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“If your plan is for one year… plant rice; if your plan is for ten years…plant a tree; but if you plan is for
eternity… EDUCATE children.”
A. BASIC CONCEPTS
Strategy of Teaching- Refers to the science of developing a plan to attain goal and to guard
against undesirable results. It means the art of using psychological plan in order to increase
the probabilities and favorable consequences of success and to lessen yhe chances of
failure.
Method of Teaching- refers to the series of related and progressive acts performed by a
teacher and the students to attain the specific objectives of the lesson. It is a plan involving
sequence of steps to achieve a given goal or objective.
Technique of teaching-refers to the personalized style of carrying out a particular step of a
given method. It is a skill employed by the teacher in carrying out the procedures or act of
teaching.
Device-is a teaching aid or tool to facilitate instruction, like pictures, flash cards, etc.
Polished Look
Dress suited for a professional
Tasteful accessories (jewelry, bags, shoes, etc)
Tasteful make –up for female
Personal hygiene
Polished Demeanor
Professional walking
The professional ‘Sit”
The professional “handshake”
Polished Language
Voice
Gesture
Classification of Teaching Methods
Traditional: old-fashion way of teaching
Time-tested: methods that stood the test of time and are still being used at present
Progressive: these are newer and more improved methods of teaching
-It makes use of the principles of learning
-It utilizes the principles of “learning by doing
-It provides for growth and development
-it liberates the learners
-it stimulates thinking and reasoning
Objectives
Nature of students
Nature of subject matter
The teacher
Technology
School environment
Teacher’s knowledge of group dynamics
B. MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION
Lesson Planning
A learning objective is a statement of what students will be able to do when they have completed
instruction. A learning objective has three major components:
1. A description of what the student will be able to do;
2. The conditions under which the student will perform the task; and
3. The criteria for evaluating student performance
What is the difference between a goal and a Learning Objective?
A Goal is a statement of the intended general outcome of an instructional unit or program. A goal statement
describes a more global learning outcome. A learning objective is a statement of one of several specific
performances, the achievement of which contributes to the attainment of the goal. A single GOAL may
have specific subordinate learning objectives. For example
GOAL: The goal of Learning Assessment course is to enable the students to make reliable and accurate
assessment of learning.
Learning Objectice#1: Given a learning objective of the student will be able to develop an appropriate
multiple-choice question to measure student achievement of the objective.
Learning Objective#2: Given a printout from an item analysis of multiple choice exam the student will be
able to state the accuracy of the test scores
Learning Objective#3: Given the discrimination and difficulty indices of an item the student will be able to
determine if the item contributes to the reliability of the exam.
Behavior- First, an objective must describe the competency to be learned in performance terms.
The choice of a verb is all-important here. Such frequently used terms as know, understand, grasp,
and appreciate do not meet his requirement. If the verb used in stating an objective identifies an
observable student behavior, then the basis for a clear statement is established. In addition, the type
or level of learning must be identified.
Criterion- Second, an objective should make clear how well a learner must perform to be judge
adequate. This can be done with a statement indicating a degree of accuracy, a quantity or
proportion of correct responses or the like.
Conditions- Third, an objective should describe the conditions under which the learner will be
expected tperform in the evaluation situation. The tools , references, or other aids thus will be
provided or denied should be made clear. Sometimes , one or even two of these elements will be
easily implied by a simple statement. In other times, however, it may be necessary to clearly specify
in detail each element of the objective. The following is an example of a completed learning
objective.
OBJECTIVE: “Given a set of data the student will be able to compute the standard deviation”.
It is generally the Cognitive Learning Domain that is of primary concern in higher education. If we assume
that faculty is more concerned with process and problem-solving activities, the categories of Taxonomy
are most valuable in suggesting various kinds of behavior to use as objectives. The following list of process-
oriented behaviors, which are related to the six categories of the Taxonomy, should serve as a useful guide
to the faculty in preparing objectives.
TABLES OF PROCESS ORIENTED LEARNER BEHAVIORS
KNOWLEDGE
Recall, identity, recognize, acquire, distinguish
COMPREHENSION
Translate, extrapolate, convert, interpret, abstract transform
APPLICATION
Apply, sequence, carry out, solve, prepare, operate, generalize, plan, repair, explain
ANALYSIS
Analyze, estimate, compare, observe, detect, classify, discover, discriminate, identify, explore,
distinguish, catalog, determine, outside
SYNTHESIS
Write, plan, integrate, formulate, propose, specify, produce, organize, theorize, design, build,
systematize
EVALUATION
Evaluate, verify, assess, test, judge, rank, measure, appraise, select, check
Domains of Learning
Learning is a psychological process. Thus, the assessment of learning, of necessity, requires the assessment
of various psychological processes. In developing assessment tools (tests), it is important that we first have
an understanding of these psychological processes and how to go about measuring them. Although there
are many psychological models for the process of learning, for this workbook we have chosen the taxonomy
of Behavioral objectives as useful tool. In Bloom’s taxonomy, there are three fundamental learning
domains: Cognitive, Psychomotor, and Affective.
