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Advanced Design of Steel Structures - Design of Structural Steelwork in

Fire - Post-grad course notes

Presentation · January 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13878.50248

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ADVANCED DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEELWORK:
AN INTRODUCTION TO
STRUCTURAL FIRE ENGINEERING

By: Mr. RS Walls

– March 2016 –
Van Der Sterr Building Fire – Feb 2015
Discussion:
1. What happened?

2. How could the fire have been prevented?

3. How did the structure respond to the fire and what

temperatures were experienced?

4. How could the damage caused by the fire have been

reduced?

5. How should structural engineers design for such fires?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tSQtNR-mPbQ
 Introduction to the course
Course overview:
1. An introduction to fire engineering

2. Discussions regarding structural fire design and

approaches

3. Fire curves and heat transfer equations

4. Characterising the behaviour of steelwork at elevated

temperatures

5. Member design at elevated temperatures

6. Advanced design methods

Does this structure need fire protection?
Cape Town
International
Airport
 Intro to the course
Code basis:
Performance-based member design and heat transfer
equations: the soon to be released SANS 10162-1 fire
design annex will be used, which is based upon the
Canadian CSA S16 code.

Prescriptive design: British and European design guides.

Fire loads, parametric curves and material behaviour:

Eurocode (EN) documents. The Eurocodes are the most
technically advanced suite of design documents in the
world, covering numerous aspects in relation to fire
engineering.
 Intro to the course
- What can I do with what I have been
taught?

- Examples

- Tutorials

- Additional reading

- Exam
 LECTURE 1
Introduction to Fire Engineering
Course Example
Course Example
 Steps to Design
1. Classify a building and determine the required fire rating of
elements.
2. Do a quick design using prescriptive methods, or
3. Generate a parametric time-temperature fire curve according to
the building properties, or use a standard fire curve for a specific
period of time (less “scientific” but often a better bench mark).
4. Calculate the heat transfer and maximum temperature of the
steelwork.
5. Determine the steel mechanical properties at the elevated
temperature.
6. Design the members using simple calculations according to the
Canadian steel code.
7. Do performance-based design using more advanced methods for
composite floors or entire frames.
What is Structural Fire Engineering

?
What is Structural Fire Engineering

"The application of scientific and engineering

principles, rules (codes), and expert judgement,
based on an understanding of the phenomena and
effects of fire and of the reaction and behaviour of
people to fire, to protect people, property and the
environment from the destructive effects of fire."
(IFE, 2014)
 What is a Fire and when does it
Influence a Building?
A fire can be described as the “process in which
substances combine chemically with oxygen from
the air and typically give out bright light, heat, and
smoke” (Oxford, 2014)

Smoke normally kills people, not buildings fall over.

What is a Fire and when does it
Influence a Building?
Interstate Bank Building,
Los Angeles (1988)

This building burnt for 4

hours causing $50million
damage. Four floors were
destroyed.

Parque Central East Tower,

Caracas (2004)

Fire burned for 24 hours

across 17 stories. Up to 100
firefighters inside the
building. Firefighting stopped
after 12 hours due to
concerns regarding structural
collapse.
 The Effects on Society

- In South Africa there were 410 deaths due to fires in

2011, which is significantly up from 192 deaths in
2000 and 226 in 2001 (FPASA, 2013).

- A total of 37,721 recorded fires in the country caused

an estimated damage of R2.1bn during 2011, which
does not even include indirect costs such as lost
production.
The Role of the Structural Engineer
The Commission of the European Communities
outlines the general requirements of construction
works subjected to fire conditions as:
• “the load bearing capacity of the construction can
be assumed for a specific period of time,
• the generation of and spread of fire and smoke
within the works are limited,
• the spread of fire to neighbouring construction work
is limited,
• occupants can leave the works or be rescued by
other means,
• the safety of rescue teams is taken into
consideration.” (CEC, 1988)
 How to Protect Steelwork
- Protective boards
- Spray-on products
- Intumescent paints
- Concrete encasement, fire screens, other
systems.
 The Cost of Protection
Fire Protection Costing
60min Fire Rating 120min Fire Rating
Costing Costing
Intumescent Intumescent
Mass Ap/V Steel Cost Paint – Vermiculite Paint – Vermiculite
Section Nullifire Nullifire
(kg/m): (m-1): (R/m): Spray Spray
S707-60 S707-120

UC 152x152x23 23.3 304 R 652.40 R772.79 R418.30 Not possible R760.81

UC 203x203x46 46.2 205 R 1,293.60 R503.48 R559.30 R2,075.90 R1,018.51

UC 305x305x137 137 106 R 3,836.00 R472.92 R855.41 R1,779.01 R1,557.74

 The Cost of Protection
Fire Protection Product Thickness

60min Fire Rating DFT 120min Fire Rating DFT

(mm): (mm):
Intumescent Intumescent
Mass Ap/V Paint – Vermic. Paint – Vermic.
Section
(kg/m): (m-1): Nullifire Spray Nullifire Spray
S707-60 S707-120
UC 152x152x23 23.3 304 1.313 25 Not possible 35

UC 203x203x46 46.2 205 0.593 23 4.519 42

UC 305x305x137 137 106 0.329 19 2.486 45
 Active Protection

Probability of fire
Protection Method
being out of control
Public fire brigade 10-1
Sprinkler 2 x 10-2
High standard fire brigade, combined with alarm system ≤ 10-2 to 10-3
Both sprinkler and high standard residential fire brigade ≤ 10-4
 Compartmentation
Compartmentation involves the division of fire zones
to limit the spread of fire.

