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Keywords: In a global era, continuous increment in energy requisition with its associated cost and relevant climate
Liquid desiccant problems is causing accentuation in exploring more efficient ways to provide air conditioning in enclosed space
Non conventional energy resources: Solar without degradation of the environment. In the hot and humid area, major part of conventionally produced
energy electrical energy is consumed by air conditioning. Also in the rapidly growing world scarcity of clean water is
Dehumidification
dilemma as equal as green-house and ozone layer depletion. Thus, there is emergence of dehumidified air for
human comfort conditions with having potable clean water same time. In summer with largely available solar
radiation, use of hybrid solar system is viable option to overcome problems of dehumidification of liquid
desiccant as well as of potable water. Up till now the conventional dehumidification with desiccant solution has
been improved or replaced by less costly new systems. This paper provides an extensive literature review on
development of liquid desiccant regeneration using solar energy. The paper also includes the recent findings of
hybrid solar system in which either two sources of heat is used for regeneration of liquid desiccant or solar
energy is used for regeneration of liquid desiccant along with other application.
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: d_shukla92@yahoo.com (D.L. Shukla).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.103
Received 25 December 2016; Received in revised form 5 April 2017; Accepted 27 April 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D.L. Shukla, K.V. Modi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 517–529
availability, cost, etc. Among these parameters, the surface vapour Fig. 2 [56]. System consists of solar regenerator, greenhouse, evapora-
pressure is the major problem and many researchers have investigated tive bad and Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) as desiccant solution in
its effects [40]. desiccators.
Solid desiccants can adsorb a large amount of water vapour on their As an alternative option of Solid Desiccant Cooling Systems (SDCS),
own surface and has large drying capacity than LD. Due to this Liquid Desiccant Air conditioning (LDAC) systems have emerged
advantage; solid desiccants are widely used in various cooling devices rapidly in last few years. The lower regeneration temperature around
than the LDs. However (Factor et al. [25]) have quoted the below 45–70 °C [57–66] allows LD to be used in air conditioning system
advantages for LDs: Easy manipulated more mobile, across desiccant rather than solid desiccant having temperature range of 70–120 °C
less pressure drop of air, also used for filtering for contaminant [67–69].
removal with very low regenerating temperature than solid one. The prime objective of the study is to present the development in
Some other parameters which show desiccant materials perfor- solar energy based LD regeneration techniques utilized for the air
mance are [41–43]: conditioning system and also to draw the attention of research
community towards the viable option of LD regeneration in integration
• Availability and cost with the conventional solar energy based equipment: the concept of
• Energy storage density hybrid solar system. Hence, with the hybrid solar system, the problem
• Regenerating temperature of cooling in summer and drinking water can be resolved. The layout of
• Boiling Point Elevation (BPE) paper is as follows: Introduction of LD with working principle is
presented in Section 1. Literature review on solar LD regeneration is
Ideal properties of LD are as following: presented in Section 2. Various hybrid solar systems are discussed in
Section 3. At the end, conclusions and future scope are provided in
• Non-toxic, Non-flammable, Non-volatile, Non-corrosive and chemi- Section 4.
cally stable
• Large saturation absorption capacity 2. Literature review on solar liquid desiccant regeneration
• High heat and mass transfer coefficients
• Less power required for the blower/fan As early in history of solar operated LD air conditioning, Lof [70]
• Odorless reported the use of LD TEG in dehumidification followed by evapora-
• Less expensive tive cooling system as shown in Fig. 3. An auxiliary heater was also
• Low viscosity used for supplying the heat. The whole process was followed by
• Continues absorption-desorption process regeneration of LD for the supply of evaporatively cooled air to
• Low regeneration temperature enclosed space. They regenerated LD around 80 °C temperature with
• Air sterilization is possible as required in hospitals the help of solar heated air.
Based on the experimentation of Lof [70], Sheridan et al. [71]
Commonly used LDs are glycols and solutions of hygroscopic salts prepared a LiBr water regeneration system with a temperature range of
which include Lithium Chloride (LiCl), Lithium Bromide (LiBr), 70–85 °C as shown in Fig. 4. All this experimentation gave hope in
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2), Potassium Formate (KCOOH), Triethylene exploration of use of solar energy in cooling application as LD
Glycol (TEG) and mixture of salts [44–54] etc. They had lower surface regeneration comes in the temperature range of solar collector.
vapour pressure at low temperature and high concentration than that Lof et al. [72] have concluded from the previous experimentation
of the highly moisturized process air. that the ambient parameters such as temperature and air velocity will
affect more when a solar still act as a distillation device. But they have
1.1.1. Working principle of liquid desiccant cooling found from the theoretical calculation that ambient parameters were
Fig. 1 shows basic LD cooling system. In desiccant based cooling not important when solar still was used as a LiCl (LD) regenerator.
system humid process air is allowed to flow through desiccant Based on this result, Hollands [16] measured experimental perfor-
dehumidifier. LD adsorbs moisture from process air and this moisture mance of LiCl regeneration in a conventional solar still as shown in
gets condensed. This latent heat of condensation of moisture will Fig. 5.
