Metal o Genesis Guillermo Alfaro

PROGRAMA INTERNACIONAL DE Metalogénesis
PERFECCIONAMIENTO EN METALOGÉNESIS
Diapositiva 1
INTRODUCCIÓN AL MUNDO DE
LOS MINERALES
Guillermo Alfaro H.
Instituto de Geología Económica Aplicada
Universidad de Concepción
Concepción - Chile
Lima, Octubre 2008
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1
Diapositiva 2
1.- Introducción
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2
Diapositiva 3
El consumo anual “per capita” de recursos minerales metálicos y no metálicos

para Estados Unidos, es casi de 10.000 kilogramos (10 toneladas). Alrededor del
94 % de los materiales utilizados son no metálicos. (Tomado de la U.S. Bureau of Mines).

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Diapositiva 4
Crecimiento de la población mundial. Hasta el año 1800 no se alcanzó la cifra

de 1.000 millones. En el 2005, casi 7.000 millones de personas habitan el
Planeta. La demanda de recursos básicos está creciendo más deprisa que la
población. (Datos de la Population Reference Bureau).
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Diapositiva 5
Consumo de energía en Estados Unidos, 1997.

( Fuente: Departamento de Energía de Estados Unidos).
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Diapositiva 6
Yacimientos de carbón de Estados Unidos. ( Cortesía del Bureau of Mines,

Departamento de Interior de Estados Unidos).
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Diapositiva 7
Principales contaminantes primarios y sus fuentes. Los porcentajes

Se calculan en funcion del peso.
(Datos de la U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)
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Diapositiva 8
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Diapositiva 9
China: consumo de commodities
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Diapositiva 10
China y el mundo: consumo de cobre per cápita
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Diapositiva 11
Euro v/s precios del oro y del cobre
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Diapositiva 12
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Diapositiva 13
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Diapositiva 14
Coal Price Trends
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Diapositiva 15
2.- La Línea de Base Geológica
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Diapositiva 16
2.1 Estructura Interna de la Tierra
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Diapositiva 17
Información Proporcionada por:
Volcanes
Grado geotérmico
Quinismo de Rocas
Densidad
Meteoritos
Isostasia
Sismos
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Diapositiva 18
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Diapositiva 19
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Diapositiva 20
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Diapositiva 21
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Diapositiva 22
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Diapositiva 23
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Diapositiva 24
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Diapositiva 25
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Diapositiva 26
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Diapositiva 27
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Diapositiva 28
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Diapositiva 29
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Diapositiva 30
2.2 Deriva de los Continentes y

Tectónica de Placas
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Diapositiva 31
Pangea
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Diapositiva 32
Gondwana

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Diapositiva 33
Evolución del Pangea

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Diapositiva 34
Similitud Faunística
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Diapositiva 35
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Diapositiva 36
A B
Antecedentes Orogénicos
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Diapositiva 37
Antecedentes de Glaciaciones
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Diapositiva 38
La Migración de los Polos

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Diapositiva 39
Campo Magnético de la Tierra

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Diapositiva 40
Migración Polar
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Diapositiva 41
El Motor Térmico

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Diapositiva 42
La Inversión de los Polos

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Diapositiva 43
Registro de la Inversión del

Campo Magnético
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Diapositiva 44
Cambio de Polaridad en el Fondo Oceánico

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Diapositiva 45
Períodos de Magnetismo

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Diapositiva 46
Placas Tectónicas
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Diapositiva 47
Fenómenos Asociados a Placas
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Diapositiva 48
Borde de Placas
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Diapositiva 49
Borde de Placas
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Diapositiva 50
La Dorsal Meso Oceánica
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Diapositiva 51
El Rift Africano

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Diapositiva 52
Subducción de Placas
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Diapositiva 53
Morfología Relevante en el Pacífico

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Diapositiva 54
Morfología Relevante en el Atlántico

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Diapositiva 55
Cinturón de Fuego y Sísmico
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Diapositiva 56
Acreción en Arco Volcánico

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Diapositiva 57
Explorando el Fondo Oceánico

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Diapositiva 58
Hot Spot

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Diapositiva 59
Estructura General de la Tierra

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Diapositiva 60
2.3 Los Procesos de Formación de

Minerales y Rocas
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Diapositiva 61
Series de Reacción de Bowen

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Diapositiva 62
Cristalización del Magma

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Diapositiva 63
Procesos Magnaticos Profundos

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Diapositiva 64
Fundamentos de la Clasificación de las Rocas

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Diapositiva 65
Relación entre un cuerpo Ígneo y los Yacimientos

Hidrotermales y de Pegmatita Asociados
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Diapositiva 66
Pueden producirse depósitos de sulfuros masivos como consecuencia de la circulación del agua
de mar a través de la corteza oceánica a lo largo de centros de expansión activos. A medida que
el agua del mar se infiltra en la corteza basáltica caliente, lixivia azufre, hierro, cobre y otros metales.
El fluido enriquecido y caliente vuelve al fondo del mar cerca del eje dorsal a lo largo de las fallas y las
fracturas. Algunos sulfuros metálicos pueden precipitar en esos canales a medida que el fluido ascendente
empieza a enfriarse. Cuando el liquido caliente emerge del fondo del océano y se mezcla con el agua
del mar fría, los sulfuros precipitan para formar depósitos masivos

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Diapositiva 67
La Dorsal Meso Oceánica

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Diapositiva 68
Fusión del Manto

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Diapositiva 69
Ocurrencia de los Minerales Metálicos

Metal Menas Principales Aparición geológica
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Diapositiva 70
Cluster Chuquicamata

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Diapositiva 71
2.4 Los Procesos Volcánicos
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Diapositiva 72
Monte Helena ( USA )
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Diapositiva 73
A B
Tipos de Lavas