This is explicitly considered in building codes such as

SANS 10400 by limiting the maximum division area
allowed in various occupancy categories.

Dividing walls must be fire rated and retain their

integrity during a fire. Fire walls, fire doors and other
methods are commonly used for this.

Get your compartmentation right and you have

solved most of the problem.
 Compartmentation

“In tall multi-storey buildings, it can be advisable for

each storey to be a separate compartment capable
of resisting burn-out. This can protect occupants
who might have to exit past the fire storey when a
fire is well developed, and can also protect fire
fighters who might have to work on storeys
immediately above or below a fire when it is well
developed.” (BS 9999 - BSI, 2008)
Compartmentation
Structural Fire Engineering Approaches

- Prescriptive design

- The Yellow Book and Euro-Nomogram

- Performance based design

Structural Fire Engineering Approaches
What is Failure?

?
Has this failed?
 What is Failure?
Various parameters for failure have been identified such as
those given in BS 5950 Part 8 for:
• Beams: maximum deflection limited to span/20, or for
deflections greater than span/30 the rate of deflection must
not exceed span2/(9000 x member depth) [mm/min].
• Columns: Failure to support the applied load or a lateral
deflection of 120mm.
• Insulating materials or floors: objects on the unexposed face
must not combust. Temperature on the unexposed side must
be limited to 140°C (average) or 180°C (maximum).
• Integrity: boundaries required for compartmentation must not
allow the passage of smoke or flames from one compartment
to another.
 Fire Rating
Stability (min)
Class of
Type of occupancy occupancy Single-storey Double-storey 3 to 10 storey 11 storeys and Basement in any
building building building more building

Office G1 30 30 60 120 120

Hotel H1 30 60 90 120 120
Dormitory H2 30 30 60 120 120
Domestic residence H3 30 30 60 120 120

Not
Detached dwelling house H4 30 30 60 120
applicable

Not Not
Hospitality H5 30 30 120
applicable applicable

High risk storage J1 60 90 120 180 240

Moderate risk storage J2 30 60 90 120 180
Low risk storage J3 30 30 90 90 120
Parking garage J4 30 30 30 90 120
 Fire Rating
EXAMPLE 2: FIRE RESISTANCE RATING

Q: Based on SANS 10400 requirements what FRR

should be provided for the building shown in
Example 1?

A: From Table 2.1 the following can be derived:

• The building will be used for offices so is Class G1
• The building is between 3 and 10 storeys.
• Therefore, a 60 minute fire rating is required for
the structure.

BUT, 60 MINUTES OF WHAT???

 Fire Loading
𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘 + 𝑄𝑄𝑇𝑇,𝑘𝑘 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘
Gk characteristic permanent load
QT,k thermal effects due to expansion, contraction or deflection
caused by temperature changes due to the design fire. It can be
taken as zero for statically determinate structures or for structures
that have sufficient ductility to allow for redistribution of temperature
forces before collapse. [Even though these guidelines have
generally been sufficient they must be carefully considered in some
structures as forces caused in members restrained from expanding
can be significant].
𝛾𝛾 1.0 for storage areas, equipment areas, and service rooms, 0.5
for other occupancies. The Eurocode reduction factors are similar,
but vary for some structures.
Qk characteristic imposed load
EXAMPLE 3: FIRE LOADING
Q: What load should be designed for at the ambient Ultimate
Limit State (ULS) and at the Fire Limit State (FLS) for the
second floor column on Gridline B3 of the building in Figure
1.1? Assume that the roof may be loaded in the future so the
column may carry two full floors above it.

A: The loading can be determined as:

Permanent / Dead load: 𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ×
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 × 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
= 2 × 7.5𝑚𝑚 × 7.5𝑚𝑚 × 3.2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 360𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Imposed / Live load: 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘 = 2 × 7.5𝑚𝑚 × 7.5𝑚𝑚 × 3.4𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 382.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
ULS Loading = 1.2𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘 + 1.6 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘 = 1044𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
FLS Loading = 𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘 + 𝛼𝛼𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘 = 360 + 0.5 × 382.5 = 551.3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
LECTURE 2
Fire Curves
What influences the
temperature of the braai?
The Fire Triangle
 Fire Curves
1200

1000
Gas Temperature (ºC)

800

600

400 Standard
External
200
Hydrocarbon
0
0 50 100
Time (mins)
 Fire Curves

Standard Fire:
θg = 20 + 345 log10 8t + 1 [°C]

Hydrocarbon Fire:
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = 1080 1 − 0.325𝑒𝑒 −0.167𝑡𝑡 − 0.675𝑒𝑒 −2.5𝑡𝑡 + 20 [°C]

External Fire:
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = 660 1 − 0.687𝑒𝑒 −0.32𝑡𝑡 − 0.313𝑒𝑒 −3.8𝑡𝑡 + 20 [°C]

t is the time in minutes

Real Fires
 Sprinkler Fire Test Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AH6J-Szo8dw
 Curve Comparison
1200

1000
Gas Temperature (ºC)

800

600
Standard fires
400
Standard
200 External
Hydrocarbon
0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (mins)

Parametric fires
 Comments on the Standard Fire
It must be understood that the Standard Fire (ISO 834 fire)
does not replicate a real fire, does not help in predicting
certain failure mechanisms and generally is acknowledged
as being technically out-of-date.

