Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1393–1405

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Wind energy developments and policies in China: A short review MARK

Bikash Kumar Sahu
MI Solar India Pvt Ltd, Madhav House, Plot No. 4, Near Panchratna Tower, Subhanpura, Vadodara 390023, Gujarat, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Wind energy is the most prominent energy source among all the renewables. However, this technology was not
Wind energy covered in the worldwide before the last three decades. Currently, this energy has been most popularized in the
Wind energy developments worldwide and some of the countries are started their projections on this sector. The countries like China, USA,
Investments Germany, India and Spain have leaded by the installation capacities of wind energy in the global markets.
Wind energy curtailments
During the last decade, China shared the highest wind energy capacities in the world. Chinese government has
Wind energy policy
been providing the attractive policies for the local wind energy manufacturing companies with the developers.
Also, from the last 2–3 years’ scenario, it has been observed that the Chinese government has also emphasised
the policies especially for the outside wind energy manufacturing companies. This paper presents a compressive
overview on current developments of wind energy, potentials, contributions of wind manufacturers and
developers, wind energy curtailments, mismatching between the generating power and installed capacities,
investments, policies and its impacts and future prospectus of wind energy developments in China.

1. Introduction
Human needs energy in their daily life for cooking, lighting,
communications and other important works. Since nearly 1985, fossil
fuels have dominated the other energy sources but, it helps to grow up
the carbon dioxides percentages in the atmosphere which causes for the
environmental pollutions. Again, the energy generation from fossil
fuels are also going to decrease in day to day because the shortage of
the sources as per the requirements. According to the estimations done
by International Energy Agency (IEA), the global energy demand will
be raised by 1.6% annually, with nearly about 65% of increase from
developing countries [1]. As per the International Energy Agency's
demand scenario, the total energy consumptions will be raised by 75%
from the year 2008–2035 [2]. The electrical energy production of the
world in 2004 was 17,450 TWh and estimated that the world energy
consumption will be 31,675 TWh by 2030 [3]. The global energy
demand distribution changes more dramatically with essentially more
use in Europe, Japan, Korea and North America. The rising of energy
consumptions concentrated in the rest of Asia (60% of the global total),
Africa, the Middle East and Latin America. The deployment of RE
technologies has been increasing very rapidly in the recent years, and
shares has been projected increase to substantially under most
ambitious mitigation scenarios. However, the additional policies would
be required to attract the necessary increasing of investments in the
technologies and infrastructures of renewable energy [4]. In December
2015, there was a conference among the nations on climate changes at
Paris, known as COP21 and 195 countries agreed to act for zero carbon
gas emissions by the second half of the century [5].
By the end of 2015, the total renewable energy capacity was
exceeded by 1849 GW which was more 8.7% over 2014 and renewable
comprised more than 28.9% of total global generating power capacity
which capable to generate 23.7% of the total global electricity. In 2015,
alone solar and wind energy added more than 77% of total renewable
energy capacities whereas hydro energy rose by 2.7% to an estimated
1064 GW, accounting for approximately 19% of additions. In 2015,
renewables accounted with 60% of net additions to global power
capacity and represented far higher shares of capacity added in several
countries around the world. The growth of renewable energy shares
also pointed out in different countries and regions such as European
Union, the renewable energy accounted that more than 77% added
during 2015. By end of the year 2015, China was the leading user
country for providing of the highest renewable energy (including
power, heating and transport) followed by United States, Brazil,
Germany and Canada respectively. In the new installed non hydro
renewable energy capacities, European Union shared 35.1% of total
capacities followed by BRICS countries of 33.3% [6].
As on Global Wind Statistics 2016 published by GWEC, the global
wind energy cumulative capacities reached 486.74 GW with the new
installation of 54.6 GW at the end of 2016. Among the regional
distributions, Asia Specific leaded with the total installed capacities
by 203.6 GW followed by total EU 166.3 GW, North America 97.6 G,
Latin America and Caribbean 15.29 GW, Specific Region 4.9 GW and

E-mail address: bikashkumar.sahu@gmail.com.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.183
Received 18 January 2016; Received in revised form 4 April 2017; Accepted 21 May 2017
Available online 16 June 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B.K. Sahu
Africa and Middle East 3.9 GW. Among the countries, the top ten new
installed countries were China 23.32 GW followed by USA 8.20 GW,
Germany 5.44 GW, India 3.61 GW, Brazil 2 GW, France 1.56 GW,
Turkey 1.38 GW, Netherland 0.88 GW, UK0.73 GW, Canada 7 GW and
rest of the world 6.72 GW respectively. Similarly, by cumulative
installed capacities, China 168.69 GW, USA 82.18 GW, Germany
50 GW, India 28.7 GW, Spain 23 GW, UK 14.54 GW, France 12 GW,
Canada 11.9 GW, Brazil 10.74 GW, Italy 9.25 GW and rest of the world
75.57 GW respectively [7].
In 2013, the new investments were less from 2012 and 2011
scenarios, this was due to uncertainty of incentives in US and EU
countries, and cheapest of the technologies. Even the combined
investments of EU countries are less than alone the investment by
China [67]. By the end of 2015, it accounted that the total global new
investments in renewable energy sectors (not included hydro power <
50 MW) were USD 285.9billion which was 5% more from 2014 [8]. In
non-hydro capacities, the top countries were China, the United States
and Germany followed by Japan, India, Italy and Spain. China made
the historical records by investing of USD 102.9 billion alone in 2015.