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Diapositiva 74
Proceso Volcánico “Tranquilo”

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Diapositiva 75
Al Interior de un Volcán

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Diapositiva 76

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Diapositiva 77

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Diapositiva 78
Formación de una Caldera

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Diapositiva 79
Estructura de Lava Pahoehoe

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Diapositiva 80
Emplazamiento de Rocas Ígneas

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Diapositiva 81
Ascenso de Domos

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Diapositiva 82
Cinturones Volcánicos
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Diapositiva 83
Situaciones Especiales de Volcanismo

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Diapositiva 84
Situación Espacial del Volcanismo en Oregón (USA)

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Diapositiva 85
Investigación del Fondo Marino

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Diapositiva 86
Perfil en el Océano Atlántico

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Diapositiva 87
Margen Continental
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Diapositiva 88
Zona de Acreción
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Diapositiva 89
Fenómenos en el Talud Continental

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Diapositiva 90
Morfología Relevante en los Fondos Oceánicos
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Diapositiva 91
Islas Oceánicas
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Diapositiva 92
Edad de los Fondos Marinos

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Diapositiva 93
¿Actualismo?

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Diapositiva 94
3.- Provincia Metalogénica y Provincia

Geoquímica
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Diapositiva 95
3.1 Conceptos Fundamentales

Plinio el viejo (23-79 ac)
“… ubicumque una inventa vena est, non procul invenitur alia”
Agricola (1546): importancia del agua en la formacion de menas
Rössler (1700): vetas asociadas a fallas abiertas
Zimermann (1746): las minas se forman por percolación de fluidos

en rocas fracturadas
Von Cotta (1859): donde ocurre una mena se pueden encontrar otras
similares, en condiciones análogas. los depósitos minerales tienden
a ocurrir en forma gregaria, (si quiere cazar elefantes…….!!!)
Routhier (1967): el concepto de superposición temporal
Schuiling (1967): una provincia metalogenica refleja una anomalía

geoquimica
Laffitte (1965): el termino “metalotecto”
Brimhall and Crerar (1987): concepto físico químico de la formación

de menas interacción fluido/fluido; fluido/roca y fluido/ soluto
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Diapositiva 96
3.2 El Ejemplo del Estaño
Humboldt (1823):
“Granito de Estaño” v/s “Granito Normal”
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Diapositiva 97
Distribución Espacial
y Temporal del Sn
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Diapositiva 98
Las Mayores Provincias de Estaño

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Diapositiva 99
Edad de los depósitos de Estaño

y evolución de la corteza
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Diapositiva 100
Edad de los depósitos de Estaño

en Cratones y Márgenes Activos
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Diapositiva 101
Contenido Medio de Algunos Elementos en

las Grandes Unidades de la Tierra
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Diapositiva 102
Fraccionamiento de Algunos Elementos

en la Historia de la Tierra
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Diapositiva 103
4.- La Línea de Base Ambiental en la

Exploración Minera
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Diapositiva 104
4.1 Criterios Generales
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Diapositiva 105
CRITERIOS GENERALES
¾ Asegurar que se dispone de todos los permisos requeridos.
¾ Cumplir con lo establecido en el reglamento sobre el sistema de Impacto Ambiental
¾ Cumplir con lo establecido sobre Monumentos Nacionales, ruinas, yacimientos, piezas

de carácter histórico, paleontológico, arqueológico y antropológico
¾ Minimizar la alteración de terrenos vegetales
¾ Evitar desarrollar actividades de exploración cerca de cursos de agua
¾ Evitar el uso de materiales tóxicos y no-biodegradables
¾ Evitar la tala de árboles y roce de la vegetación existente
¾ Tomar contacto con la comunidad del entorno de área de trabajo
¾ Mantener una buena relación con la comunidad para disminuir el riesgo de futuros
conflictos.
¾ Incorporar en los contactos con empresas de servicio, exigencias ambientales.
¾ Llevar un registro fotográfico del lugar a explorar
¾ Asegurar el uso de equipos de seguridad
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Diapositiva 106
CAMINOS Y HUELLAS
Prácticas Generales
¾ Planificar y diseñar el trazado en forma previa, minimizando la longitud y el ancho.

¾ Privilegiar el uso de red vial existente.
¾ En caso de construcción de camino, comunicar en forma
anticipada a la comunidad local.
Prácticas Especificas
¾ Evitar el cruce de cursos de agua, de bofedales y vegas, y áreas con vegetación

rabórea.
¾ Minimizar el ancho de los caminos y huellas.
¾ Reducir la remoción de la cubierta vegetal.
¾ Acumular en un área apropiada el material de escape de la cubierta vegetal.
¾ Supervisar, durante la construcción de caminos que se cumpla el diseño planificado.
¾ En áreas de proliferación de huellas, demarcar con elementos del terreno (rocas).
¾ Construir obras de arte de carácter temporal (badenes o puentes).
¾ Según las características climáticas de la región implementar
sistemas de drenaje superficial.
Prácticas para el Abandono
¾ Para caminos o huellas internos, señalizar su carácter de

“abandonado”.
¾ Para caminos que conectan localidades remotas, comunicar
b d l t id d

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Diapositiva 107
TRANSPORTE Y MOVIMIENTO DE VEHÍCULOS
¾ Establecer como norma circulación sólo por caminos

autorizados.
¾ Establecer un sistema de señalización adecuado.
¾ Informar internamente a empleados y contratistas acerca del uso y normativa.
Prácticas Específicas
¾ Evitar generar nuevas rutas o desvíos.