However, all fire tests, codes and methods are based on it.
Hence, it is often just better to use the standard fire as you
then at least have a benchmark you are working from, even
if the benchmark is arbitrary. Fire officials understand
standard fire ratings, not real fire designs. The parametric
curves shown below will provide you as the student with an
understanding of fire dynamics and fire behaviour, although
they are not accepted like the standard fire is.
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Fuel controlled
Heating phase Cooling phase
tmax
Ventilation
controlled
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Heating Phase:
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = 20 + 1325 1 − 0.324𝑒𝑒 −0.2𝑡𝑡∗ − 0.204𝑒𝑒 −1.7𝑡𝑡∗ − 0.472𝑒𝑒 −19𝑡𝑡∗ [°C]

θg = gas temperature in the fire compartment [ºC]

t* = t.Γ [hours] (This can be considered as the time period
modified by Γ to match the original opening factor of
0.04/1160 utilised in calibration experiments)
t = time [h]
Γ = (O/b)2/(0.04/1160)2
𝑏𝑏 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 with 400 ≤ 𝑏𝑏 ≤ 2200 [J/m2s1/2K] – Thermal inertia
of the firecell.
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Maximum Temperature

𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = max 0.2 × 10−3 × 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑 /𝑂𝑂𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ; 𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 [h]

t ∗𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 . Γ [h]

Av = area of ventilation openings [m2]

h = height of ventilation openings [m]
At = total area of enclosure, including openings [m2]

𝑂𝑂 = 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 /𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 [m0.5]

ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ℎ𝑖𝑖 /𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 [m]
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Limiting Time

𝑡𝑡 ∗ = 𝑡𝑡. Γ𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 [h]

t ∗𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 . Γ [h]

with Γ𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑂𝑂𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 /𝑏𝑏 2 / 0.04/1160 2

where 𝑂𝑂𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 0.1 × 10−3 . 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑 /𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

Γ𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 only used with heating the phase, not the cooling phase.
𝑂𝑂𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 is for the case of large openings where not all the air
entering through an opening is used for combustion.
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Modifying Γ𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

When O > 0.04, and qt,d < 75, and b < 1160, then Γlim is
modified by:

𝑂𝑂−0.04 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑 −75 1160−𝑏𝑏

𝑘𝑘 = 1 + .
0.04 75 1160
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Cooling Phase
∗
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 625 𝑡𝑡 ∗ − 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∗
. 𝑥𝑥 if 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≤ 0.5 [h]
∗
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 250 3 − 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∗
𝑡𝑡 ∗ − 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∗
. 𝑥𝑥 if 0.5 < 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 < 2.0 [h]
∗
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 250 𝑡𝑡 ∗ − 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∗
. 𝑥𝑥 if 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≥ 2.0 [h]

t* = t.Γ [h]
∗
𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = (0.2 × 10−3 × 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑 /𝑂𝑂). Γ [h]
𝑥𝑥 = 1.0 if 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 > 𝑡𝑡lim , or 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 . Γ/t ∗max , if 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑡𝑡lim
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Fire Load Densities

𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓,𝑑𝑑 = 𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓,𝑘𝑘 . 𝑚𝑚. 𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞 . 𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞 . 𝛾𝛾𝑛𝑛 [MJ/m2]

m is the combustion factor. For mainly cellulosic materials m = 0.8.

𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞 is the partial factor accounting for the risk based on the size of the
compartment
𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞 is the partial factor accounting for the risk based on the type of
occupancy
𝛾𝛾𝑛𝑛 = ∏10
𝑖𝑖=1 𝛾𝛾𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 is the differentiation factor taking into account the different
active fire-fighting measures available. (It is currently unclear whether
this can be applied in South Africa.)
qf,k is the characteristic fire load density per unit floor area [MJ/m2]
 Fire load densities qf,k [MJ/m2] Rate of Heat Release

Occupancy: Stand. 80% Gumbell Fire growth tlim

Average:
Deviation: Fractile: Alpha: rate: [min]:

Dwelling 234 780 948 0.0054782 Medium 20

Hospital (room) 69 230 280 0.018578 Medium 20

Hotel (room) 93 310 377 0.013784 Medium 20

Library 450 1500 1824 0.002849 Fast 15

Office 126 420 511 0.010174 Medium 20

School classroom 85.5 285 347 0.014993 Medium 20

Shopping centre 180 600 730 0.007122 Fast 15

Storage buildings * * * * * *

Theatre (cinema) 90 300 365 0.014243 Fast 15

Transport (public
square) 30 100 122 0.04273 Slow 25
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Risk of Fire Ignition
Danger of
Compartment
Danger of fire fire
floor area Af Example of occupancies
activation, 𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞 activation,
[m2]
𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞
Artgallery, museum, swimming
25 1.10 0.78
pool
Offices, residence, hotel,
250 1.50 1.00
paper industry
Manufacturer of machinery
2500 1.90 1.22
and engines
Chemical laboratory, painting
5000 2.00 1.44
workshop
Manufacturer of fireworks or
10000 2.13 1.66
paints
Eurocode Parametric Fires
Active Protection
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Thermal Inertia
λ – Thermal b – Thermal
ρ – Density cp – Specific
Material: Conductivity inertia
[kg/m3]: Heat [J/kg.k]:
[W/m.K]: [J/m2s0.5K]:

Brickwork 1.00 2000 1114 1521

CaSi-board 0.069 450 748 151.9
Cerablanket 0.035 128 800 59.9
Gypsum board 0.5 1150 1000 749
Light wt. conc. 1.0 1500 840 1122
Middle wt. conc. 1.0 2000 840 1296
Normal wt. conc. 2.0 2300 900 2034
Structural steel 54.0 7850 425 13422
Wood 0.10 450 1113 223
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Thermal Inertia

𝑏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 [J/m2s0.5K]

∑ 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖
𝑏𝑏 = ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖
[J/m2s0.5K]

There are ways to consider multiple layers on each

boundary.
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Comments

• Consider multiple “load cases”

• Requires feedback from clients and the fire chiefs.

• In South Africa these methods are unknown so

most people won’t be able to comment on them.
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Time Equivalence – Eurocode Formula

?
 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Time Equivalence – Eurocode Formula

• 𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏 𝑤𝑤𝑓𝑓 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓 [mins]

6.0 0.3 90 0.4−𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣 4

Ventilation factor: 𝑤𝑤𝑓𝑓 = 0.62 + > 0.5
𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟 1+𝑏𝑏𝑣𝑣 𝛼𝛼ℎ
Vertical vent ratio: 𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣 = 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣�𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 0.05 ≤ 𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣 ≤ 0.25
Horizontal vent ratio: 𝛼𝛼ℎ = 𝐴𝐴ℎ�𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 𝛼𝛼ℎ ≤ 0.20
Vertical opening factor: 𝑏𝑏𝑣𝑣 = 12.5 1 + 10𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣 − 𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣2

Hr is the compartment height [m].

 Eurocode Parametric Fires
Time Equivalence – CIB Formula

• 𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤𝑓𝑓 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓 [mins]

𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓
Ventilation factor: 𝑤𝑤𝑓𝑓 = 0.5
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻𝑣𝑣 0.5

b – Thermal inertia (J/m2.s.K)

Formula: Term High Medium Low General
(> 2500) (720-2500) (<720)
Eurocode kb 0.04 0.055 0.07 0.07
CIB kc 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.10
 Eurocode Example
QUESTION: For the fire compartment of the building shown in
Figure 1.1 do the following:
1. Generate a time-temperature fire curve according to EN 1-
1-2.
2. Plot this curve against the standard fire curve.
3. Determine the equivalent fire rating of the curve generated.

The openings of the compartment are shown below. (Results

have been calculated using a spreadsheet with no rounding
off until the final solution).
Eurocode Example
 Eurocode Example
ANSWER:

Compartment floor area: 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 = 10𝑚𝑚 × 15𝑚𝑚 = 150𝑚𝑚2

Ventilation area, assuming all doors open and windows

broken:
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 2 × 1 × 2 + 12 × 1.5 ×
1.5 = 31𝑚𝑚2

Total boundary enclosure area:

𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 = 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 2 × 10 + 15 × 4 + 2 ×
10 × 15 = 500𝑚𝑚2
 Eurocode Example
Design Fire Load:

The compartment is used for offices, so according to the 80% fractile

value of Table 3.1:
𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓,𝑘𝑘 = 511𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀/𝑚𝑚2 , and 𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 20𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
The fire is cellulosic: 𝑚𝑚 = 0.8.
By interpolating for 𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞 in Table 3.2 based on the floor area: 𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞 =
1.32
For office use: 𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞 = 1.00
We will conservatively not account for active suppression
systems: 𝛾𝛾𝑛𝑛 = 1.00
𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓,𝑑𝑑 = 𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓,𝑘𝑘 . 𝑚𝑚. 𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞 . 𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞 . 𝛾𝛾𝑛𝑛
= 511 × 0.8 × 1.0 × 1.32 × 1.0 = 540.5 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀/𝑚𝑚2
𝒒𝒒𝒕𝒕,𝒅𝒅 = 𝒒𝒒𝒇𝒇,𝒅𝒅 × 𝑨𝑨𝒇𝒇 /𝑨𝑨𝒕𝒕 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏/𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐/𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐
 Eurocode Example
B. Thermal inertia of the fire compartment:

According to Table 3.4: 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 1521 𝐽𝐽/𝑚𝑚2 𝑠𝑠 0.5 𝐾𝐾,

and 𝑏𝑏𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 2034 𝐽𝐽/𝑚𝑚2 𝑠𝑠 0.5 𝐾𝐾
∑ 𝒃𝒃𝒊𝒊 𝑨𝑨𝒊𝒊 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏+𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏+𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒃𝒃 = ∑ = = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 𝑱𝑱/𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓 𝑲𝑲
𝑨𝑨𝒊𝒊 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏+𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏+𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

C. Ventilation factor
Since there are multiple openings, determine the equivalent
opening height:
∑𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ℎ𝑖𝑖 2 × 2 × 1 × 2 + 12 × (1.5 × 1.5) × 1.5
ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = =
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 2 × 2 × 1 + 12 × (1.5 × 1.5)
= 1.565𝑚𝑚
𝑶𝑶 = 𝑨𝑨𝒗𝒗 𝒉𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 /𝑨𝑨𝒕𝒕 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 / 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓
 Eurocode Example
D. Heating Phase

The maximum temperature will occur at time tmax:

𝑞𝑞
𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = max 0.2 × 10−3 × 𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑 ; 𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = max(0.418; 0.333) =
𝑂𝑂
0.418hrs = 25.1min
2 2 2 2
𝑂𝑂 0.04 0.0776 0.04
Γ= / = / = 1.479
𝑏𝑏 1160 1849.1 1160
Since: 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≠ 𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
∗
𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × Γ = 0.418 × 1.479 = 0.619 , Γ𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 not required.

The maximum temperature experienced will be:

𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 1325 1 − 0.324𝑒𝑒 −0.2𝑡𝑡∗ − 0.204𝑒𝑒 −1.7𝑡𝑡∗ − 0.472𝑒𝑒 −19𝑡𝑡∗ + 20
= 1325 1 − 0.324𝑒𝑒 −0.2×0.619 − 0.204𝑒𝑒 −1.7×0.619 − 0.472𝑒𝑒 −19×0.619
+ 20
= 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖. 𝟐𝟐°𝐂𝐂
 Eurocode Example
E. Cooling Phase

∗
𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0.2 × 10−3 × 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑 /𝑂𝑂 = 0.619ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
Since: 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 > 𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙, 𝑥𝑥 = 1.0
∗
0.5 < 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≤ 2.0.
Therefore:𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 250(3 − t ∗max ) 𝑡𝑡 ∗ − 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
∗
. 𝑥𝑥
x = 1.0
Temperature will return to ambient (20°C) at:
t ∗ = 2.048ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, or 𝑡𝑡 = 1.39ℎ𝑟𝑟 = 83𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (from substituting 𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 =
20°𝐶𝐶 and 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 in the equation above)
 Eurocode Example
θg (degC): Std Fire
1200

1000
Temperature (°C)

800

600

400

200

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min)
 Eurocode Example
ANSWER 3a: Eurocode Equation

𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏 = 0.051, by interpolating in Table 3.5 using 𝑏𝑏 = 1849𝐽𝐽/𝑚𝑚2 𝑠𝑠 0.5 𝐾𝐾

Horizontal ventilation: 𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣 = 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣�𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 = 31⁄150 = 0.207
Vertical ventilation: 𝛼𝛼ℎ = 𝐴𝐴ℎ�𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 = 0⁄150 = 0
Vertical opening factor: 𝑏𝑏𝑣𝑣 = 12.5 1 + 10𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣 − 𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣2 = 37.8
6.0 0.3 90 0.4−𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣 4
Ventilation factor: 𝑤𝑤𝑓𝑓 = 0.62 + > 0.5
𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟 1+𝑏𝑏𝑣𝑣 𝛼𝛼ℎ
6.0 0.3 90 0.4−0.207 4
= 0.62 + = 0.842𝑚𝑚0.25
4.0 1+37.8×0

Fire load: 𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑞𝑞𝑓𝑓,𝑑𝑑 = 540.5𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀/𝑚𝑚2

Thus, the equivalent standard fire time is:
𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒆 = 𝒌𝒌𝒃𝒃 𝒘𝒘𝒇𝒇 𝒆𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
 Eurocode Example
ANSWER 3b: CIB Equation

𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 0.065, but interpolating in Table 3.5

using 𝑏𝑏 = 1849𝐽𝐽/𝑚𝑚2 𝑠𝑠 0.5 𝐾𝐾

𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 150
𝑤𝑤𝑓𝑓 = = = 1.077𝑚𝑚0.25
0.5 0.5 31 × 500 × 1.5650.5 0.5
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻𝑣𝑣

𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒆 = 𝒌𝒌𝒄𝒄 𝒘𝒘𝒇𝒇 𝒆𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟓𝟓 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
 LECTURE 3
Behaviour of Steelwork at Elevated
Temperatures
 Thermal Elongation
∆𝑙𝑙/𝑙𝑙 = 14 × 10−6 𝜃𝜃𝑎𝑎 .

20
18
Δl/l - Steel Elongation (x10-3)

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
θa - Steel temperature (°C)
 Specific Heat
ca = 600 J/kgK.