convert into sensible heating of air. Thus, the hot and dried air comes He plotted variation of efficiency for experimentation and theore-
out from dehumidifier and gets cooled down in evaporative cooling. tical observation as shown in Fig. 6. He obtained the higher efficiencies
Now, in able to reuse this desiccant material, it needs to be regenerated in a solar still at higher surrounding temperatures. This could be
by removing condensed moisture from it. This removal can be done by explain as at large surrounding temperatures still was forced to operate
heating a desiccant material. Low grade heat source can be also used in the steeper part of the vapour-pressure curve of water. In this part, a
for regeneration. small temperature difference was required for the same evaporation
A solar powered LD system having evaporative pad for greenhouse rate in which radiative and convective losses were less.
food production applications in hot and humid climates is shown in Gandhidasan [73] has also showed the use of tilted solar still for the
regeneration of LD (Fig. 7). He derived that solar energy for the
regeneration of LD would be feasible in hot and humid climate rather
than dry climate. Also, Gandhidasan et al. [74] had simulated the open
solar regeneration system for the humid climate and discussed the
various parameters affecting the performance of the system.
Kaushik et al. [75] presented the theory for a transient heat and
mass transfer analysis of an open roof surface as a solar collecting
device which act as regenerator system in adsorption air conditioning.
In the experimentation, they have used LiCl solution (LiCI-H2O) which
flows over the open roof surface of a building to remove moisture by
evaporation from solution. From the Experimentation in typical hot
and dry climate, they found the average daily Coefficient of
Performance (COP) of the cooling system was in the range of 0.36–
Fig. 1. Basic liquid desiccant cooling system [55]. 0.57.
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D.L. Shukla, K.V. Modi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 517–529
Fig. 2. Schematic of the solar powered liquid desiccant system with evaporative pad [56].
Kaudinya et al. [76] had developed an experimental set up (Fig. 8) have carried out an experiment for two different LDs: LiBr and LiCl.
for the regeneration of LD to validate the theoretical studies developed The main aim of experiment was to find out diurnal response of
by Kaushik et al. [75] on open and forced flow solar regenerator. They working fluids with concentration of 35%.
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D.L. Shukla, K.V. Modi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 517–529
Fig. 5. The conventional solar still for liquid desiccant regeneration [16].
Fig. 8. Experimental set-up of open and forced flow solar regenerator [76].
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D.L. Shukla, K.V. Modi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 517–529
Fig. 10. Analysis of predicted and experimental effectiveness for different desiccants
and packings: (■) Polypropylene flexi rings-TEG; (•) Plastic pall rings-LiCl; (▲)
Polypropylene Jaeger TriPacks-TEG; (▼) Ceramic Berl Saddles-LiCl [77].
Fig. 12. Solar operated liquid desiccant regeneration in packed bed system [79].
Fig. 11. Forced flow solar collector in test apparatus [78]. Fig. 13. Two stage liquid desiccant regeneration for drying [80].
delivered air. They found that experimental results were over estima- Author found that optimum liquid to air flow rate ratio is about
tion by 1.0% for RH in compare to simulation results. 2.54 and increasing the desiccant inlet temperature will improve the
The authors [81,82] have also compared their results with Martin evaporation rate. On the other way, desiccant concentration and inlet
et al. [83] and found good agreement. Further, the moisture removal air humidity ratio has inverse proportionality with evaporation rate.
rate has been compared with Chung et al. [84] as shown in Fig. 16. Chen et al. [86] studied a mixed-solvent open-cycle absorption air
Elsarrag [85] experimented on a system, as shown in Fig. 17, conditioning system containing {(40.0 wt%) glycol+salt+water} using
comprising of corrugated blackened surface for the regeneration of Diethylene Glycol (DEG), TEG, and Tetraethylene Glycol (T4EG) and
CaCl2 LD and various factors were examined for the evaporation rate. MgCl2 as the salt. The study indicates that the density of the above-
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Fig. 14. Solar regenerated liquid desiccant ventilation pre-conditioning system [81].
Fig. 18. Experimented fine reinforced plastic solar still with unit total area [87].
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D.L. Shukla, K.V. Modi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 517–529
Fig. 19. Solar radiation, temperature variation and distilled output for solar still (a) simulation and (b) Experimental results [87].
Fig. 20. Solar radiation, temperature variation and distilled output for solar regenerator (a) Simulation and (b) Experimental results [87].
Fig. 21. (a) Two stage regeneration liquid desiccant dehumidification cycle on p-T-x chart of aqueous potassium formate (b) Scheme of LD_SAC [88].
Form Fig. 19 it can be found that compared to simulation result of actual air velocity as compared to those given in handbook.
4.275 kg of distilled water in the still, only 2.497 kg is obtained in Fig. 20 indicates simulation and experimental results of liquid
experiment. The primary reason behind this deviation is quite law desiccant regeneration at Ahmedabad in the month of March. The
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Fig. 22. Schematic diagram of the solar liquid desiccant regenerated evaporatively cooled greenhouse [89].