¾ No votar desperdicios en los caminos.
¾ Utilizar bolsas en los vehículos para guardar y mantener los reciduos.
¾ Utilizar señalizaciones y limites de velocidad para reducir la emisión de material
particulado.
¾ Realizar el transporte de sustancias peligrosas en vehículos apropiados.
¾ Asegurar que vehículos propios y de contratistas cumplan
con todas las normativas aplicables.
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Diapositiva 108
RECONOCIMIENTO GEOFÍSICO
¾ Incluir en las bases de licitación exigencias ambientales.

¾ Privilegiar empresas contratistas que tengan experiencia.
¾ Planificar el trazado de líneas y perfiles evitando la tala o roce de
especies rabóreas mayores.
¾ Negociar la autorización y/o aprobación de los propietarios del terreno.
¾ Para la obtención de puntos de coordenadas, privilegiar el GPS.

¾ Para la marcación de puntos, evitar el uso de pinturas que afecten la capa de ozono.
¾ Usar material biodegradable.
¾ Evitar afectar sitios de interés arqueológico o histórico.
¾ Previo a las menciones, revisar el área de trabajo para evitar que personas o animales
puedan verse afectados.
¾ Dejar el área libre de desechos y señales ( retiro de marcas,

cintas, papel aluminio etc.).
¾ En caso de excavaciones menores, rehabilitarlas.
¾ Supervisar y obtener el V°B° de la jefatura del proyecto del
término de la actividad.

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Diapositiva 109
POZOS DE MUESTREO GEOQUIMICO
¾ Minimizar dimensionamiento en longitud, ancho y profundidad

de los pozos.
¾ Privilegiar la marcación de puntos con GPS, con estacas de madera o con material
biodegradable.
¾ Acumular, junto a la excavación, el suelo removido.
¾ Evitar puntos de muestreo en zonas con vegetales de interés.
¾ Evitar puntos de muestreo en zonas de interés arqueológico.
¾ No botar desechos en el área de muestreo.
¾ Rellenar la excavación con el material extraído.

¾ Recolectar y retirar del área los desechos de muestreo
y de marcación.
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Diapositiva 110
CHIPS - CANALETAS
¾ Para la marcación de muestras, privilegiar el uso de marcadores

(plumones) por sobre spray, en caso del uso de pinturas spray,
verificar que incluyan sello ozono.
¾ Minimizar marcación de muestras.

¾ Capacitar al personal (muestreo) para la toma segura de muestras.
¾ Evitar inestabilidades en rocas que puedan ocasionar desplazamientos.
¾ Usar cubierta protectora (plástico, malla rachel)
¾ Dejar el área limpia de desechos.

¾ Redistribuir el material excedente del muestreo.
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Diapositiva 111
ZANJAS / TRINCHERAS
¾ Planificar la excavación de manera que aporte el máximo de

información con el menor disturbio posible.
¾ Acopiar el material extraído.

¾ Marcar las muestras evitando el uso de pinturas que dañen la capa de ozono.
¾ Definir la obra en sectores de menor remoción de cobertura vegetal.
¾ Excluir la realización de actividades en zonas de interés arqueológico y/o histórico.
¾ No interceptar cursos de agua superficial.
¾ Cerrar perimetralmente durante la operación.
¾ Rellenar las excavaciones con el material extraido.

¾ Retirar todo el material de desecho generado.
¾ Favorecer formas de revegetación natural.
¾ Supervisar y obtener el V°B° de la jefatura del proyecto
previo al abandono del área
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Diapositiva 112
CATAS O POZOS
¾ Planificar la excavación.
¾ Dimensionar las excavaciones para afectar lo mínimo posible el terreno.

¾ Acopiar la cubierta del suelo vegetal.
¾ Acopiar el material extraído.
¾ Excluir zonas de vegetación de interés para la fauna.
¾ Excluir zonas de interés arqueológico.
¾ Rellenar las excavaciones.

¾ Reponer la capa de suelo vegetal.
¾ Recolectar todo el material y desechos excedentes
del muestreo.
¾ Supervisar y obtener el V°B° de la jefatura del
proyecto en forma previa al abandono del área.
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Diapositiva 113
SONDAJE Y PLATAFORMAS
¾ Planificar previamente la ubicación del sondaje.
¾ Privilegiar a empresas contratistas que tengan
experiencia y normas ambientales internas.
¾ Concentrar las unidades operativas de manera de minimizar
la superficie de la plataforma.
¾ Remover la capa de suelo vegetal y acopiarla.
¾ Acopiar en torno a la periferia de la plataforma el materia extraido.
¾ En caso que los cuttings contengan altas cantidades de sulfuros y/o metales
tóxicos, depositarlos en un lugar apropiado.
¾ Utilizar fuentes autorizadas de abastecimiento de agua.
¾ Favorecer las prácticas de recuperación de agua de perforación.
¾ Instalar basureros.
¾ Utilizar carpetas impermeables bajo la sonda.
¾ Definir el área de acopio de muestras y rechazos.
¾ Favorecer el uso de aditivos biodegradables.
¾ Sellar las perforaciones de sondaje.
Prácticas para el Abandono del área de perforación

¾ Esparcir, previa mezcla con material de la superficie, las
muestras de cutting.
¾ En zonas de vegetación mezclar los cuttings con el suelo.
¾ Dejar el área libre de desechos.
¾ Remover los suelos contaminados con aceite.
¾ Obtener el V°B° de la jefatura del proyecto para aprobar
término de la actividad.
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Diapositiva 114
MANEJO DE MUESTRAS Y RECHAZOS

( AREAS DE ACOPIO )
¾ Planificar y diseñar el área de acopio considerando la

topografía, calidad de los suelos, red de drenaje para la
población ( si existiera ), las aguas, vegetación y fauna existente.
¾ Definir el área de acopio en superficies horizontales, con escasa a nula vegetación

y alejada de cursos.
¾ Habilitar zanjas de muestreo para la disposición de las muestras.
¾ No interferir zonas de interés arqueológico, paleontológico o histórico.
¾ Retirar bolsas plásticas y otros desechos del muestreo.