Even due to this large investment in China, was up 17% on the previous
year and 36% of world's investments. In 2015, the developing countries
like China, Brazil and India were invested with a total of $156 billion,
which was 19% more than 2014 scenario. But, as on Bloomberg New
Energy Finance (BNEF) reports, in 2016 the total global investment on
renewable energy sector was USD 287.1 billion which is fell by 18% as
comparatively to 2015 scenario. This is due to fallen of prices of
equipment particularly solar photovoltaic systems and less investments
of two countries China and Japan. In renewable energy investments,
China was invested USD 88.2 billion in 2016, down by 26% as
compared USD 119.1 billion in 2015, while Japan was invested USD
22.8 billion, down by 43% from 2015 and this is due to cutting of new
large scale projects. China is struggling for slowing of power demand
and growing of wind and solar curtailments. Now, Chinese Government
is given his interests on investments in grids and reforming the power
market so that the renewables can able to replace other sources by
100% with their full potential. In Japan, growth of utility scale projects
was comparatively less but rooftop solar capacities installed were
attracted by consumers for increasingly favourable economics of self-
consumption. Similarly, US invested USD 58.8 billion, but developers
took longer time to progress wind and solar projects eligible for the tax
credits that were extended by Congress in December 2015. Canada was
down by 46% at USD 2.4 billion.
For the Investment in Asia-Pacific region including India and China
down by 26% to USD 134.5 billion, some 47% of the world total. India
was almost equivalent with 2015 investments, at USD 9.7 billion, with
The new investments of renewable energy by region basis (2004-2015)
350 USA
AMER (Excl. Brazil and US)
Middle East and Africa
300 India
250
200
150
100
50
0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Fig. 1. The new investments of renewable energy by region basis (2004–2015).
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1393–1405
several numbers of solar photovoltaic plants going ahead.
Europe was invested USD 71.2 billion up by 3%, which helped to
the developments of offshore and larger scale of onshore wind energy
projects ever financed one GW, USD1.3 billion Fosen complex in
Norway. In Europe, UK leaded by investments with his third con-
jugative successful years by $ USD 26 billion with increase of 2%
followed by Germany USD 15.3 billion down by 16%. France USD 3.6
billion down by 5%, Belgium USD 3 billion up by 179%, Denmark USD
2.7 billion up by 102%, Sweden USD 2 billion up by 85% and Italy USD
2.3 billion up by 11%.
Among the developing countries, many quickly investments in the
projects were not secured the finance in the won capacity of renewable
energy auctions in during 2016. Investment in South Africa was USD
919 million down by 76%, Chile USD 826 million down by 80%, Mexico
USD 1 billion down by 59%, Uruguay USD 433 million down by 74%
and Brazil USD 6.9 billion down by 4% respectively.
Among the sectors and categories, the biggest seven financings were
in all offshore wind energy sectors in Europe, but there were also large
deals in Chinese offshore wind (300 MW, USD 810 Million at Hebei
Laoting Putidao array), solar thermal (110 MW, USD 805 Million at
Ashalim II Negev plant in Israel), solar PV (580 MW, USD 702 Million
at 31 Dominion SBL Portfolio in the US), biomass (299 MW, USD 841
Million at Tees project in UK) and geothermal (100 MW, USD 612
Million at Bolivia) respectively.
Among other categories, small scale projects like size less than
1 MW including solar rooftop attracted by 28% less investment than
2015 and the total investment of this category was $39.8 bn in 2016
due to falling costs of solar systems rather than decline of interest from
buyers.
The investments of Public markets quoted by renewable energy
companies invested USD12.1 billion in 2016, down by 21%. Venture
capital and private equity investment raised by 19% to USD 7.5 billion,
with the largest investment coming from two Chinese electric vehicle
businesses, Le Holdings and WM Motor Technology by USD 1.1 billion
and USD 1 Billion respectively. US solar developer Sunnova took the
third position by investment of USD 300 million.
In taking of all categories of the investments, solar sector was again
dominated by USD 113.7 billion, but this was 34% down on 2015
levels, due to large falling of costs of the solar projects per MW followed
by wind USD112.5 billion down by 9%, energy smart technologies USD
41.6 Billion up by 29%, biomass USD 6.8 billion, and biofuels USD 2.2
billion down by 37%, small hydro USD 3.5 billion same as previous
year, low-carbon services USD 4.3 billion up by 5%, geothermal USD
2.7 billion up by 17%, and marine energy USD 194 million, down by
7% [9]. The new investments of renewable energy in the regions from
Brazil
Europe
China
ASOC(Excl India& China)
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
B.K. Sahu
2004 to 2015 is shown in Fig. 1.
In the moderate scenario, the GWO, 2012 said that the total
installation capacities of wind energy would be reached 143 GW,
217 GW and 414 GW by 2016, 2020 and 2030 respectively. As the
result the total investment for wind energy developments would be €
24 billion per year by 2020. These investments will create a huge job in
industries and estimated that 319,000 jobs by 2020 and 376,000 jobs
by 2030.
China is the fastest growing economy and 1st populous county in
the world, the energy demand is rapidly increasing, number of cities
have been facing the energy lacks and environmental pollutions. In
current days, China has become the third economic system and the
largest developing country in the world. The energy and environmental
issues in China have large effects on the world economic sustainable
development [10]. According to the Environmental Performance Index
(EPI) produced by Yale University and Columbia University in 2014,
China position was 118 in 178 countries worldwide for their environ-
mental performance. The poisonous gas which has appeared in many
Chinese cities, harms the people's health and interferes with economic
sustainable development. In the context of rapid economic develop-
ment, China's environmental pollution has been becoming more
severe. As China will build a further 1000 GW of power generation
capacity in the next decades, therefore, the country sets installed
doubling capacity of power plants and will become the world's largest
power generation capacity country [11]. The Chinese government has
been setting up a target to reduce the energy intensity (energy
consumed per GDP) by 31% within the period of 2010–2020.
During the last few years, it has been observed that wind energy is
one of the most prominent energy source among all renewable energy
sources in the Chinese energy markets [8]. As per the Moderate
scenario GWO 2010, the global wind power would be saved the
emission of CO2 about 1.2 billion tons per year by 2020 and that
would be raised to 2.6 billion tonnes per year by 2030. The installed
capacity of wind energy globally produces 340 TWh of clean electricity
and save 204 million tons of carbon dioxide in every year [12]. The
world's wind energy resource is larger than the needs by humanity. In
the IEA New Policies scenario, wind power contribution will be
1500 TWh of electricity to the global energy mix in 2020 which is the
twice of wind power produce by 2013 (~620 TWh) For surface winds
over land globally, Archer and Jacobson estimated that the wind
resource is at 72 terawatt (TW), nearly five times the 13 TW world's
demand for all energy [13]. The capital investments of wind turbines
have been decreasing from day to day in the current situations. As per
GWO scenarios, the turbine costs were averaged €1252 per kW in 2013
and projected that it will be €1241 per kW by the end of 2030.