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Fig. 26. Water absorption rate for various area of ETC [90].
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Fig. 30. Schema of solar powered hybrid system with supply of fresh water [95].
from the humid air leaving the regenerator. They have optimized the compression air conditioning system and LiBr liquid desiccant loop
problem for the case study to produce 15 l fresh potable water and as shown in Fig. 33. They have carried out an experiment on the hybrid
meet the cooling load for 80 m2 area at minimum energy cost. system in balanced ambient room type calorimeter. This kind of work
The authors have plotted the variation of collected water for the 9 h was also found in other research papers [97–100]. In the study, liquid
of operation versus the liquid desiccant to air flow ration and obtain the desiccant was regenerated with the use of waste heat. The authors have
best operating ratio as shown in Fig. 31. The Fig. 32 shows the various investigated the effect of varying room air temperature and specific
life cycle cost (LCC) of the regeneration temperature for different heat humidity on performance of hybrid system. The main attention of the
sink temperatures. It is clear from the figure that as heat sink system is that very low LD to air flow ratio (~0.01) is used in whole
temperature reduces optimum regeneration temperature increases. experiment. The authors have concluded that dehumidification of
They concluded that to meet the case study requirements, the lower process air and regeneration of liquid desiccant reduces as room
sink temperature of 17–18 °C will be more economically feasible. temperature increases and increases with increase in room specific
Mohan et al. [96] have designed a Liquid Desiccant Vapour humidity.
Compression (LDVC) hybrid system consist of a 0.8 TR vapour Park et al. [101] have designed multiple effect diffusion (MED)
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D.L. Shukla, K.V. Modi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 517–529
• Although initial total investments are higher in the solar system, but
it can give shorter payback period for most of the systems.
• Also, solar operated LDAC are considered to be the emerging
technology for providing cooling in most of the areas rather than
using conventional VCRS or VARS systems.
• LDs superiority over solid desiccants can be highlighted as low
regeneration temperature ranging below 80 °C, easy operation, low
crystallization point, less power requirement, less viscosity, contin-
uous dehumidification and regeneration process with long time use
etc.
• Although having advantageous properties over solid ones, depen-
dence on ambient conditions, storage, mostly intermittent source of
Fig. 32. LCC vs. regeneration temperature [95]. regeneration, carryover problem and corrosion of different parts of
the systems could not be neglected.
• In terms of energy and economic savings, LDAC has energy
consumption less than 30–50% than that in conventional VCRS,
with higher rate on investment. Even more energy can be saved with
the concept of hybrid solar system for the regeneration of LD in
compare to conventional systems for the LD regeneration.
• Solar powered LDAC can be used with various conjunctions of low
or high grade sources like externally heaters, waste heat of various
engines, from flue gases etc. for achieving required condition of air
in enclosed space as well as to improve efficiency.
• Hybrid solar systems are manifesting themselves as they used
indirect evaporative cooling rather than direct evaporative cooling.
Indirect cooling which provide only required sensible cooling to air
without addition of extra moisture is extracting great extraction
along with separate handling of sensible and latent load in hybrid
systems.
Fig. 33. Block diagram of hybrid solar system [96].
Despite of having so many merits, a large scale implementation of
hybrid solar still system with sea water feeding. They have carried out solar regenerated LDAC in actual conditions are required. Also, many
experimentation on the hybrid solar still with hybrid heat source: solar authors have used various solar systems, but expansion of other
energy and waste heat of exhaust gas from engine of the electric systems like concentrating solar collectors, heliostats etc should be
generator. The experiment was performed with three operational incorporated. Up till now, single LD is regenerated with the help of
parameters: 1) amount of heat supplied to still, 2) seawater flow rate conventional solar system and factors affecting the performance were
and 3) seawater level in basin. Schematic diagram of hybrid solar still studied by various researchers but the combination of various LDs can
composed of simple solar still and MED as shown in Fig. 34(a). MED be introduced in the conventional solar system to study its performance
section comprising of wicks, stainless steel plates, distributor system, and to deepen this valuable concept. Also, actual analytical and
pockets. The wicks were attached on the rear surface of vertical plates. experimental investigations must be done despite of large simulations
Saline water in contact with wick of first plate was evaporated using to figure out the exact heat and mass transfer occurring within the
solar radiation and latent heat of condensed water. The evaporated system. Furthermore, with the concept of hybrid solar system, the
vapour diffuses towards the second plate and gets condensed on the many problems like building cooling, potable water etc. can be over-
front facing of second plate. The latent heat of vaporization on second come at much more lower cost than the conventional system for cooling
plate evaporates saline water from wick of second plate. So this and potable water.
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D.L. Shukla, K.V. Modi Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 517–529
Fig. 34. (a) Schematic diagram of hybrid solar still [101]. (b) Variation of water yield for different heat input [101].
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