¾ Utilizar depresiones naturales o trincheras y zanjas
de muestreo para disposición final del material.
¾ Remover el material y perfilar mediante maquinaria
la superficie para armonizar con la topografía original.
¾ Favorecer la revegetación natural mediante la
descompactación mecánica o manual de suelos.
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Diapositiva 115
LABORES SUBTERRANEAS
DE EXPLORACION
¾ Privilegiar empresas contratistas que tengan experiencia

y normas ambientales internas.
¾ Planificar las labores de manera de optimizar la obtención
de información.
¾ Contar con los permisos de manipulación de explosivos,
proyecto de botadero entre otros.
¾ Considerar aspectos geotécnicos del trazado

¾ Definir áreas para acopio del material estéril ( botaderos ) sin riesgo para las aguas
superficiales.
¾ Determinar la mineralogía de los desmontes a fin de evitar un potencial de generación
de aguas ácidas.
¾ Evitar la salida de aguas minas al sistema de drenaje
superficial, sin previo análisis de su calidad.
¾ Sellar el portal de entrada de la labor subterránea.

¾ Utilizar señales de advertencia de labores abandonadas.
¾ Cerrar el acceso a las labores subterráneas
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Diapositiva 116
4.2 Infraestructura de Apoyo
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Diapositiva 117
CAMPAMENTO MOVIL
¾ Ubicar la (s) carpa (s) alejada (s) de cursos de

aguas, zonas de interés arqueológico, zonas de fauna local.
¾ Minimizar la superficie de instalación.

¾ Prohibir el uso de especies arbóreas y de vegetación nativa para combustión.
¾ Acopiar los desechos en bolsas cerradas lejos del alcance de animales.
¾ Dependiendo de la duración de la estadía, definir rutas de tránsito.
¾ Evitar hostigar a la fauna silvestre.
¾ Utilizar productos biodegradables para el aseo y limpieza.
¾ Utilizar baños químicos.
¾ Dejar el área de instalación libre de desechos.

¾ Obtener la aprobación del jefe de proyecto del termino
de la actividad y dar el V°B° final.
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Diapositiva 118
CAMPAMENTO SEMIPERMANENTE
¾ En lugares cercanos a centros poblados privilegiar hoteles.

¾ Privilegiar el uso de la infraestructura local para el
abastecimiento.
¾ Evitar su localización en lugares próximos a corriente de agua, vegas y bofedales.

¾ Utilizar pilotes removibles y estructuras desmontables.
¾ Privilegiar el uso de fuentes autorizadas para el abastecimiento de agua.
¾ Disponer los desechos domésticos en botaderos autorizados.
¾ Evitar hostigar a la fauna silvestre.
¾ Utilizar productos biodegradables.
¾ Definir rutas de tránsito para personas y vehículos.
¾ Dejar el sitio de la instalación libre de desechos y en

condiciones similares a las originales.
¾ Remover las estructuras y toda instalación de apoyo.
¾ Obtener la autorización de la jefatura del proyecto para
aprobar término de la actividad y dar el V°B° final.

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Diapositiva 119
BAÑOS QUIMICOS / FOSAS SÉPTICAS
¾ Construir las instalaciones sanitarias según especificaciones

técnicas autorizadas.
¾ Para una estadía breve, preferir el uso de baños químicos.
¾ Para la construcción de fosos sépticos evitar la cercanía a fuentes de aguas

superficiales y/o subterráneas.
¾ No descargar las aguas servidas en forma directa sobre la superficie.
¾ Dar un uso exclusivo a las fosas sépticas, y no descargar otros residuos.
¾ No botar desechos sanitarios fuera del lugar y mantener un riguroso aseo de la
instalación sanitaria.
¾ Retirar todas las obras de construcción ( baños químicos, casetas, ductos ).

¾ Rellenar las fosas con material estéril ( gravas, bolones )
hasta la superficie del suelo.
¾ En caso de existir cubierta vegetal, potenciar formas de
recuperación de la vegetación.
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Diapositiva 120
MANEJO Y DISPOSICION DE RESIDUOS DOMESTICOS

E INDUSTRIAL PELIGROSO
¾ Dependiendo de la cercanía a centros poblados y de la permanencia de la actividad,

privilegiar el uso de lo existente.
¾ Determinar áreas para el almacenamiento ordenado de residuos industriales no
peligrosos.
¾ Dotar de recipientes con una adecuada capacidad.

¾ Seleccionar un sector alejado del área habitacional, libre de riesgos de contaminación.
¾ Separar y acopiar el suelo vegetal.
¾ Almacenar lateralmente el material de la excavación para ser utilizado como cubierta
de los desechos.
¾ Recubrir los desechos orgánicos con material estéril de la excavación.
¾ Rellenar las excavaciones con material estéril ( mínimo 50 cm. )

hasta la superficie natural del terreno.
¾ Recubrir el área con suelo vegetal para favorecer la vegetación.
¾ Supervisar y obtener el V°B° de la jefatura del proyecto del área
abandonada.

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Diapositiva 121
MANEJO Y DISPOSICION DE RESIDUOS

INDUSTRIALES PELIGROSOS
¾ Almacenar de manera temporal, ordenada y segura los residuos

industriales peligrosos.
¾ Seleccionar un sector alejado del área habitacional para construir plataformas

impermeabilizadas .
¾ Disponer de tambores para el almacenamiento de aceites usados sobre cubierta
impermeable y evitar contaminación a los suelos.
¾ Prohibir la reutilización de lubricante y aceites usados como “matapolvo” en caminos.
¾ Retirar las plataformas impermeabilizadas junto a la membrana

y la arena.
¾ Retirar tambores con aceites usados y baterías.
¾ Retirar neumáticos.
¾ Remover los suelos contaminados con aceites.
¾ Supervisar y obtener el V°B° de la jefatura del proyecto
del área abandonada

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Diapositiva 122
INSUMOS: AGUA
¾ Favorecer el uso de la infraestructura local para la provisión de agua.