Similarly, in moderate scenario, prices will be dropped about €1214/
kW in 2020 to €1203/kW by 2030. The projections in installed costs,
investments and employments by IEA's New policies scenario, 450
scenario and GWEC's moderate scenario and advanced scenario are
shown in the Fig. 2. The investments of wind energy with improve-
ments of technologies trends to increased towards using of offshore
wind potential, it made the industries to grow with the compound
annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6% in per year installed and 17% in
cumulative installed capacity between 2010 and 2015.
Under Business as Usual Scenario, both Chinese Renewable Energy
Centre and IRENA, have projected that the share of modern renew-
ables (excluding of traditional uses of biomass energy) will increase
from about 7% in 2010 to 16% by 2030. In the Reference Case, IEA has
projected that total power generation will be reached 93 TW h/year by
2030 of which wind energy will be shared 650 TW h/year [15]. It is
projected that China Wind energy installed capacities will be reached
201.178 GW (33% of total global wind energy capacities) and
361.8 GW (31% of total global wind energy capacities) by 2020 and
2030 respectively in IEA's New Policies Scenarios.
China is one of the world's leading energy consumer and expected
that energy consumptions will be increased by 60% of world's energy by
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1393–1405
2030. China's energy choices will be a major influence on the world's
ability to curb climate change. In November 2014, President Xing
Jinping announced that China will be reduced the carbon dioxide
emissions and will increase the non-fossil fuel as primary energy
consumptions by 20% in 2030 [32].
As China is a fastest developing country, its historical low emission
makes the challenges for future developments of renewable energy
sectors. Already, Chinese Government has been extended the hands
with the local or foreign manufacturers and developers in all possible
supports for the developments. China has massive potential for
harnessing the renewables to the power. Currently, nearly about 20%
of the country's electricity is coming from renewables. Under the
business-as-usual scenario, this rises to 30% by 2030 and with RE map
2030 options, it approaches 40%. Hydroelectricity is the largest
generation, as on today, but wind and solar PV would see the largest
growth and would play an essential role. China's turbine market growth
is supported by the internal market drivers such as government
supportive through the various subsidies, increasing turbine demand
from existing and proposed wind farms and inexpensive raw materials
availability. China will also be the best place for turbine and component
manufacturing with top 15 OEMs’ are expected to have presence in the
country. However, policies and regulations in China are mainly
supporting instruments for the domestic players. About 70% of turbine
components should be manufactured within china as per government
rule [11]. The IEA's World Energy Outlook 2016 estimated that China
gives 3.5 million jobs in the renewable energy sectors out of 8.1 million
renewable energy jobs globally.
According to the China's 13th Five-Year Plan (2016–2020), energy
consumptions and carbon emissions per unit of GDP (carbon intensity)
will be cut by 15% and 18% respectively. Overall, the country will
reduce the dependence on coal and promote the clean energy devel-
opments, notably through this commitment nuclear energy capacity
will be 58 GW by 2020, with an additional 30 GW under construction
which needs in between six and eight nuclear reactors are to be
commissioned each year. The wind and solar capacity will be expanded
to 250 GW and 150 GW by 2020 respectively [16]. Based on this target,
the new installation of wind energy would shift from the three
Northern Provinces i.e. including of Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Gansu
and other northern provinces to Central, Eastern, and Southern China
provinces.
In 2001, China began the focused on energy sectors, especially on
clean energy developments, and set the targets for installations of wind
energy, solar energy, hydroelectric dams, and other renewable re-
sources. China initiated to employ wind energy from an early year. It
was in 1958 that some provinces and cities started for research and
manufacture of 5 kW small wind energy water pumping generators. In
1978 saw that the introduction of 100 W and 250 W wind energy
machinery employed for pumping water and production of power [14].
It has been observed that wind energy developments in China is
growing very fastest in the last decade. In 2006, the program drove in
China double its wind power capacity, it doubled again the following
year and again the year after that [17]. By the end of 2016, the net
electricity consumption was 5919.8 billion kw h, an increase of 5.0%
from 2015 scenario, out of which the first industry electricity con-
sumption was 107.5 billion kw h, an increase of 5.3% from 2015
scenario; secondary industry electricity was 4210.8 billion kw h, an
increase of 2.9% from 2015 scenario; tertiary industry electricity was
796.1 billion kw h, an increase of 11.2% from 2015 scenario; urban and
rural residents living electricity was 805.4 billion kw h, an increase of
10.8% from 2015 scenario respectively [18]. Similarly, by the end of
2016, China achieved the wind energy generation capacities by 241
billion kW h with increase of 30.1% from 2015 scenario and the solar
energy generation achieved by 66.2 billion kW h with increase of 72%
from 2015 scenario respectively [19].
The energy policy gives the addresses for developments of the wind
energy through the industries, the growth rate of energy productions
B.K. Sahu
Fig. 2. Projections for wind energy installed costs, investments and employments by 2020,2030,2040 and 2050.
and consumptions. The energy policy is included by countries’ legisla-
tions, international treaties, incentives for investments, the countries
target for energy generation, guidelines of energy conservations, job
creations, rural energy developments, strategic simulation of the
energy industry, taxations, feed in tariffs and other important policies
respectively. So, the analysing of energy policies could be changed to
the promotions of wind energy developments and also it can provide
the updates of wind energy in state or provincials, nationals and
international levels [17]. The additional wind energy policies support
the investments and technologies in Chinese markets. China has
studied with a range of policy instruments to encourage renewable
energy deployment. Also, China will implement some important
policies such that major generators and grid companies, formulated
as the percentage of total generation will be coming from renewable
energy [20]. This paper is presented on the successes and challenges of
wind energy technologies in China, wind energy policy and its impacts,
investments, developments of wind energy by manufacturers, wind
energy curtailments, wind power transmissions by UHV transmission
lines, competitiveness of the local wind markets and power productions
in China.
