General Chemistry

Chemistry
 The study of matter
o Its composition, structure, and properties
o Includes chemical reactions
Matter
o Anything that occupies space and has mass

Term Definition Term Definition

Mass Amount of matter present in an object Element Pure substance consist of identical atoms
Weight Force a mass experiences under pull of gravity Examples: Iron (Fe), Hydrogen (H)
Weight = mass x pull of gravity Compound Pure substances made up of two or more
Earth’s gravitational pull is 9.807 m/s² elements combined in a fixed ratio by mass
Examples: Water (H2O), Carbon Dioxide
States of Matter Mixture Combination of 2 or more pure substances
each having different physical properties.
o Solid Present in any mass ratio
o Liquid Examples: Air, Blood, Soap, Butter
o Gas
o Plasma
o Bose-Einstein condensate
Classification of Mixtures
Characteristic Solid Liquid Gas
A. According to the Nature of Particles
Shape Definite Indefinite Indefinite
Homogenous Heterogeneous
Arrangement Regular Random Random
Definite Indefinite* Indefinite*
Uniform in composition Not uniform in composition
Volume
Movement Vibrational Slow diffusion Rapid diffusion Can’t be separated easily Can be separated easily
Expansion Low Low High Not visible in the naked eye Visible in the naked eye
*follows shape of container Atomic/molecular size level Large particle sizes
Same phases Can be two phases
Kinetic Molecular Theory
 Explains phases of matter based on movement of B. According to the Size of Particles
molecules/ions/atoms (excluding direction) Solutions Homogenous mixtures which don’t react
 Assumptions of gas molecules chemically with each other. Composed of
o Solute – dissolved substance
o Gases constantly moving in space; o Solvent – dissolving medium (Ex. H2O)
 Different gases mixes readily
Suspensions Finely divided solid materials distributed in
o Kinetic energy of gases ∝ temperature (K) a liquid where the solid (solute) is insoluble
 High temperature (in Kelvin)= high KE Colloids Same principle as of suspension but—
o The total kinetic energy between collision of Difference with suspension:
gas molecules is always the same Has smaller particles than of suspensions
Usually inseparable (unlike suspensions)
 Collision of molecules may result to Passes through filter paper
exchange in KE; may go slow or fast
o Gas particles have no volume Process of Separating Components of Mixtures
 High compressibility property
1. Crystallization
o No attractive forces between gas molecules
2. Filtration
 Gas particles don’t stick together
3. Decantation
after collision
4. Sublimation
o Collisions in the container = Pressure of gas 5. Evaporation
 ↑ KE = ↑ # of collisions = ↑ pressure 6. Distillation
 ↑ KE = ↑ pressure a. Simple
b. Fractional
7. Chromatography
Classifications of Matter 8. Centrifugation
9. Separating funnel
 Element 10. Magnetic separation
 Compound 11. Precipitation
 Mixture

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Changes in Matter 3. Nuclear Change
o Involves changes in structure, properties,
1. Physical Change
composition of the nucleus
o Change of phase of a molecule
o May result to new formation of element
o No new substance is created during a
physical change, although the matter takes o Nuclear Fission – splitting of nucleus to smaller
a different form. fragments
i. Ice when melted is still water o Nuclear Fusion – joining of atomic nuclei to form
a new nucleus heavier than either starting
material

Solutions and Colloids

 Solutions – homogeneous mixtures of two or more
2. Chemical Change substances at the molecular level
o A chemical reaction occurs and a new Unsaturated More solute is dissolved
compound may be formed Saturated Maximum amount of solute is dissolved*
o Change in both intrinsic & extrinsic property
Supersaturated Contains more solute than saturated
*in a particular solvent at a particular temperature
Evidences of Chemical Change
 Evolution of gas Solubility – maximum amount of the solid that will dissolve
 Formation of precipitate in a given amount of a particular solvent at a given
 Emission of light temperature.
 Generation of electricity Miscibility – ability of a substance to be dissolved or
 Production of mechanical energy mixed with another substance in any proportion without
 Absorption/liberation of heat separating. (Ex. Water and Alcohol)

Properties of Matter
Factors affecting Solubility
Intrinsic/ Independent of mass or amount  Nature of solute and solvent
Intensive Melting/boiling Point, density, color, hardness o Like dissolves like
Extrinsic/ Dependent of mass or amount  Temperature
Extensive Weight, mass, volume, length, surface area o ↓ temperature = ↑ solubility of a solid in liquids
o ↑ temperature = ↓ solubility of a gas in liquids