3000
ca - Specific Heat (J/kgK)

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
θa - Steel temperature (°C)
 Thermal Conductivity
𝝀𝝀𝒂𝒂 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 W/mK

60
λa - Thermal conductivity (W/mK)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
θa - Steel temperature (°C)
Reduction factors - Steelwork
 Reduction factors - Steelwork
Reduction factors at temperature θsteel (Tsteel) relative to the value of fy or Ea at 20°C
Steel temp.
θsteel
ky,θ – Yield kE,θ – Young’s ku,θ – Ultimate k0.2p,θ – Class 4
(Tsteel) kp,θ – Prop. limit
Strength Modulus Strength Sections

20 °C 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.250 1.000

100 °C 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.250 1.000
200 °C 1.000 0.900 0.807 1.250 0.890
300 °C 1.000 0.800 0.613 1.250 0.780
400 °C 1.000 0.700 0.420 1.000 0.650
500 °C 0.780 0.600 0.360 0.780 0.530
600 °C 0.470 0.310 0.180 0.470 0.300
700 °C 0.230 0.130 0.075 0.230 0.130
800 °C 0.110 0.090 0.050 0.110 0.070
900 °C 0.060 0.068 0.038 0.060 0.050
1000 °C 0.040 0.045 0.025 0.040 0.030
1100 °C 0.020 0.023 0.013 0.020 0.020
1200 °C 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

NOTE: For intermediate values of the steel temperature linear interpolation may be used
Reduction factors – Bolts & Welds
 Section Factor - Ap/V
𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹:
𝑉𝑉
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
=
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
Section Factor - Ap/V
Heat Transfer – Unprotected Steelwork
𝑎𝑎
∆𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∆𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚 /𝑉𝑉

Coefficient of heat transfer:

𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐 + 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟

Radiative heat transfer coefficient:

5.67×10−8 𝜖𝜖𝐹𝐹 4
𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 = 𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 −𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
- transfer of electromagnetic energy

Convective heat transfer coefficient: ac = 25 W/m°C

- transportation of molecular energy
Heat Transfer – Unprotected Steelwork
Emissivity factor: εF
Type of Assembly εf
Column, exposed on all sides 0.7

Floor beam: imbedded in the concrete floor slab, with only

0.5
bottom flange of beam exposed to fire

Floor beam, with concrete slab resting on top flange of

beam:

- Flange width : beam depth ratio ≥ 0.5 0.5

- Flange width : beam depth ratio < 0.5 0.7
Box girder and lattice girder 0.7
Heat Transfer – Protected Steelwork
𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
When:𝑐𝑐𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 > 2𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 𝜌𝜌𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 (the thermal capacity of the
𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 /𝑉𝑉
insulation is much less than that of the steel and can be
ignored)
𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝
∆𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 − 𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∆𝑡𝑡
𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝
𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 /𝑉𝑉
Otherwise (when the thermal capacity of the insulation
must be considered):

𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 − 𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

∆𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = ∆𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐 𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑
𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝
𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 +
𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 /𝑉𝑉 2
Heat Transfer – Protected Steelwork

cp is the specific heat of the coating (J/kgºC)

ρp is the coating density (kg/m3)

dp is the coating thickness (m)

kp is the thermal conductivity of the coating (W/mºC)

Heat Transfer – Protected Steelwork
QUESTION:

What temperature does the column on Gridline B3 and

primary beam on Gridline B reach for the fire curve
generated in EXAMPLE 4. Generate time-temperature
curves to show the behaviour. Consider the following
for each member:
a. The member being bare steel.
b. Protection by being boxed out with 12mm gypsum
board.
Course Example
 Heat Transfer – Protected Steelwork
ANSWER – BARE STEEL:

Column of GL. B3 - Unprotected

For a UC 203x203x46 bare column: Ap / V = 205m-1 (Section

5.2, Euro-Nomogram).

𝑀𝑀 𝜌𝜌 7850𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
= = = 38.3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 (useful conversion
𝐷𝐷 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 / 𝑉𝑉 205𝑚𝑚−1
equation)

εF = 0.7 for a column exposed on all sides.

Heat Transfer – Protected Steelwork
ANSWER – BARE STEEL:

Time increment to be used: 5 seconds.

At the first time increment: TF = 45.1°C, from Example
spreadsheet.
5.67 × 10−8 𝜖𝜖𝐹𝐹 4
𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 = 𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4
𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠
5.67×10−8 ×0.7
= 45.14 − 204 = 0.006276
45.1−20
𝑎𝑎 25 + 0.00832
∆𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 ∆𝑡𝑡 = 45.1 − 20 × 5
𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 600 × 38.3
𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠
𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 /𝑉𝑉
= 0.136°𝐶𝐶
Heat Transfer – Protected Steelwork
ANSWER – CLADDED COLUMN:

Perimeter of the boxed out section

𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 4𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 × (0.203𝑚𝑚) −1

= = = 138.1𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 5.88 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚2

For gypsum board:

cp = 1700 J/kgºC. ρp = 800kg/m3. dp = 0.012m. kp = 0.20W/m°C

 Heat Transfer – Protected Steelwork
ANSWER – CLADDED COLUMN:
𝑐𝑐𝑆𝑆 𝑀𝑀
= 22980 < 2𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 𝜌𝜌𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 =32640.
𝐷𝐷
Thus, equation (4.16) must be used.

𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 −𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆 0.20 45.1−20

∆𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆 = 𝑑𝑑 ∆𝑡𝑡 = 5 = 0.0494°𝐶𝐶
𝑝𝑝
𝜌𝜌
𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝜌𝜌𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝
+ 0.012 600× 7850 +1700×800×0.012
𝑝𝑝 /𝑉𝑉 2 138.1 2

The remainder of the calculations have been carried out as shown in the
graph below.

Maximum temperatures
– Unprotected: 837.6°C
- Protected: 582.4°C
Heat Transfer – Protected Steelwork
1000 EN 1-1-2 Fire
900
Unprotected
800
Protected
700
Temperature (°C)

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min)
 LECTURE 4
- Member Design
 Member Design

- Prescriptive Design

- The Yellow Book

- Euro-Nomogram

- Performance-based design / Rational Design

The Critical Temperature
The Yellow Book
 Member Design to SANS 10162-1
Tensile Resistance

The tension resistance of a member is

determined in the same way that it is done an
ambient temperature, but with the reduced yield
strength of members.
Member Design to SANS 10162-1
Compressive Resistance

𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 𝑇𝑇 = 1 + 𝜆𝜆 𝑇𝑇 2𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −1/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 (𝑇𝑇)

𝑦𝑦

𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 (𝑇𝑇) 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 (𝑇𝑇)

𝜆𝜆 𝑇𝑇 = 2
=
𝑟𝑟 𝜋𝜋 𝐸𝐸(𝑇𝑇) 𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒 (𝑇𝑇)
d 0.6
n 1.34 for general steelwork
Member Design to SANS 10162-1
Compressive Resistance
350
20°C
Cr(T)/A - Failure Stress (MPa)

300

250 500°C

200
800°C
150

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200

KL/r - Slenderness Ratio

 Member Design to SANS 10162-1
Bending Resistance
𝜁𝜁(𝑇𝑇)
0.12𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇) 0.5
𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 𝑇𝑇 = 0.12𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇) + 0.88𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇) 1 −
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑇)
Mp(T) is the plastic moment at elevated temperature, T
Mcr(T) is the elastic critical load at elevated temperature
T, given by:

𝜔𝜔2 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑇𝑇) 2
𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 𝑇𝑇 = 𝐸𝐸 𝑇𝑇 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐺𝐺 𝑇𝑇 𝐽𝐽 + 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿

𝑇𝑇 + 800
𝜁𝜁 𝑇𝑇 = ≤ 2.4
500
Member Design to SANS 10162-1
Bending Resistance
450
20°C
400 500°C
Mr - Bending resistance (kNm)

350 800°C
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
KL - Effective length (m)
 Member Design to SANS 10162-1
Combined Axial Force and Flexure

Beam-columns are to be designed in the same

manner as done at ambient temperature with
the reduced member capacities as defined
above.
 Member Design to SANS 10162-1
Example 8:

QUESTION: Check the design capacity of the UC

203x203x46 column in the fire compartment at
the fire limit state. Obtain maximum
temperatures from Example 5, considering both
the protected and unprotected member.
 Member Design to SANS 10162-1
ANSWER:
Obtain the reduction factor for fy and E from Table 3.5 by
interpolation.
UC 203x203x46 Maximum fy((T)
ky,θ: kE,θ: E(T) (GPa):
Details: Temperature: (MPa):

Bare steel 837.6°C 0.091 0.082 32.3MPa 16.4GPa

Protected –
582.4°C 0.525 0.361 186.4MPa 72.2GPa
12mm gypsum

𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 (𝑇𝑇) 1.0×4000 32.3

𝜆𝜆 837.6°C = = = 1.10
𝑟𝑟 𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸(𝑇𝑇) 51.2 𝜋𝜋2 ×16400
 Member Design to SANS 10162-1
1
−
𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 837.6°C = 1 + 𝜆𝜆 𝑇𝑇 2𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 𝑇𝑇
= 1 + 1.10 2×0.6×1.34 −1/(0.6×1.34) × 5880 × 32.3
= 72.4𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Using the same equations: 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 582.4 = 358𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 for the

protected member. Thus, the column is insufficient for
the 551kN load calculated earlier for the FLS.
 Member Design to SANS 10162-1
However, note that for the Eurocode the effective length
can be reduced to 0.5 of the original because of the
cool columns above and below acting as fixities. For
the top floor of a building a factor of 0.7 should be used.
If an effective length of 0.5L is used the resistance will
increase to around 674kN for the protected member.
This would be sufficient for resistance.