2. Wind energy resources and developments in China
China lies in the north-eastern part of East Asia between 4° and 53°
North latitude and 73° to 135° East longitude with an area of 9.6
million km2. According to the results of the Third Nationwide Survey of
Wind Energy Resources organized by the China Meteorological
Administration in 2004–2005, China's vast land areas and long coast-
lines possess one of the world's largest wind resources. It has a total
exploitable wind energy resource of about 4350 GW, of which about
1000 GW onshore and 200 GW offshore can be commercially devel-
oped with currently existing technologies [21]. Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
have estimated that wind energy potentials in the height of 10 m is
about 2548 GW [22]. Whereas according to the National Wind Energy
Resources Census, the country has potential up to 700–1200 GW in
both onshore and offshore wind energy system. Davidson et al. (2016)
studied the technical potential, economic potential, and grid-integrated
potential of China's wind energy has got that the technical potential of
onshore wind electricity is 22.5 PWh, and the economic potential is
17.8 PWh [70]. HE G and Kammen (2014) has found that the onshore
potential of wind power based on 200 wind stations from 2001 to 2010,
in which they used a 2 MW wind turbine. The national total technical
availabilities of onshore wind are 832 GW in lower case and 1805 GW
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1393–1405
in upper case, with the wind electricity calculated at 1243 TWh and
2643 TWh correspondingly [23].
The “The Northern Areas” (Northeast, North and Northwest China)
have huge wind energy potentials. These areas are the key regions for
developments of wind energy in China. The region includes 14
provinces such as Hei Longjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Beijing, Tianjin,
Hebei, Henan, Shanxi, Inner Mongolia, Shannxi, Gansu, Qinghai,
Ningxia, and Xinjiang. In western part of Inner Monglolia has also
huge amounts of wind energy resources including the areas like
Ulaanchab City, Xilin Gol League, Baotou City, Bayan Naoer City,
Hohhot City, Ordos City, Alxa League and Erlianhaote City. In these
areas, the wind energy development programmes are already under the
planning and constructions. There are 12 large wind energy power
plants will dominate by Jiqing, Dabanliang, Honggeer and Wulan in
Ulanqab City, Zhurihe, Xianghuang Banner, Taibai, Duolan,
Huitengliang in Xilin Gol League, Wuchuan in Hohhot City and
Guyang in Baotou City during the period 2016–2020. Similarly, in
eastern part of Inner Mongolia has also rich wind energy resources.
The areas like Ongniud Banner and Hexigten Banner of Chifeng City
and Songshan District has flat terrain, high altitude and good wind
energy resources, with the average wind speed reaching 8.0–9.3 m/s at
a height of 70 m and the power density 700–1200 W/m2. The wind
energy resources in Tongliao and Xingan League are average.
Hulunbuir, located in the Greater Khingan area, has a large forest
covered area, great unevenness in the ground and relatively poor wind
energy resources [24]. In other areas, especially Southwest China like
Yunnan and Guizhou provinces have achieved the wind power in the
annual growth rate of 129%. The Inland areas have good wind energy
sources usually 100 W/m2 outside of two abundant regions. However,
there are two regions due to influences lakes and special terrain. The
southeast coastal region has also sufficient wind energy potentials.
However, the coastal regions and its island areas are affected by cold air
of winter and spring as well the typhoons of summer and autumn, too.
This region covers with 10 kms wide strips including of Shandong,
Jiangsu, Shanghai, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan,
and other provinces. The effective wind power density is higher than
200 W/m2, and the available hours are 7000–8000 [25]. The Fig. 3
shows the total wind energy density distributions map in China.
According to the projections by Green Peace, China's wind energy
capacity will be reached at least 150 GW or possibly up to 230 GW,
which could cut the carbon dioxides by 410 million tons of CO2
emission, or 150 million tons of coal consumption in energy system in
different scenarios by 2020. This positive projection of 230 GW of wind
B.K. Sahu Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1393–1405

Fig. 3. Wind energy map in China, Source: [66] (Permission is taken from author).

30,000.00
energy equal to 13 times the capacity of the Three Gorges Dam, with Inner Mongolia Hebei Gansu Shandong Xinjiang
the ability to replace power generated from 200 coal fire power plants 25,000.00
[26].
20,000.00
According to the survey by China Meteorological Administration
(CMA), using of 400 wind farms in different power densities grades at 15,000.00

different heights 70 m, 100 m and 120 m respectively. CMA has also 10,000.00
developed a wind energy numerical simulation and evaluation system
5,000.00
(WERAS/CWERA) to carry out the historical data filtering, numerical
simulation and geographical information system (GIS) analysis. 0.00
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Through the GIS analysis process found that, for grade 2 or higher
(wind power density is greater than or equal to 200 W/m2), grade 3 or Fig. 5. The cumulative of wind energy installed capacities of top five provinces in China
higher (wind power density is greater than or equal to 300 W/m2) and (2008–2015).
grade 4 or higher (wind power density is greater than or equal to
600000
400 W/m2), the wind technical potentials for wind energy at the
heights of 50 m,70 m and 100 m are shown in Fig. 4. Global New Installed wind energy Capacity
500000 (MW)
China has huge potentials of wind energy resources estimated China New Installed wind energy Capacity
(MW)
under grade 3 i.e nearly about 2.6 TW. But, currently China has 400000 Global Cumulative Installed wind energy
sufficient capacity to generate 1 TW of wind power from the resources Capcity (MW)
China Cumulative wind energy Capacity
[27]. On the other hand, from the numerical simulation shows that 300000 (MW)
Taiwan Strait has most abundant offshore areas in the wind grade 6
and above (Figs. 5 and 6). 200000
China is also one of the largest power systems in the world with
total installed capacity of 1060 GW and it generated electricity about 100000
4600 TWh which supplies 1.5% of the total capacity. Bloomberg New
Energy Finance has compiled about the top ten wind energy manu- 0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
facturers that Vestas was installed 8.7 GW in year 2016 due to strong
installations in US, GE took second position by installed of 6.5 GW i.e. Fig. 6. Wind energy cumulative and new installed capacities in global and China (2001–
only more installed 0.6 GW from his 2015 capacities. This is affected 20016).