Types of Chemical Reactions o Exothermic – ↓ solubility = ↑ temperature

o Endothermic – ↑ solubility = ↑ temperature
Chemical Reaction Chemical Equation  Pressure (gases only)
Direct Union Na+ + Cl - → NaCl o Henry’s Law – ↑ pressure = ↑ solubility
Decomposition CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
 Particle size/surface area
Single Replacement NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O o ↓ particle size = ↑ surface area = ↑ solubility
Double Replacement H2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + 2HCl
 Presence of salts
o Salting Out – presence of salt = ↓ solubility
Processes Involved in Chemical Change o Salting In – presence of salt = ↑ solubility
Oxidation Addition of oxygens
Reduction Addition of hydrogens Methods of Expressing Concentration of Solutions
Neutralization Acid + Base → Salt + Water Mole fraction (x) = moles of the substance
Hydrolysis Addition of H2O to cleave bonds total moles of solution
Saponification Alkali + Fats/Oils → Soap + Glycerol Molarity (M) – moles of solute per L of solution
Fermentation Organic substances + microbes → Alcohol Molality (m) – moles of solute per kg of solvent
Normality (N) – no. of equivalents of solute per L solution

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 Atoms
 Matter is made up of small, indivisible particles (Democritus)
 Atoms (Greek word atomos, meaning “not to cut”)
o Atoms are the basic unit of matter
Same Different Mass Number Neutrons + Protons
Isotopes Element Mass Number Neutrons Mass Number – Protons
Isobars Mass Number Element Electrons Protons – Charge
Isotones Neutrons Protons Protons Same as electrons Mass Number (A) = Neutrons + Protons
Isomers Molecule Structure Atomic Number Same as electrons/protons Atomic Number (Z) = # of Protons

Atomic Theories
Democritus Matter is made up of small indivisible particles
John Dalton “Billiard Ball Model” – atom is a hard indestructible sphere
2nd Postulate 3rd & 4th Postulate
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. All matter is made up of very tiny, indivisible particles, which Dalton called atoms
2. All atoms of a given element have the same mass, size and chemical properties
3. In ordinary chemical reactions, no atom of any element disappears or is Element X + Element Y = Compound XY
(2:1 ratio)
changed into an atom of another element
Notes (Dalton Theory)
4. In a given compound, the relative numbers of atoms of each kind of element
1st Postulate is disproved by the
are constant and are most commonly expressed as integers.
presence of subatomic particles
5. A molecule is a tightly bound combination of two or more atoms that acts as a o Proton, electron & neutron
single unit. 2nd Postulate is disproved due to
the existence of isotopes
JJ Thompson ‘Plum Pudding Model” Used cathode ray to estimate the mass of the “rays” – (–) charged particles | Discovered electron
Robert Milikan Oil Drop Experiment – accurately determined the size of the charge of an electron
Louis de Proposed that all particles could be treated as matter waves with a wavelength λ
Broglie Together with Planck and Einstein, discovered the wave nature of the electron
Ernest Discovered protons and the nucleus of an atom | Nuclear Atomic Model – opposite of Thompson’s Plum Pudding Model
Rutherford Gold Film Experiment – emitting an a-particle (+) in a gold thin foil and a screen coated with zinc sulfide
Concluded that atoms is mostly empty space – concentrated mass with protons in an area (nucleus)
Niels Bohr Planetary Model Planetary Model

o The electrons encircle the nucleus of the atom in specific allowable paths called orbits.
o When the electron is in one of these orbits, its energy is fixed.
o When electrons return to a lower energy level, they emit energy in the form of light.
o The ground state of the hydrogen atom, where its energy is lowest, is when the electron is
in the orbit that is closest to the nucleus, and therefore harder to remove due to the
attraction of protons and electrons.
o Orbits further from the nucleus exist at higher energy levels.

Orbits are later on disproved due to the uncertainty of an electron. See Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Erwin Proposed the Quantum Mechanical Model of the atom, which treats electrons as matter waves*
Schrödinger Atomic orbital (aka electron cloud) – region of space where electrons are most probably found (disproved orbits)
James Discovered neutrons
Chadwick Neutrons – 3rd subatomic particle discovered; It increased the mass of elements without adding electrical charge.
Wilhelm Discovered X-rays – discovered when cathode rays struck certain materials (copper for example);
Roentgen Properties of X-rays
(1) Pass unimpeded through many objects (2) Unaffected by magnets (3) produced an image on photographic plates
Roentgen – a legacy unit of measurement for the exposure of X-rays and gamma rays.
It is defined as the electric charge freed by such radiation in a specified volume of air divided by the mass of that ai r.
Roentgen equivalent man (rem) –dosage in rads that will cause the same amount of biological injury as 1 rad of X rays
Henri Isolated the metal Uranium and its radioactive properties; Becquerel – SI unit of measurement of radioactivity
Becquerel First person to conclude that atoms could be radioactive; Discovered “natural radioactivity”
Marie Curie Studied U & Thorium & made the claim the rays were not dependent on the uranium's form, but on its atomic structure.
o Led to a new field of study – Radioactivity | Discovered Radium and Polonium
*due to the uncertainty of an electron, Quantum Mechanical Model is established