Psychomotor learning of physical movements, such as a ballet steps, how to pitch a curve ball, how to drill
out a cavity in a molar, etc.
Cognitive learning of information and the processes of dealing with that information. There are six levels
of Cognitve Learning as specified by Bloom:
1. Basic Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
Generally, it can be said that the first category, Knowledge, is information-oriented as it stresses the
ability to recall existing knowledge. The other five categories can be termed” Process oriented” because
the entall more sophisticated learner behaviors and competencies that require increasing degrees of
understanding. The following are brief definitions of these six levels with a suggestion as to how to
assesses this level of learning:
Basic Knowledge: To recall and memorize- assessed by direct questions. The object is to test students
ability to recall facts, to identify and repeat the information provided.
1) Restate material in their own words, 2)reorder or extrapolate ideas, predict or estimate. Assessment
must provide evidence that the students have some understanding or comprehension of what they
are saying.
Application: To apply or use information in a new situation- assessed by presenting students with a
unique situation (i.e. one not identical to that used during instruction) and have them apply their
knowledge to solve the problem or execute the proper procedure.
Analysis: To examine a concept and break it down into parts- assessed by presenting student with a
unique situation of the same type but not identical to that used during instruction, and have them
analyze the situation and describe the appropriate procedure or solution to the problem.
Synthesis: To put information together in a unique or novel way to solve a problem- assessed by
presenting students with a unique situation NOT of the same type used during instruction, and have
them solve a problems by selecting and using appropriate information
Krathwohl’s affective domain taxonomy is perhaps the best known of any of the affective taxonomies,
the taxonomy is ordered according to the principle of internalization, which is to process whereby a
person’s affect toward an object passes from a general awareness level to a point where the affect is
“internalized” and consistently guides or controls the person’s behavior
Receiving is being aware or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas, material, or phenomena and
being willing to tolerate them. Examples include: to differentiate to accept to listen ( for), to respond
to.
Responding is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or phenomena involved by
actively responding to them. Examples are: to comply with, to follow, to commend, to volunteer, to
spend leisure time in, to acclaim
Characterization by value or value set is to act consistently in accordance with the values he or she has
internalized. Examples include: to revise, to require, to be rated high in the value, to avoid, to resist, to
manage, to resolve.
The psychomotor domain refers to the use of basic motor skills, coordination, and physical movement.
Bloom’ s search group did not develop in-depth categories of this domain, claiming lack of experience in
teaching these skills. However, Simpson (1972) developed seven psychomotor categories to support the
original domain. These physical behaviors are learned through repetitive practice. A learner’s ability to
perform these skills is based on precision, speed, distance and technique.
Advantages
Teacher-controlled
Many objectives can be mastered in s short amount of time
Lends to valid evaluations
Disadvantages
Teacher-controlled
Student involvement is limited to the teacher
Depends in part to rote learning ( repetition form memory, often without meaning)
When to use?
Homework
A formative step, not a summative step
Worksheets
Brainstorming
Brainstorming Steps
Supervised Study
Common technique used in problem solving instruction, but certainly not the only technique
appropriate for problem solving instruction
Also a major technique used in competency-based education programs.
Often misused technique. A really bad form of this technique is: read the chapter’s the textbook
and answer the questions at the end of the chapter.
Classified as an individualized instruction technique
Strengths:
Provides skills in learning that are useful throughout student’s lives. For they need to know how to
locate and analyze information
Recall is enhanced when students have to “look up” information, rather than being lectured to.
Students have to decide what information is important and related to the question posed
Opportunity for the students to develop writing and analytical skills.
Weakness:
Develop a list of study questions that focuses on the objectives of the lesson
Develop the anticipated answers to the questions-it is important that the teacher has a firm idea of
what are correct or incorrect answers
Establish a time frame for completing the activity. Students need to a feel a sense of urgency, so
don’t give them more time than you think they will need.
Supervise during this activity. THIS IS NOT A TIME GRADE PAPER, MAKE PHONE CALLS,
PLAN FOR THE NEXT LESSON, OR LOCATE THE ANSWERS TO THE QUESTIONS IN
THIS LESSEON!