¾ Favorecer el uso de agua envasada para consumo humano por sobre
la acumulación en estanques.
¾ Mantener un control regular de la calidad físico-química del agua para consumo.

¾ En caso de usos de estanques, utilizar estanques señalizados para identificar
usos y ubicación.
¾ Utilizar válvulas para interrupción de suministro a fin de evitar pérdidas de agua.
¾ Evitar vaciar en forma directa aguas usadas a cursos naturales.
¾ Para aguas de descarte, favorecer la infiltración por sobre el escurrimiento superficial.
¾ Retirar estanques y redes de distribución.

¾ Potenciar formas de recuperación de la vegetación en las áreas
perturbadas.
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Diapositiva 123
INSUMOS: ENERGIA ELECTRICA
¾ Ubicar los generadores alejados del área habitable y en sitios expresamente definidos
para este fin.
¾ Instalar el grupo generador en un sitio protegido.

¾ Ubicar la instalación considerando la dirección de vientos preferenciales para que no
afecten el área.
¾ Incentivar formas de ahorro de energía.
¾ Evitar conexiones informales a red eléctrica local.
¾ Evitar la sobrecarga del sistema, incluir en el sitio extintores contra incendios.
¾ Demarcar y colocar letreros en el área del generador.
¾ Considerar sistemas de amortiguación de ruido en equipos e instalaciones.
¾ Retirar la instalación y redes de distribución de energía.

¾ Potenciar formas de recuperación de la vegetación en áreas
perturbadas.
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Diapositiva 124
INSUMOS: COMBUSTIBLES
¾ Favorecer el uso de la infraestructura local para el abastecimiento de combustibles.
¾ Definir y preparar un área señalizada y habilitada para la disposición de estanques,

tambores.
¾ Ubicar alejado de las instalaciones y con acceso restringido.
¾ Utilizar una cubierta impermeable para la disposición de tambores y evitar derrames.
¾ Retirar las estructuras y bases impermeables del sitio para la disposición de tambores.
¾ Potenciar formas de recuperación de la vegetación en las áreas perturbadas.
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Diapositiva 125
5.- Los Minerales en la Trama Humana
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Diapositiva 126
5.1 Historia
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Diapositiva 127
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Diapositiva 128
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Diapositiva 129
ASPECTOS HISTÓRICOS
Importante: La relación Exploración - Minería
El comercio y las rutas dependieron de los minerales.

“La trama geológica de la historia humana”
Las rutas de la sal en Europa
Au, Ag, Cu. Conocidos por lo menos 4500 AC.
El Fe y el Cu, en la evolución de las civilizaciones
Chipre: Cu, Cr, CaCO3, SiO2, MnOx, asbestos
Los Tartesios en Iberia: Cu – Sn
Los Etruscos: Metalurgia
El oro de los Celtas ( .. Y el Fe y el Cu!!!!)
Grecia pagó su flota para vencer a los Persas con Au de Laurium
La ruta del Sn Cornualles
El viaje del Date Toranomon ( Sendai ) a México y Europa : Metalurgia
Exploración de Au y Kuroko: Tokugawa ca. 1590
Las escuelas mineras en América: México y Perú
El Erzgebirge ( Sajonia – Bohemia ) ( siglo 16 )
G. Agrícola: DE RE METALLICA ( 1556 )
Los Plutonistas y Netpunistas
Werner: Freiberg: Kupferschiefer
Hutton: Inglaterra

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129
Diapositiva 130
5.2 La Exploración:
“Sangre” de La Minería
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Diapositiva 131
GENERALIDADES
1.- CARACTERISTICAS DE LOS PROYECTOS MINEROS
Largo periodo de gestación.

Estudios multidisciplinarios.
Los minerales no son renovables.
El proyecto minero es de capital intensivo.
Alto riesgo.
Estudios de factibilidad de etapas.
Los minerales en la trama humana.
2.- LA INVERSION EN PROSPECCION Y EXPLORACION
Recursos
Reservas
¿ Dónde explorar ?
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Diapositiva 132
3.- EL IMPACTO AMBIENTAL.

4.- EL FINANCIAMIENTO DE LOS PROYECTOS MINEROS.
4a.- SEGUIMIENTO DE LOS PROYECTOS MINEROS.
5.- TENDENCIAS MUNDIALES ACTUALES DE LOS MINERALES:
Tierras Raras y cerámicos

Cu y Al
6.- EXPECTATIVAS DE INVERSIÓN MINERA EN LATINOAMÉRICA:

Análisis por país
7.- LOS MINERALES NO-METÁLICOS Y DE USO INDUSTRIAL:

Impacto regional
8.- LOS RECURSOS ENERGÉTICOS: PROYECCIÓN FUTURA:
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Diapositiva 133
Situación de la Exploración Minera

¿ Que Pasó ?
(1999)
¾ ¿ Continuará la depresión ?
¾ ¿Estamos en el alero de nuestra profesión ?
¾ ¿ Hay alguna esperanza para nosotros y para nuestra profesión ?
¾ ¿ Es éste un ciclo más de altibajos ? NO!
CAUSAS
1.- Nuestras sociedades han cambiado de industrial a servicio
e información.
2.- Razón de demanda de minerales o metales ha declinado.
3.- Actitud pública y política gubernamental hacia los recursos
industriales o metales ha declinado.
4.- Comportamiento industria minera: se tiende a dividendos altos
y rápidos ( efecto lotería ).
5.- El efecto Chino:
Aumento Fletes.
Aumento demanda commodities.
Efecto de la Energía en el Conosur de América.
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Diapositiva 134
Cambio Relativo de los Recursos