General Principles in Electron Configuration

Principles
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
Aufbau Building Up Principle
Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
Definitions
Impossible to determine both the momentum & exact position of a particle (electron)
No two (2) electrons can have the same set of 4 quantum numbers
Each atomic orbital can only accommodate 2 electrons with opposite spins (Ex: 1s2)
Lowest orbitals (energy levels) are filled up first; Aufbau – German term for “fill up”
Orbitals are filled individually before pairing up
Greatest number of parallel spins – most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells

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Quantum Theory
 Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles could be treated as matter waves with a wavelength λ given by the
following equation:
λ=h/mv
 Erwin Schrödinger proposed the quantum mechanical model of the atom, which treats electrons as matter waves.
 Schrödinger's equation, Hψ = Eψ, can be solved to yield a series of wave function \psiψ, each of which is associated
with an electron binding energy, E
 The square of the wave function, ψ2, represents the probability of finding an electron in a given region within the atom.
 An atomic orbital is defined as the region within an atom that encloses where the electron is likely to be 90% of the time.
 The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that we can't know both the energy and position of an electron.
o Therefore, as we learn more about the electron's position, we know less about its energy, and vice versa.
 Electrons have an intrinsic property called spin, & an e- can have one of 2 possible spin values: spin-up or spin-down.
 Any two electrons occupying the same orbital must have opposite spins.

Quantum Numbers
Quantum Number Symbol Values Definition/Function
Principal Quantum Number n 1, 2, 3… Main energy level (shells)
(+) integer o First principal shell – ground state (lowest energy)
Size of the orbital ∝ distance of e- from the nucleus
o Larger n = Farther e- = Larger size of atom
Angular (Azimuthal) l 0, 1, 2, 3…(n-1) Subshells – (s, p, d, f); Values of l is dependent on n
Quantum Number Determines the shape of the orbital
n l Orbital Shape
n=1 l = 0 s orbital Spherical shape
n=2 l = 1 p orbital Dumbbell shape
n=3 l = 2 d orbital Clover leaf shape
n=4 l = 3 f orbital
Magnetic Quantum Number m or ml -l to +l Determines the orientation of orbital in space
Values of ml is dependent on l;
n l mi Shape # of orientation
1 0 0 s Spherical 1
2 1 -1, 0, 1 p Dumbbell 3
3 2 -2,-1, 0, 1, 2 d Clover leaf 5
4 3 -3, -2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3 f 7
Spin Quantum Number s or ms - ½ or + ½ Determines the spin of the electron and its direction
+ ½ “spin up” ; - ½ “spin down” | Doesn’t depend on any values

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 History of Periodic Table

Antoine Lavoisier Father of Modern Chemistry | Developed the first modern list of elements (~33)
(1743-1794) Established Law of Conservation of Mass – states that matter is neither created nor destroyed….
o Mass of the products in a chemical reaction must equal the mass of the reactants
Differentiated metals vs non-metals
Metals Non-metals Other Discoveries/Contributions
Oxides Basic Acidic Discovered the role of oxygen in combustion
Property Reducing agents Oxidizing o Named oxygen as dephlogisticated air
agents Discovered carbon
Conductor ✔ x Identified hydrogen (discovered by Cavendish)
Malleable ✔ brittle o Coined hydrogen as “water former”
Metallic ✔ x Stoichiometry
State at RT Solid (except Hg) Solid, liquid, gas
Johann Dobereiner “Law of Triads” – three elements have similar properties (Li, Na, K | Ba, Ca, Sr | S, Se, Te | Cl, Br, I)
John Newlands “Law of Octaves”
Henry Mosley Elements are arranged based on atomic numbers (present)
Dmitri Mendeleev Formulated the Periodic Table of Elements (together with Julius Lothar Meyer)
Glenn Seaborg Discovered transuranium elements

Periodic Table Trends

Atomic Radius ½ difference between two nuclei ←↓

Ionization Energy Energy needed to remove outermost e - →↑
Electronegativity Ability of an element to attract electrons →↑
Electron affinity Energy when electron is added →↑

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