The Canadian Code advises that effective lengths should

be left the same as at ambient temperature.
 LECTURE 5
ADVANCED DESIGN

What factors would you need to consider if

designing a structure in a real fire situation?
 Global structural behaviour
considerations and effects
1. Restraint effects. High forces, buckling, localised
plastification and other such factors can be results from the
restrained expansion of members.
2. P-Δ Effects. The nonlinear behaviour and large
deformations that result in a structures in a severe fires
causes second-order effects. In simplified analysis methods
this is typically neglected.
3. Internal force redistribution. In natural fire conditions force
redistribution often occurs as parts of a structure yield.
4. Membrane effects, as discussed below for composite floors.
 Global structural behaviour
considerations
5. Alternative loads paths are created whereby weakened
members transfer loads to adjacent structural elements, or
sometime even secondary elements not designed to carry
loads (e.g. internal brickwork).
6. Lateral-torsional buckling which might not be an issue at
ambient temperatures can become an issue in severe fires.
7. Joint behaviour becomes very complex as large
deformations can cause pinned connections to become
almost fixed, and local buckling can occur.
ADVANCED MODELLING
JOINT BEHAVIOUR
Full-Scale Testing – The Cardington Tests
 SLAB DESIGN IN FIRES
- The BRE Cardington full-scale fire tests,
amongst others, showed that composite
slabs have significant inelastic reserves of
strength when subjected to fire conditions.
Has this failed?
SLAB DESIGN IN FIRES
SLAB DESIGN IN FIRES
 Outline of Technical Details
The Slab Panel Method (SPM) by Clifton or the Tensile
Membrane Behaviour model by Bailey function in similar
ways when designing composite floors in severe fires.

At ambient temperatures the manner that loads are

transmitted through a composite building involves:

The slab -> Secondary beams -> primary beams -> columns.

In a fire this load transfer path becomes:

The slab panel -> primary supporting beams -> columns.

 Outline of Technical Details
In the event of a fully developed fire, the SPM performs as
follows:
1. The slab and the unprotected secondary beams may
undergo considerable permanent deformation.
2. The primary support beams and columns undergo much
less permanent deformation compared to that within the
panel.
3. The load-carrying capacity and the integrity of the floor
system are preserved.
4. Both local and global collapse is prevented.
 Calculation Procedure
1. Determine the total floor load (dead and live) at the fire
limit state.
2. Calculate the fire severity based on the fire loads, and
building characteristics. Convert this to an equivalent
standard fire time.
3. Determine the temperature of the slab concrete, rebar and
steel beams. Various equations and tables are provided for
this purpose.
4. Evaluate the yieldline load-carrying moment capacity in
each direction for hogging and sagging.
5. Calculate the yieldline load-carrying capacity based on the
actual support conditions but ignoring tensile membrane
action.
 Calculation Procedure
6. Determine the deflections that would occur in the slab
panel as these have a significant influence on the
magnitude of the tensile membrane action.
7. Find the tensile membrane enhancement factor and
multiply this by the yieldline load carrying capacity to
determine the total capacity of the floor.
8. Check that the total capacity of the floor is greater than the
total floor load.
9. Check the shear capacity
10. Ensure that sufficient reinforcement is provided to preserve
integrity (no cracks opening up in the floor).
SPM Example
 SPM Design
By adjusting the rebar in the slab we can obtain a solution that
satisfies both the bending and shear requirements of the system,
as detailed below. Basically the summary of the calculations is:
Design floor load: 4.9kPa
Floor capacity: 5.04kPa. OK
Design shear load: 18.38kN.m
Floor shear capacity: 24.75kN/m. OK
Rebar: Mesh ref. 395 (8mm bars at 200 each way)
Y12-200 interior support bars in the X-direction
Y12-450 trough bars
The rebar specific is similar (possibly a bit higher) to that which
would be found in a typical composite floor when fire resistance
is not considered. Hence, additional capacity has been obtained
in fire conditions with significantly less passive protection that
typically used.
 Software for Fire Design
1. TSLAB: This is a spreadsheet that has been developed in
the UK by the Steel Construction Institute (SCI)
2. MACS+: MACS+ is a package freely distributed by Arcelor
Mittal and its name stands for Membrane Action of
Composite Structures in Case of Fire (Vassart & Zhao,
2012).
3. VULCAN: This is a commercially available software
package for the design of structures in fire. It has been
produced by Sheffield University over many years through
numerous research projects.
4. SAFIR: SAFIR is an advanced finite element structural
engineering software package specifically developed for
structures in fire. It has been developed by Franssen at the
University of Liege.
 Software for Fire Design
5. Arcelor Mittal - Fire Calculations Download Centre: A
number of free software packages are provided on Arcelor-
Mittal’s website http://amsections.arcelormittal.com. These
modules cover aspects such as composite design, column
design, beam design etc.
6. ABAQUS or DIANA: ABAQUS and DIANA are general
purpose, powerful, finite-element programs that can
consider the nonlinear behaviour of structures.
Does this structure need fire protection?
Cape Town
International
Airport
 Other Interesting Fire Topics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gmPOIriMiyU
 Tutorials to be handed in

Pg. 2-6: Fire resistance ratings

Pg. 3-13: Fire curves

 THANK-YOU
QUESTIONS?
1400

1200

1000
Temperature (ºC)

Steel.
800
O=0.02
Fire.
600 O=0.02
Steel.
400 O=0.10
Fire.
200 O=0.10
Steel.
0 O=0.20
0 20 40 60
Time (min)

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