Minerales ( M mt )
A B C
1970 Global Reserves 1970 – 96 Cumulative B/A ( % ) 1997 Global Reserves C/A ( % )
( Club of Rome ) Mine production ( USGS )
( WBMS/ABMS )
Cooper 279.000 226.000 81% 310.000 111%
Zinc 112.000 178.000 159% 140.000 125%
Tin 4.300 5.800 132% 7.000 159%
Silver 0.171 0.326 191% 0.280 164%
Gold 0.011 0.043 391% 0.046 418%
Paradoja:
“ Mientras más se Explota más Recursos se encuentran”

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134
Diapositiva 135
Introducción a la Exploración Minera

( Resumido y modificado de J. David Lowell, 1987 )
¾ La Exploración Minera es una actividad fundamentalmente

económica.
¾ La principal consideración es la razón Costo/Beneficio, entre los

gastos para completar el programa de exploración y el valor de los
depósitos desarrollados con el programa.
¾ La estrategia del programa de exploración parte de las siguientes

preguntas:
¿ Quien ?
¿ Que ?
¿ Donde ?
¿ Porque ?
¿ Como ?
….. Un programa de exploración exitoso es llevado adelante

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Diapositiva 136
Most Common Commodities Being Explored for

or Mined: Numbers of Companies Recorded as Exploring
or Mining Commodity
Ag 1600
Au 700
Cu 600
Element
Zn 400
Diamonds 300
Ni 150
Co 100
Pt 50
Base metals 40
Precious metals 10
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Companies

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136
Diapositiva 137
Metros de Sondajes Realizados en Chile

Periodo
1975 - 1996
1000000
900000
800000
700000
?
600000
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
años 1975 1996
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Diapositiva 138
La Posición Competitiva de Chile

Respecto Impuestos
Lugar N de depósitos económicos
después de impuesto
ANTES DE IMPUESTO ( total ) 57

CHILE 49
AUSTRALIA
- Queensland 37
- Australia Sur 40
- Australia Occidental 38
CANADA
- Columbia Británica 43
- Territorio del NW 48
- Ontario 46
BIBLIOGRAFIA:
- Luis Henríquez y B. Mackenzie. “Análisis económico de la Exploración Minera con referencia a

Chile y Canadá”. “ MINERALES”, IIMCh. Julio- Sept. 1981
- Luis Henríquez, Características de la exploración minera en Chile. III Cong. Chileno de Geología.
1982, p. E291-E297
- Revisar publicaciones sobre el tema del SERNAGEOMIN
TAREA: El impacto del “ ROYALTY ”
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Diapositiva 139
COROLARIO
Como en una cacería, el cazador ( geólogo ) debe conocer

como es y se comporta el animal ( depósito ) que será cazado
( explorado ) y donde es más probable que se le encuentre.
El mayor uso del modelo de los depósitos es su interpretación
rígida por parte de geólogos sin experiencia, que usan los
modelos no como guías de exploración flexibles, sino, como un
listado cuyos parámetros deben ser hallados completamente.
Hill Boberg en “ MINERAL DEPOSIT MODELS, THEIR USE AND

MISUSE , A FORUM REVIEW, SOC. ECONOMIC
GEOLOGISTS, 1993.
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Diapositiva 140
Ideas para la Exploración ( Muessing, 2002 )
¾ La exploración no es una ciencia ( el modelo empírico es más útil

que el genético ).
¾ Vaya con los hechos, olvide la teoría.
¾ Intente la prueba definitiva.
¾ Aléjese de áreas vírgenes ( sin minas o prospectos )
¾ Mire por MENA, no por mineralización.
¾ Para encontrar yacimientos tiene que perforar sondajes con Mena.
¾ Mejore el blanco o déjelo.
¾ No logre anomalías espurias.
¾ No se preocupe de los trazadores. ( Pathfinders )
¾ No se preocupe de conceptos estereotípicos.
¾ No sea “ TECNO DEPENDIENTE ”.
¾ Logre primero, estudie después.
¾ Deseche las acciones previas de su competidor.
¾ “ AGARRE LA YUGULAR ”
“ IQ GETS YOU THERE, BUT NQ FINDS IT ”

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Diapositiva 141
5.3 Situación Actual
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Diapositiva 142
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142
Diapositiva 143
Source: TSX Venture Monthly Exchange Summary
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Diapositiva 144
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Diapositiva 145
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Diapositiva 146
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Diapositiva 147
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Diapositiva 148
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Diapositiva 149
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149
Diapositiva 150
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Diapositiva 151
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Diapositiva 152
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152
Diapositiva 153
6.- Probabilidad de Ocurrencia de un

Mineral
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Diapositiva 154
1.- Probabilidad de Ocurrencia de un Mineral
1.1.- Introducción
1.2.- Frecuencia de ocurrencia de un mineral
1.3.- Aplicación en exploración
- Probabilidad de 1 hallazgo en un año cualesquier
2.- Evaluación del Riesgo de Exploración
2.1.- Introducción
2.2.- Valor monetario esperado ( EMV ) ( Expected Money Value )
2.3.- Exploración y Ley de la Ruina en el Juego
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Diapositiva 155
I.- Probabilidad de Ocurrencia de un Mineral

1.1.- Introducción
• Dependiendo de la tecnología e incentivo económico, el

hallazgo de 1 yacimiento representa 1 éxito frente a docenas
de fracasos
• La ocurrencia de un mineral determinado puede cuantificarse

por:
- Número ocurrencias por región

- Extensión de las ocurrencias
- Calidad de ocurrencias ( leyes, tamaño, etc. )
• Las ocurrencias pueden definirse estadísticamente por la
frecuencia con que ellas ocurren, ó por:
- Tendencia histórica de los hallazgos x año, x región