due to lead in the US markets for newly commissioned turbines of

Vestas, it managed by increasing of its global presence with 21
countries in 2016, from 14 in 2015. Similarly, Goldwind installed
6.4 GW took fourth position followed by Gemesa 3.7 GW, Enercon
3.5 GW, Nordex Group 2.7 GW, Godian 2.2 GW, Siemens 2.1 GW,
Ming Yang 1.96 GW and Envision 1.94 GW respectively [28]. In
offshore installed capacities, total installed capacities were 833 MW
out of 489 MW was installed by Sewind followed by Siemens 152 MW,
Goldwind 57 MW, Envision 50 MW, XEMC 40 MW, GE 30 MW,
Doosan 9 MW and CSIS 5 MW in year 2016.
In year 2015 scenarios point views, China was leaded the wind
energy sharing capacities by booming of 30.5 GW alone with total
numbers of 92,981 units of wind turbines up and running which was
nearly about 1.9 times over the figures of 2013 when China installed
16 GW of new capacity. In year 2016, the new wind energy installed
Fig. 4. Technically exploitable potential of onshore wind resources (GW); Source: capacities shared by northwest provinces 26%, followed by the North
GWEC.

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B.K. Sahu
China (Huabei) region (24%), East China (Huadong) region (20%) and
Southwest accounted for the same proportion remain unchanged. In
addition to these, total offshore wind power capacity increased by 64%,
with over 590 MW of new capacity installed in 2016, bringing the total
offshore wind capacity to 1.6 GW. With compared of year 2015 and
2016, the North Western Region proportion from 38% is dropped to
26%.
In 2016, China installed new capacities of wind turbine with
average power of 1955 kW, compared with 1768 kW in 2015 with an
increase of 6.4% and cumulative installed wind turbine average power
of 1608 kW with an increase of 2.9% from 2015. In 2016, the
cumulative installed capacity of 1.5 MW wind turbine units still
dominated by 50.4% of the total installed capacity, down about 5%
from 2015; 2 MW wind turbine market share rose to 32.2%, increased
by 5%.
In 2016, Chinese new wind turbine capacity of 2 MW shared by
60.9% (with an increase of 11% compared from 2015), similarly, new
wind turbine with capacities of 1.5 MW shared by 17.8%; 1.5 MW and
2.0 MW unit total market shared of 78.7%, 2.1 MW to 2.9 MW unit
market shared of 15.2%, 3 MW to 3.9 MW units (3 MW and 3.6 MW)
market shared of 2.6%, 4 MW and above units (including 4 MW,
4.2 MW, 5 MW) market shared of 1.9% respectively.
In the last four years, it has been observed that wind power
machine manufacturing enterprises contributions are increased. In
China, the top five wind turbine manufacturers' market share raised
from 54.1% in 2013 to 60.1% in 2016, and the top ten wind power
manufacturers raised from 77.8% in 2013 to 84.2% in 2016.
According to China Electricity Council (CEC), China's utilisation of
wind power industry in 2016 was 1742 h, which improved by 0.8%
from 2015.
In year 2016, Inner Mongolia generated the wind power by 19%
and 17% of the country's wind power generation and grid-connected
capacity respectively. Also, in year 2016, grid-curtailment of the
province improved to 21%, following the worsening of curtailment to
30% in 1H16, versus 18% in 2015.
China's grid has long been a challenge for wind power producers
and other renewable energy developers [29]. According to the State
Corporations of China, two UHV transmission lines and three more
transmission lines are to be operations in year 2017. In December
2016, the Inner Mongolia West (IM West) started operations of UHV
lines in the Tianjin and also Inner Mongolia East (IM East), started
operations of UHV lines Ximeng, Shandong UHV line in July 2016. For
Inner Mongolia, especially IM West, power exports are not in a new
practice. According to DBS reports in 2016, the power exports between
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (North China) are estimated with around 18% of
IM West's power sales. For IM West (Tianjin UHV line designed
capacity of 8 GW), DBS forecasted that the lines can exports 1000GWh,
4,000GWh, 6,000GWh, 12,000GWh in 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020
respectively with utilisation rate assumptions of 5%, 20%, 30% and
60% for respective years. For IM East, (Ximeng, Shandong UHV lines
designed capacity of 4 GW), DBS forecasted that the lines can exports
2000 GWh, 8000 GWh, 12,000 GWh and 24,000 GWh in 2017, 2018,
2019 and 2020 respectively with same utilisation assumptions as that
of IM West, Tianjin UHV line. In aggregate, DBS expected that the
power exports to accounts for 0.6%, 2.6%, 3.9% and 7.8% of FY16 IM's
power generation in 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020. Another three UHV
lines with aggregate designed capacity of 30 GW have been approved
for construction during 2014–16, DBS expect that the operations will
inaugurate beyond 2017.
Gansu, a province with exceptional wind resources, that has
suffered from grid constraints in the past few years. In 2014, Gansu
made the historical records for highest new installed capacity even as
compared to Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia, due to expansion of the
transmission lines and improved the management by the grid compa-
nies allowing electricity generated by wind power to be transferred the
neighbouring provinces, as well as to the eastern provinces. Cumulative
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installations in Gansu reached 10.73 GW, making it the second
province after Inner Mongolia to pass the 10 GW milestone. At the
end of year 2016, Gansu contributed 5.6% and 8.6% of China's wind
power generation and grid-connected wind capacity respectively. In
2016, grid-curtailment of the province became high at 43% against
39% in 2015. Due to poor grid infrastructure with weak energy demand
in Gansu, it's capacity is at the bottom of three rankings since 2014. In
Gobi Desert, the Jiuquan Wind Power Base with more than 7000
turbines i.e. one of the world's largest wind farms has capable of supply
power a small country [30]. In 2016, power generation in Gansu
declined by 1%, which effected the descend of power exports to
neighbouring provinces ( as on DBS reports total exported power to
Xinjiang, Shaanxi and Ningxia was around 10–15% of the province's
power generation), commodity output curtailment from supply glut
industry such as steel and aluminium sectors effected to production fell
by 26% and 1% respectively.
