, 108.30, and so

on are LOC frequencies but108.20, 108.25, 108.40,

and so on are not). One is modulated at 90 Hz, the other
at 150 Hz and these are transmitted from separate but
co-located antennas. Each antenna transmits a narrow
beam, one slightly to the left of the runway centerline,
the other to the right. The localizer receiver on the
aircraft measures the difference in the depth of
modulation (DDM) of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz
signals. For the localizer, the depth of modulation
for each of the modulating frequencies is 20
percent. The difference between the two signals
varies depending on the position of the approaching
aircraft from the center line. If there is a
predominance of either 90 Hz or 150 Hz
modulation, the aircraft is off the centerline. In
the cockpit, the needle on the horizontal
situation indicator (HSI, the instrument part of the
ILS), or course deviation indicator (CDI), will show that
the aircraft needs to fly left or right to correct the
error to fly down the center of the runway. If the
DDM is zero, the aircraft is on the centerline of the
localizer coinciding with the physical runway centerline.
A glide slope (GS) or glide path (GP) antenna
array is sited to one side of the runway touchdown
zone. The GP signal is transmitted on a carrier
frequency between 329.15 and335 MHz using a
technique similar to that of the localizer. The centerline
of the glide slope signal is arranged to define a glide
slope of approximately 3° above horizontal
(ground level). The beam is 1.4° deep; 0.7° below

the glideslope centerline and 0.7° above the

glideslope centerline.

These signals are displayed on an indicator in

the instrument panel. This instrument is generally
called the omni-bearing indicator or nav indicator. The
pilot controls the aircraft so that the indications on
the ins trument (i. e., the course deviation
indicator) remain centered on the display. This
ensures the aircraft is following the ILS centre line
(i.e., it provides lateral guidance). Vertical
guidance, shown on the instrument by the
glideslope indicator, aids the pilot in reaching
the runway at the proper touchdown point.
Most aircraft possess the ability to route signals into
the autopilot, allowing the approach to be flown
automatically by the autopilot. Components of ILS are
as : –

5.1.1.1. Localizer

A localizer i s o n e c o m p o n e n t o f a n
Instrument Landing System(ILS). The localizer
provides runway centerline guidance to aircraft. In
some cases a localizer is at an angle to the runway
usually due to obstructions around the airport. It
is then called a Localizer Type Directional Aid
Localizers also exist in stand-alone instrument
approach installations and are not always part of an

ILS. The Localizer is placed about 1,000 feet on the far

end of the approached runway. Its useful volume
extends to 18 NM for the path upto 10 degrees either
side of the course. For an angle of 35 degrees either side
of the course the useful volume of the Localizer
extends up to 10 NM. Horizontal guidance gets
more accurate the closer you fly to the Localizer station.
Localizer approaches have their specific weather
minimums found on approach plates. Localizer
uses the frequency range 108-112MHz. It’s
frequency at lucknow Airport is 109.9MHz.

5.1.1.2. Glide Path

The function of the Glide Path unit is to provide,
within its coverage limits, an inclined plane aligned
with the glide path of the runway for providing
elevation guidance to landing aircraft. The Glide Path
gives the information indicating the aircraft’s position
relative to the required angle of descent. The
MARRY antenna is used for it. Frequency range
for Glide path is 328-336MHz. It’s frequency at
Lucknow Airport is 333.8MHz. Covering range for
Glide Path is 10NM. The Glide Path unit is
made up of a building, the
transmitter equipment, the radiating antennas and
monitor antennas mounted on towers. The antennas
and the building are located about 300 feet to
one side of the runway center line at a distance

of about 1,000 feet from the approach end of the

runway.

5.1.1.3. Inner Marker

A marker basically gives the distance from the

runway, to the aircraft. It is about 1000 feet from the
runway threshold. At inner marker the aircraft should
be about 50 feet above from the runway centerline.

5.1.1.4. Middle Marker

It is about 3500 feet from the runway

threshold. At middle marker the aircraft should be
about 225 feet above from the runway centerline.
5.1.1.5. Outer Marker

It is about 7000 feet from the runway

threshold. At outer marker the aircraft should be
about 2700 feet above from the runway centerline.