- Criterios subjetivos
- Simulación de datos

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Diapositiva 156
1.2.- Frecuencia de Ocurrencia
Se mide sobre observaciones particulares
• limita este criterio por ser un número finito

•Si el número de observaciones crece indefinidamente podemos
hablar de: “ Probabilidad de Ocurrencia ”
Ejemplo:
Nº de Yac. de Cu
Frecuencia de Ocurrencia (F)=
Nº Total de Yacimientos
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Diapositiva 157
Zona Nº de Minas Nº Cu Frec. Cu
1 1 1 1,0
2 5 4 0,8
3 10 8 0,8
4 40 32 0,8
5 50 43 0,86
6 60 52 0,86
7 100 85 0,85
Frecuencia para Cu entre 0,80 y 1,0
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Diapositiva 158
1.3. Aplicación en Exploración
• Probabilidad de 1 hallazgo en un año cualquiera
Nº hallazgos x año
P=
Nº de campañas (emprendimientos) x año
• Analogía con “Cara” y “Sello”
Cara = Fracaso
Por ejemplo:
Sello = Éxito !!!
• En un lanzamiento (moneda)
- Probabilidad de “Cara” (fracaso) = 0.50

- Probabilidad de “Sello” (éxito) = 0.50
Probabilidad = 1.0

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Diapositiva 159
• Se pueden asumir situaciones coordínadas
2 campañas de exploración = 2 lanzamientos de la moneda
- Probabilidad 2 éxitos consecutivos (2 sellos) ½ x ½

- Probabilidad 2 fracasos consecutivos (2caras ½ x ½
- Probabilidad 1 éxito + 1 fracaso ½ x ½
- Probabilidad 1 fracaso + 1 éxito ½ x ½
Probabilidad Total 1
El análisis para exploración o campañas de exploración pueden

extrapolarse a “N” exploraciones.
n
- Probabilidad de éxito = (½)
n
- Probabilidad de fracaso = (½)
Probabilidad Total = 1
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Diapositiva 160
- Si probabilidad de No tener éxito 0.5 ( ½ ), por ejemplo “q” (fracaso),

y se hacen “N” campañas de exploración, la probabilidad de tener “ningún
Éxito” (fracaso) es:
Fracaso = (q)n
-Si se considera al menos 1 éxito, la probabilidad de tener al menos 1

exploración exitosa, con “N” intentos (exploraciones)
P = 1 - (q)n
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Diapositiva 161
Ejemplo:
- En 1 año se gastan US $ 60 M en campañas
- Promedio x campaña x año = US$ 120.000
- Nº de campañas exitosas x año = 5
Total de campañas = 60.000.000 = 500

120.000
5
Probabilidad de éxito = 500 = 0,01
Probabilidad de fracaso (q) = 1 - 0,01 = 0,99
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Diapositiva 162
Si se hacen 20 nuevos intentos (N=20) la probabilidad que estos

intentos sean un fracaso será:
20
Y la probabilidad de tener al menos(una
0,99campaña
) con éxito será:
p = ( 1 – 0,9920 )
Aplicación:
Para justificar una explotación regional la probabilidad esperada para
la identificación de al menos 1 depósito se establece en 0,25 (p= 0,25)
Pregunta: ¿Cuántos intentos se requieren?
0,25 = 1 – (0,99)N
N= ≈ 28,6 ≈ 29 intentos
log 0,75
Si una campaña requiere US$ 120.000
log 0,99
29 intentos requerirán US$ 3,4 M
Con base a estas expectativas se puede establecer un presupuesto de

exploración.
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Diapositiva 163
2 .- Evaluación del Riesgo de Exploración
2.1. Introducción
-Petróleo: menos riesgo que exploración de metálicos
Éxito de 1 pozo de exploración (wildcat) = 27%
Canadá : 1 depósito x 45.000 Km

Línea volada ( magnetometría )
¡ ojo ! : Nivel de saturación del método
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Diapositiva 164
2.2. Valor Monetario Esperado (E.M.V.)

( Expected Money Value )
• Este método compara el premio monetario ( utilidad ) ponderado x

probabilidad de éxito con el gasto de capital de riesgo ponderado x
probabilidad de fracaso
q = 1 – p
Si:
fracaso éxito
B = Utilidad o premio = ganancia

Ri = Capital de riesgo
E.M.V. = B * p - Ri ( 1 –p )
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Diapositiva 165
Ejemplo:
Una cuenca con yacimientos estrato ligados de Ag permite suponer

que con 50% de probabilidades se puede generar US$ 200 M.
- La probabilidad de éxito de un sondaje es 27%

(con base a estadística de la región)
- Se calcula que sondajes + geofísica constarán = US$ 7 M
Se consideran 2 probabilidades de éxito:
a) p1 = 50% de probabilidades de ganar US$ 200 M

b) p2 = 27% de probabilidad de éxito de sondajes
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Diapositiva 166
E.M.V. = B * p1 * p2 - Ri ( 1 – p2 )
= ( 200 * 0.5 * 0,27 ) – ( 7 * 0.73 )
27 5,11
= 27 – 5,11 US$ 21,89
Si EMV > 1, se justifica campaña de exploración
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Diapositiva 167
2.3. Calculando el éxito de exploración con la ley de la ruina en

en el juego:
-
Pe = 1 – e Ps . n
Pe = Probabilidad de éxito
Ps = Probabilidad de éxito en 1 intento
N = Número de proyectos de exploración
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Diapositiva 168
Ejemplo:
- Exploración magnética en Canadá