Assist students in locating information, but do not find it foe them
Keep students on task and eliminate distractions
Plan foe reporting of answers
Also called:
Buzz groups
Huddle Groups
Philips 66
-6 people per group
-6ideas to be generated
-6 minutes
Advantages:
Increased participation
Good foe generating ideas
Cooperative activity ( students learn from each other)
Planning Required
Games
Motivates students
Reviews
Check for understanding
Strengths:
Planning Requires
Types: games may take a variety of forms, but most often are modeled after.
TV game shows
Sports
Home board games
Situation Use:
Planning Needed:
Objectives
Trial run/visit
Special considerations (safety, grouping, etc.)
Summarize ( don’t give up responsibility!). it is critical to know what the students have learned
from the activity.
Tips:
With-it-ness- the teacher knows that what is going on in the classroom at all times. Seemingly, the teacher
has eyes in the back of his/her head. This is not only when the teacher is in a small group setting, but when
he/she is presenting a topic or students are working as individuals. It can be as simples as looking around
the room frequently or making sure your back is never turned to the class. It is not necessary to know what
the teacher know is going on- it is what the students believe she knows.
The Hawthorne Effect is a phenomenon in industrial psychology first observed in the 1920s. It refers to
improvements in productivity or quality resulting from the mere fact that workers were being studied or
observed.
Pygmalion Effect (or Rosenthal effect) refers to situations in which students performed better that other
students simply because they were expected to do so.
Placebo Effect is the phenomenon that a patient’s symptoms can be alleviated by an otherwise ineffective
treatment, apparently because the individual expects or believes that it will work
The John Henry Effect has also been identified: an experiment may spur competition between groups,
precisely because they are conscious of being part of an experiment. The term “halo effect” describe what
happens when a scientific observation is influenced by the observer’s perceptions of the individual
procedure, or service that is under observation. The observers prejudices, recollections of previous
observations, and knowledge about prior observations or finding can all affect objectivity and must be
guarded against.
Jacob Kounin’s Theory all of this came about form an incident that happened while he was teaching a class
in Mental Hygiene. A student in the back of the class was reading newspaper, and the newspaper being
opened fully in front of the student so that he couldn’t see the teacher. Kounin asked the student to put the
paper away and pay attention. Once the student complied, Kounin realized that other students who were
engaging in non appropriate behaviors (whispering, passing notes) stopped and began to pay attention the
lecture. This gave him interest in understanding classroom discipline on not only the student being
disciplined, but also the other students in the classroom. This is the effect that became known as the “Ripple
Effect”.
Effective Instructional Technique
Teacher ask questions over a hundred questions in a class session to encourage student thinking. Let’s
examine some aspects of the Art of questioning, including: types of questions wait time,and questioning
and creativity
Categories of Questions
There are many systems that teachers use to classify questions. Upon close observation, in the most systems,
questions are typically classified into two categories. Various terms are used to describe these two
categories ( Figure 1). The binary approach is useful because two categories are more manageable foe a
beginning teacher to learn to implement the typical approach of using systems with six categories
Category 1 Category 2
Closed Open
Convergent Divergent
Low inquiry questions. These questions focus on previously learned knowledge in order to answer
questions posed by the teacher, who requires the students to perform ONE of the following taks:
High inquiry questions. These questions focus on previously learned knowledge in order to answer
questions posed by the teacher, who requires the students to perform ONE of the following tasks:
1. Perform an abstract operation, usually of a mathematical nature, such as multiplying, substituting,
or simplifying
2. Rate some entity as to its value, dependability, importance, or sufficiency with a defense of the
rating
3. Find similarities or differences in the qualities of two or more entities utilizing criteria defined by
the student
4. Make a prediction that is the result of some stated condition, state, operation, object or substance
5. Make inferences to account for the occurrence of something (how or why it occurred). Low inquiry
questions tend to reinforce “correct” answers, or focus on specific acceptable answers, whereas
high inquiry questions stimulate a broader range or responses, and tend to stimulate high levels of
thinking. There is evidence to support the use of both types of question
Low inquiry questions will help sharpen students ability to recall experiences and events of science
teaching. Low inquiry questions are useful if you are interests in having students focus on the details
of the content of a chapter in their textbook, or laboratory experiment.
High inquiry questions encourage range of responses from the students and tend to stimulate divergent
thinking. Figure 2 summarizes the differences between low and high inquiry questions.
Define…
-Give an example of
something
-Judge scientific
credibility
What do you think
about…?
High inquiry
(divergent) -Give an opinion or
state an attitude
Design a plan that
would solve?
Wait Time. Knowledge of the types of questions, and their predicted effect on student thinking is important
to know. However, researchers have found that there are other factors associated with questioning that can
enhance critical and creative thinking. One of the purposes of the questioning us to enhance and increase
verbal behavior of students.