Figure 14
5.1.2 DME

Basics

Distance measuring equipment(DME) provides

pilots with aslant range measurement of distance to
the runway in nautical miles. DMEs are
augmenting or replacing markers in many
installations. The DME provides more accurate and
continuous monitoring of correct progress on the ILS
glideslope to the pilot, and does not require an
installation outside the airport boundary. When used
in conjunction with an ILS, the DME is often sited
midway between the reciprocal runway thresholds with
the internal delay modified so that one unit can provide
distance information to either runway threshold. On
approaches where a DME is specified in lieu of
marker beacons, the aircraft must have at least one
operating DME unit to begin the approach, and a
DME Required restriction will be noted on the
Instrument Approach Procedure.

Operation

The operating principle of DME system is based on

the RADAR principle means the time required for a
radio pulse signal to travel to a given point and
return. DME is Secondary RADAR with the location
of the Transponder and Interrogator reversed. The
airborne transmitter repeatedly initiates a process

of sending out very short, very wid ely spaced

interroga tion pulses. These are picked up by
the ground transp onder receiver whose output
triggers the associated transmitter into sending out
reply pulses on a different channel. The airborne
receiver receives these replies. Timing circuit
automatically measures the round-trip travel time, or
interval between interrogation and reply pulses, and
converts this time into electrical signal, which operate
the distance indicator.

Distance calculation

A radio pulse takes around 12.36 microseconds to

travel one nautical miles to and from, this is also
referred to as a RADAR-Mile. The time difference
between interrogation and reply minus the 50
microsecond ground transponder delay is
measured by the interrogator's timing circuitry and
translated into a distance measurement in nautical
miles which is then displayed in the cockpit. DME
frequency range -Allotted: 960MHz to
1215MHz.Critically used: 962 MHz to 1213MHz.The
band is divided into 126channelsfor interrogation and
126 channels for transponder replies. The
interrogation and reply frequencies always differ
by 63 MHz. An airplane’s DME interrogator uses
frequencies from 1025 to 1150 MHz. The variation in
time spacing of the pulse pairs of the aircraft
interrogation is termed as Pulse Jittering. Thus
the variation in time spacing of the pulse pair
is unique to each aircraft, and permits the aircraft to
select the replies to its particular interrogations.

5.1.3 DVOR

The Doppler Very high frequency Omni Range is a

ground based, radio aircraft navigation aid,
transmitting an omni-directional signal that enables an
to determine its bearing relative to the location of the
beacon.

Basics

• It works on the principle of phase comparison of two

30 Hz signals.

• Frequency range for DVOR is 112-118MHz.

• Range of covering is 200NM (for medium range aid)

Antenna

Antenna used for DVOR is called “modified

Alford slot antenna”. An antenna system,
comprising a ring of 48 sideband antennas and a
central carrier antenna, mounted on a suitable
ground plane. The counter poise is uses as a
ground plain. It works as a perfect conductor.
Diameter is set at a distance of 44.0 feet or13.4
meter. This arrangement produces peak

frequency deviation. DVOR is phase sensitive

equipment thus it uses the Horizontal Polarization, as
to minimize the effect of noise.

Operation

Amplitude Modulating the carrier frequency signal

by a 30Hz-modulating signal produces the DVOR
reference signal. The modulating carrier is
radiated from the central omni-directional antenna.
The phase of 30Hz AM is therefore constant
irrespective of direction, hence termed 30Hz reference.

The DVOR variable signal is produced by the

space modulation of carrier signal by the amplitude
of the frequency modulated sideband signals. The
sideband signals (fc+9960Hz)and (fc-9960Hz) are
radiated diametrically in a ring of antennas
and are commutated around the ring at a 30Hz rate.
The distant observer therefore, sees a Doppler
frequency shift of these sideband frequencies varying at
30 Hz with a maximum deviation determined by the
diameter of the ring. The Doppler VOR beacons also
transmit VOICE and CODE identification
information to the aircraft. This information
amplitude modulates the RF carrier and is radiated
omni –directionally from the central antenna, along

with the 30 Hz AM reference signal. In the aircraft

receiver the complex VHF signal is first envelope
detected to obtain the 30 Hz AM signal and the 9960
Hz sub carrier. The sub carrier contains the
variable signal. This signal is fed to two sets of filters to
separate the 30Hz and 9960Hz sub carrier. One of the
filter produces a 30Hz output the Reference signal
whereas the other produces the 30Hz Variable
signal. The 9960 Hz sub carrier is FM demodulated
to obtain the FM variable signal. The relative phase
difference between the two 30 Hz is then measured. The
bearing information is converted into a visual indication
for the pilot.
 6. References
• Training material provided by the Airports Authority
Of India

• www.aai.aero

• Electronic Communication System by Kennedy &

Davis.

•http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_landing_syste
m