- Datos: 1 éxito * 45.000 Km/linea
- Los blancos están entre 100 y 500 Km
- Lineas de vuelo cada 200 m
(en 1 Km hay 5 lineas)
1 Km
400 Km
5 lineas x 400 Km = 2.000 Km
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Diapositiva 169
Ps = 2.000 = 0,044
45.000
Si se hacen 23 intentos (n = 23)

- Ps . n
Pe = 1 – e
- o.o44 * 23
Pe = 1 – e = 0,64
Probabilidad de éxito = 0,64
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Diapositiva 170
7.- ¿ El Pasado es la Llave del Presente ?
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Diapositiva 171
7.1 Situaciones Especiales
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Diapositiva 172
Sedimentos Metaliferos en el Mar Rojo

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Diapositiva 173
Mineralización en Dorsal Oceánico
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Diapositiva 174
7.2 Las Costras de Ferromanganeso

Ricas en Co en el Pacifico
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Diapositiva 175
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Diapositiva 176
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Diapositiva 177
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Diapositiva 178
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Diapositiva 179
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Diapositiva 180
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Diapositiva 181
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Diapositiva 182
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Diapositiva 183
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Diapositiva 184
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Diapositiva 185
Valor de una Tonelada de Corteza Rica

en Cobalto

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Diapositiva 186
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Diapositiva 187
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Diapositiva 188
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Diapositiva 189
7.3 Sulfuros Masivos Polimetálicos
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Diapositiva 190
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Diapositiva 191
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Diapositiva 192
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Diapositiva 193
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Diapositiva 194
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Diapositiva 195
7.4 Mineralización Hidrotermal

del Mar Rojo
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Diapositiva 196
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Diapositiva 197
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Diapositiva 198
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Diapositiva 199
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Diapositiva 200
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Diapositiva 201
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Diapositiva 202
8.- Problemática Ambiental Actual
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Diapositiva 203
8.1 Cambio Climático
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Diapositiva 204
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Diapositiva 205
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Diapositiva 206
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Diapositiva 207
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Diapositiva 208
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Diapositiva 209
8.2 Ciclos de Milankovic
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Diapositiva 210
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Diapositiva 211
Orbital shape (Eccentricity)
Circular orbit, no eccentricity.
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Diapositiva 212
Orbital shape (Eccentricity)
Orbit with 0.5 eccentricity.
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Diapositiva 213
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Diapositiva 214
Axial tilt (Obliquity)
22.1-24.5 range of Earth's obliquity.
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Diapositiva 215
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Diapositiva 216
Precession (Wobble)
Precessional movement.
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Diapositiva 217
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Diapositiva 218
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PROGRAMA INTERNACIONAL DE Metalogénesis

Lima, Octubre 2008

El consumo anual “per capita” de recursos minerales metálicos y no metálicos

Crecimiento de la población mundial. Hasta el año 1800 no se alcanzó la cifra

Consumo de energía en Estados Unidos, 1997.

Yacimientos de carbón de Estados Unidos. ( Cortesía del Bureau of Mines,

Principales contaminantes primarios y sus fuentes. Los porcentajes

China: consumo de commodities

China y el mundo: consumo de cobre per cápita

Euro v/s precios del oro y del cobre

Coal Price Trends

2.- La Línea de Base Geológica

2.1 Estructura Interna de la Tierra

Información Proporcionada por:

2.2 Deriva de los Continentes y

Evolución del Pangea

La Migración de los Polos

Campo Magnético de la Tierra

La Inversión de los Polos

Registro de la Inversión del

Cambio de Polaridad en el Fondo Oceánico

Fenómenos Asociados a Placas

La Dorsal Meso Oceánica

Morfología Relevante en el Pacífico

Morfología Relevante en el Atlántico

Cinturón de Fuego y Sísmico

Acreción en Arco Volcánico

Explorando el Fondo Oceánico

Estructura General de la Tierra

2.3 Los Procesos de Formación de

Series de Reacción de Bowen

Cristalización del Magma

Procesos Magnaticos Profundos

Fundamentos de la Clasificación de las Rocas

Relación entre un cuerpo Ígneo y los Yacimientos

La Dorsal Meso Oceánica

Fusión del Manto

Ocurrencia de los Minerales Metálicos

2.4 Los Procesos Volcánicos

Monte Helena ( USA )

Proceso Volcánico “Tranquilo”

Formación de una Caldera

Estructura de Lava Pahoehoe

Emplazamiento de Rocas Ígneas

Situaciones Especiales de Volcanismo

Situación Espacial del Volcanismo en Oregón (USA)

Investigación del Fondo Marino

Perfil en el Océano Atlántico

Fenómenos en el Talud Continental

Morfología Relevante en los Fondos Oceánicos

Edad de los Fondos Marinos

3.- Provincia Metalogénica y Provincia

3.1 Conceptos Fundamentales

 Agricola (1546): importancia del agua en la formacion de menas

 Rössler (1700): vetas asociadas a fallas abiertas

 Zimermann (1746): las minas se forman por percolación de fluidos

 Routhier (1967): el concepto de superposición temporal

 Schuiling (1967): una provincia metalogenica refleja una anomalía

 Laffitte (1965): el termino “metalotecto”

 Brimhall and Crerar (1987): concepto físico químico de la formación

3.2 El Ejemplo del Estaño

“Granito de Estaño” v/s “Granito Normal”

Las Mayores Provincias de Estaño

Edad de los depósitos de Estaño

Agricola (1546): importancia del agua en la formacion de menas

Rössler (1700): vetas asociadas a fallas abiertas

Zimermann (1746): las minas se forman por percolación de fluidos

Routhier (1967): el concepto de superposición temporal

Schuiling (1967): una provincia metalogenica refleja una anomalía

Laffitte (1965): el termino “metalotecto”

Brimhall and Crerar (1987): concepto físico químico de la formación