HUBS191- Lecture 1

Define ‘homeostasis’ and explain why extracellular fluid (ECF) composition is regulated in multicellular organisms.

Homeostasis- the maintenance of relatively constant conditions in the internal environment (ECF) in the face of
external or internal change

ECF supplies the correct temperature, pH, route for nutrient delivery and waste disposal etc

Understand the importance of regulating selected ECF variables and be able to state their normal reference ranges.

Ions

1) Sodium- main extracellular cation, determines extracellular fluid volume which thus determines blood
pressure, important in action potential generation in nerve and muscle tissue, range : 135- 145 mmol/L
2) Calcium – structural component of bone and teeth, essential for neurotransmission and muscle contraction,
essential for blood clotting and regulates the enzyme function, range: 2.2- 2.6 mmol/L
3) Glucose- essential for adenosine triphosphate generation, if too low will affect neurons, range: 3.5-3.6 mmol/L
4) Potassium- intracellular cation, main determinant of resting membrane potential, range: 3.5-5 mmol/L

pH range: 7.35- 7.45 too alkaline: overexcitation of nerves and muscles, too acidic: loss of neuron function,
consciousness

Temperature: 36- 37.5 deg core, oral and peripheral temperature are lower and more variable

Too High: enzymes denature, Too low: chemical reactions slow down and cellular functions ceases, which may also
lead to loss of function of nervous system, and ability to thermoregulate (rapid acceleration of rapidly decreasing
temperatures, results in feedback loop

Outline selected transport mechanisms across cell membranes.

Diffusion- movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration, down a concentration
gradient, in a random fashion, due to the thermal energy, proportional to square root of time

Hydrophbic substances that can diffuse passively into phospholipid-bilayer- oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroid hormones,
anesthetic agents

Water through aquaporins (polar molecule, hydrophilic molecules), ions through ligand or voltage channels which will
open close in response to stimuli eg. Chemicals (ligands), change in membrane potential (voltage gated)

Substances inside the membrane like insulin can bind inside the carrier to help change the shape of the carrier and
release the carried substances (glucose) from the ECF into the cell (selective transport)

Active Transport: Energy released from hydrolysis of ATP to move substances against their concentration gradient i.e
sodium-potassium pump moves out 3 NA+ in exchange for 2 K+ which helps maintain ionic gradients and maintain
cellular volume

Endocytosis and exocytosis: Substances transported into or out of the cell via bilayer, membranous vesicles

Define ‘osmosis’, ‘osmolarity’ and ‘tonicity’ and understand their relevance to cell volume

Osmosis: Net movement of water across a membrane down it’s own concentration gradient

Osmolarity: Measure of the total number of solute particles per liter of solution

Tonicity: effect that a solution has on cell volume

Differences in solute concentration across cell membranes can cause fluid shifts and create pressure and damage cells
Lecture 2

Understand the basis of the cell’s ‘resting membrane potential’ and appreciate its physiological significance

Inside of the cell membrane is negatively charged compared to its external surface (-70mV), results from the separation
of a small number of oppositely charged ions across the lipid bilayer and the respective permeability to it (K+) being
much more permeable.

For most cells, the RMV remains constant over time, however, for excitable (muscle, nervous) tissues, the membrane
potential must change in order for them to function (opening and closing of channels)- control ECF [K+], if not, could
lead to muscle weakness, cardiac arrhythmia

Define ‘regulated variable’, ‘set point’ and ‘reference range’

Regulated Variable: Variable that system senses and tries to keep stable

Set Point: Target Value of variable

Reference range: Acceptable range for regulated variable

Explain why there is variability in controlled variable values between individuals and within individuals

1) Genetic Factors (different set points) (between)

2) Normal activity fluctuation (biological rhythms- sleep) (monthly rhythms-hormones, body temperature period)
(within)

Describe how negative feedback and feed-forward control systems operate to achieve homeostasis

Negative Feedback Loop Feed-Forward

Detection or anticipation of external conditions or situations that

could alter a regulated variable, if some sort of preemptive action
was not taken, integrator establishes predicted value, compares
this with set point and makes anticipatory corrections-
goosebumps, putting on more clothes etc

Define ‘positive feedback’ and outline a physiological example

Response to a stimulus that moves the controlled variable even

further away from the ‘set point’, not common physiologically and
often detrimental; destabilizing

Describe the physiological control systems for thermoregulation