In 2016, Xinjiang contributed 9.1% and 11.9% of total wind power
generation and grid connected wind power capacities of China respec-
tively and the grid power curtailment of the province was 38% in 2016
against 32% in 2015. This was due to utilisation pick-up in UHV
transmission line (Xinjiang Hami – Henan Zhengzhou) and rising
substitution trade of wind power with thermal power, which partly
offset strong wind capacity installation in 2015. Based on UHV
transmission lines developments, Inner Mongolia is likely to see the
fastest improvement, followed by Gansu and Xinjiang etc.
According to the National Energy Administration, that the wind
power investment monitoring and monitoring results in 2017 shows
that the provinces (autonomous regions) such as Inner Mongolia,
Heilongjiang, Jilin, Ningxia, Gansu and Xinjiang (including Corps) are
under red warning areas for wind power development and whereas
others provinces are under green areas. The red warning province
(district) will not get the approve for the construction of new wind
power projects, and to take effective measures to solve the problem of
abandoning the wind. The National Energy Board has cleared that the
grid companies are not allowed to apply for new applications (including
under construction, approved and planned projects) for the provincial
and municipal wind power projects in red warning areas, and the
dispatched agencies will no longer apply to red provinces (districts)
new wind power project to issue new power generation business
license. At the same time, the construction of Xinjiang Zhundong,
Turpan Baili Feng, Jiuquan second batch of wind power projects, has
been put into operation or construction of the transmission channel
focused on the consumption of wind power projects. For increase of the
Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan region clean energy supply, the National
Energy Board also requested to Hebei Province Energy Bureau for
speed upping the construction of Chengde base two wind power project
construction work to ensure that all projects at the end of 2017 all grid
operation, Renewable energy demonstration area planning progress,
orderly advance Zhangjiakou base three wind power project construc-
tion work. Zhangjiakou, Chengde area is no longer building scattered
wind power projects [31].
The western part of Inner Mongolia has been projected to install
38.3 GW by 2020. There are some 10 GW based wind energy power
plants are under constructions in Xinjiang, Gansu, east of Inner
Mongolia, Shandong and Jiangansu province and region.
In 2014, China installed 61 new offshore wind power station with
the total Capacity of 229.3 MW and an increase of 487.9%, which
Installed capacity in the intertidal zone between 130 MW. In 2014, the
vision of energy Offshore wind turbines supply source and Shanghai
Electric was large, Other companies were only installed an experi-
mental prototype. By the end of 2014, China's inter-tidal zone reached
with cumulative wind power installed capacity was 434.48 MW.
Currently, the largest single unit capacity of 6 MW wind turbines,
electrically supplied by United Power and Mingyang Wind in offshore
sectors [33]. By the end of 2014, China took the fifth position in the
global for achievement of the cumulative capacity of offshore wind
B.K. Sahu
energy 669 MW. The local governments, such as Jiangsu and Zhejiang
province, have been vigorously building wind power industry parks to
promote the development of industrial clusters and build an offshore
wind power industry chain. However, the problems in Chinese offshore
wind energy market is high project costs i.e. 16,000–20,000 yuan/kW,
which is more than double that of onshore projects.
In 2016, offshore wind development was the brightest spot in the
global clean energy investment picture i.e. $30bn in 2016 and which is
more than 41% of 2015 scenario. The developers were taken the steps
for improvement of economics, which resulting from bigger turbines
and better constructions. In scenario of 2016, UK leaded by total
installations of 5156 MW followed by Germany 4108 MW, China
1627 MW, Denmark 1271 MW, Netherland 1118 MW, Belgium
712 MW, Sweden 202 MW, Japan 60 MW, S Korea 35 MW, Finland
32 MW, US 30 MW, Ireland 25 MW, Spain 5 MW and Norway 2 MW
respectively.
The Chinese government has taken the projections for reaching the
wind energy capacities by 200 GW in 2020, 400 GW in 2030 and
1000 GW in 2050. Through the target by 2050, the country would
mitigate to the carbon dioxide by 1.5 billion and also will help to create
720,000 jobs in the Chinese wind markets. It is estimated that total
electricity generation will be 8.4% from wind power with 15% of
installed capacity by 2030 [34]. However, there are the two biggest
barriers for promotion to the targets and which have loosed at least 5
billion yuan ($788 million) of profits i.e. through the geographic
distribution of wind power resources and power consumption, and
curtailment problems [35]. As the electrical power has been increasing
in the middle and western part of the China, demand in eastern areas is
increasing even more rapidly. However, electricity transmission from
north to south and from west to east will remain significant in the
coming 40 years.
China's coastline is more than 18,000 km long, and China has also
more than 6000 islands. Offshore wind energy resources are mainly
concentrated along the southeast coast and on its nearby islands, with
an average wind energy density of over 300 W/m2. The offshore wind
power development potential at 5–25 m water depth and 50 m height
is approximately 200 GW. The offshore wind power development
potential at 5–50 m water depth and 70 m height is approximately
500 GW. In addition to abundant offshore wind energy resources,
China's eastern coastal regions also feature a developed economy, a
high energy demand, a robust power grid structure, and good wind
power grid-connecting conditions. In China, the first offshore wind
farm was built on Shanghai Coast in 2010, with 34 turbines of the total
capacity of 102 MW. The offshore wind power planning for Dalian in
Liaoning Province as well as provinces such as Fujian, Guangxi and
Hainan were under developments. The completed preliminary plans
identified an exploitable offshore wind potential of 43 GW. According
to the 12th Five Year Plan, the country China projected to installed
5 GW offshore wind energy by 2015 and 30 GW by 2020. However, the
country was not able to reached 5 GW by 2015, and again the country
modified the targets for installation of offshore capacities of 5 GW to
2020.
The Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) has published the wind
energy projections for China in three different scenarios which is
shown in Fig. 7.
3. Wind energy shares by the manufacturers in China
Lewis J et el. suggested that the reginal and national policies are
very important for development of wind power and equipment
manufacturing industry. During the period of year 2006–2010, the
wind energy policies attracted for developing wind energy capacities in
GW scale and promoting the industrialization of wind turbine manu-
facturing. A clear signal is that in 2009 China surpassed the US and
became the leading nation in terms of new installation [69] (Fig. 8).
There are numbers of factors interacting with wind energy manu-
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1393–1405
600 GW
500
2010 2020 2030
400
300
200
100
0
Reference Scenario Moderate Scenario Advance Scenario
Fig. 7. Different scenarios of wind energy, Source: GWEO, 2010.
MW
25,000.00
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
20,000.00
15,000.00
10,000.00
5,000.00
0.00
Goldwind Sinovel United Dongqi Ming Vestas XEMC Shanghai Gamesa Vision
Power Yang Electric Energy
Fig. 8. Top ten wind energy Manufacturer installed capacities in China (Note: Ming
Yang has not available data in year 2011 and 2012).
facturers in China including the natural environment, economic
environment, social environment and government role. The industries
basically consist of wind energy component suppliers, wind energy
manufacturers and power generating companies. These entities jointly
promoted to the wind energy developments in China. There are four
types of manufacturers exists in China i.e. (i) state owned and state
holding enterprises (ii) private enterprises (iii) foreign owned enter-
prises and (iv) joint ventures. Chinese government also allowed the
foreign wind energy manufacturing companies such as Danish Vestas,
Spanish Gamesa and American GE for share the wind energy in the
Chinese markets. Comparing with foreign wind manufacturers, the
local Chinese manufacturers are also bear lower local production and
assembly cost. In the Chinese wind energy markets, the cost of the
turbines is cheaper as compared with other leading countries.
Similarly, local manufacturers purchased or produced major parts
and accessories domestically for maintenance purpose, which further
cuts the component cost by 10–20% than imported components
[35,36]. Before 2000, most installed wind turbines came from transfer
of property rights and purchased the foreign wind turbines. In the
period 2000–2007, numbers of capable China's turbine manufacturers
began to emerge. But all of them only mastered the technology of
750 kW wind turbines, while have to rely completely on foreign
technology with the 1.5 MW and 2 MW wind turbines. In this period,
domestic manufacturers lacked by the capacity to research and design
independently. In terms of new and cumulative installed capacity, the
local manufacturers are first time surpassed foreign manufacturers in
2007 and 2008 successively. At present, domestic manufacturers has
able for manufacturing 2 MW, 2.5 MW, 3 MW and even 5 MW scale
wind turbines independently [37]. The cost of wind turbines is declined
very fastly in the last few years due to over capacity of wind turbine
manufacturing and fierce competition among manufacturers. The year
2010 was very important year for China that due to faster wind energy
developments in the country there was a contradiction in between
large-scale rapid development of wind power capacity and power
transmission and consumption [38].
Again, Chinese insurance markets are also dominated by wind
B.K. Sahu
energy sectors. Basically, the domestic insurance market is so strong
due to the rapid rise of the wind energy. However, the barriers to
growth for wind energy cannot be resolved by the insurance industry
alone. Clear guidance by government is key factor for the develop-
ments, with the help of its insurance companies will provide the better
quality and service to the manufactures and developers. Wind energy
companies have needed to develop a better understanding of risk
management and the positive contribution that insurance can make to
the industry [39]. In 2010, four leading manufacture companies like
Sinovel, Goldwind, Dongfang Electric and United Power expanded
their capacities. By the end of 2016, it analysed that Goldwind energy
installed highest wind energy capacities of 6.3 GW followed by United
Power 2 GW, Envision 2 GW, Mingyang 2 GW, CSIC 1.8 GW, Shanghai
Electric 1.7 GW, XEMC 1.2 GW, Dongfang Electric 1.1 GW, Windey
0.7 GW and others 4 GW respectively.
Since 2011, there are more than 50 manufacturers have offered
wind turbines of 1 MW or more, 10 major manufacturers emerged to
supply the capacity of 2.0 MW to 3.6 MW advanced wind turbine
systems. However, the Chinese manufacturers are moved into the
5 MW class especially for the first offshore wind farms, that China
entered earlier than many other countries and with equipment of own
origin. The offshore sector has seemed to be the driving factor for the
largest developments of wind energy sectors. In China, some manu-
facturers and research institutes already have initiated R & D pro-
grammes for 10 MW systems, prototypes of which will be available
around 2020. This indicates that China belongs to the wind energy
league with the will and ability to be among the absolute global leaders
in terms of size and technological innovation within a young field of
technology.
In 2013, most of wind turbine manufacturers were “out of
warranty”. According to the Chinese Wind Energy Association, 74%
of the 62,000 units of grid connected wind turbines should be out of
warranty. However, there are still 34,000 units not able to be out of
warranty, and the ‘warranty deductions’, totalling 20 billion RMB, will
be further retained. In some cases, whether or not the turbine can exit
the warranty period and the manufacture can receive full payment for
the turbine is arbitrarily determined by the developers. This issue was
by two main reasons i.e. (a) Manufacturers were not agreed to extend
the warranty period due to more completions were among them (b)
turbine quality was a key issue in the early days from 2007 to 2010,
with developers taking large risks by using some of the turbines with no
track record [68]. In 2014, it is seen that more than two-thirds of all
wind turbines operating in China were still under their original
manufacturer warranties. Again, Bloomberg New Energy Finance is
expected that the number of wind turbines will be from out of warranty
in China in the upcoming days, as quality improves and turbines age. It
is projected that 26 GW and 30 GW per year of wind capacity will be
out of warranty annually in between 2017 and 2018, respectively. By
2022, a total of 187 GW of wind turbines in China will be out of
warranty [40].
In O & M markets, China is one of the world's largest markets with
USD 2.716 billion, which is about 25.3% of the total global in 2016.
Due to rising of warranty period expires of wind turbines, China's wind
farm O & M market sizes is anticipated to keep with an AAGR of 13%
during 2017–2021 and hit USD 5.021 billion by 2021.
At present, Chinese wind farm O & M market shares on both
regular and breakdown maintenances are about more than 45%. With
the recent trends of new technologies and products, state maintenance
will be the future wind farm O & M.
Basically, Chinese wind farm O & M market is mainly divided into
three types: wind turbine manufacturers, wind farm developers and
third party O & M companies. In 2016, wind farm developers like
Concord New Energy and Longyuan Power shared 74%, followed by
wind turbine manufacturers such as Goldwind, Ming Yang Wind
Power, United Power and Sinovel Wind Group shared with 15% and
third-party O & M companies (still a small scale) including Eulikind,
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Han Energy Technology and CLCP shared with 11% respectively.
Additionally, using of the Internet, big data, intelligent manufactur-
ing and other policies, Goldwind launched the integrated digital
wisdom by intelligent systems for O & M management model in
2016 to serve a number of wind farms around the world with
operational services. United Power has built of remote data monitoring
centre based on the cloud platform in Beijing. Sharing, intelligence and
concentration will be the main direction of the future wind farm O &
M [41].
4. Wind energy policy in China
With the strong determination and vast input, China has made the
policy system for rapid developments of the energy sectors. In the
recent years, it is seen that Chinese govt. is very serious about the
renewable energy sectors. The vast wind energy potentials and
supports of Chinese government's wind power development makes
construct large scale power. For consistent developments of renewable
energy in the country, Chinese govt. has formulating the host policies.
During his 11th planning (from 2005 to 2010), wind energy experi-
enced a high growth rates i.e. from 1.3 GW in 2005–44.7 GW in 2010
which was eight times more than the original target of 5 GW. The
Chinese government has encouraged the 12th five-year plan (from
2011 to 2015) for the developments of national economics which w-
+ould also provide to improve the wind energy developments. By end
of the year 2015, the government has projected that there would be
installed eight nos. of 10 GW wind power plants, the cumulative
capacity would be 100 GW and the power would be generated
190 TWh from the wind energy [39]. However, by end of the year
2015, it is found that total installed capacities of the country crossed
more than 129.34 GW where extra 87.07 GW under constructions. In
year 2015, China also faced the dropped of electricity by 33.9 TWh
which made the historical records [42]. In the 12th plan, many
provinces have seen that they have installed more than their targets
due to attractive policies. The Chinese government has decided that the
wind energy policy by itself will be at the fastest rate as compared to the
other countries like US and Europeans. This policy model has given the
emphasis to develop the wind energy at the rapid growth rates. The
efficiency of the generating power from winds are comparatively low
because of the fastest growth rate of the wind energy construction as
compared to the supply of power to the grid. Some reports say that up
to thirty percent of the electricity generated by wind farms is lost when
grid operators hold back access to their transmission systems. Many
turbines do not yet meet the low voltage ride through (LVRT) standard
that makes it easier to integrate wind generated electricity into the grid
networks. These problems are being addressed as growth rates are
adjusted to more manageable levels and the balance in emphasis shifts
from quantity towards quality [24]. The State Grid Co-/*operation of
China (SGCC) accelerated the constructions of strong and smart grids,
and supporting the local economic and social developments with
provincial governments. Promote the grid projects to be key objectives
of the government which could provide from wind energy sectors to
supply electricity from grid to local consumers [43]. In 2007, the
Medium and Long-Term Development Plan for Renewable Energy in
China clarified that to connect 30 GW of wind energy by grid connected
systems. Rich wind energy resources in provinces such as Guangdong,
Fujian, Jiangsu, Shandong, Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Liaoning, and Jilin,
will be exploited in adjacent swaths, thus establishing a backbone of
major wind provinces, each with over 2 GW of capacity installed [44].
The different policies of wind energy in the country is shown in Table 1.
NDRC: National Development and Reform Commission; NEA:
National Energy Administration; AQSIQ: General Administration of
Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine; NPC: The National
People's Congress of China; SCC: The State Council of China; MLR:
Ministry of Land and Resources; MHUD: Ministry of Housing and
Urban Rural Development of China; SERC: State Electricity Regulatory
B.K. Sahu Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1393–1405

Table 1 generations with a period of 20 years for four different regions from
Different wind energy policies in China. 0.51 RMB/kW h (0.08 USD) to 0.61 RMB/kW h (0.10 USD) as per the
availability of wind resources. In 2010, the important role of this law
Issued by Effective time Documents
was encourages to the renewable energy supply, improve the energy
NDRC July 2004 The decision of state council on reforming structure, guarantee energy safety, and protect the environments [50].
the investment system The law includes several important policies viz. (i) Wind power grid-
NEA August 2011 The provisional measures on administration
connected pricing and cost-sharing policies, (ii) Public finance policies
of wind power development and
construction (iii) Preferential tax policies, (iv) Grid-connected wind power policy, (v)
AQSIQ October 2002 The measures on anemometry in wind farms Preferential policies for foreign-investing enterprises, and (vi) Local
NDRC September 2003 The compilation regulation on pre-feasibility government policy for wind power industry.
reports of wind farms
NDRC June 2004 Examination code of construction on wind
4.1. Wind power grid-connected pricing and cost-sharing policies
power plant project
NPC October 1999 Construction law
NPC January 2000 Bidding law Renewable Energy Law and State council determined the wind
SCC February 2012 The implementing regulations of bidding law power grid connected pricing and cost sharing policies on the basis of
NPC October 2007 Urban and rural construction planning law
different characteristics and different types of renewable energy power
NPC August 1998 Land administration law
MLR December 2007 The measures on land registration generation conditions at different local conditions. According to the
MLR March 1999 The measures on the examination and determining principles of economic reasonableness and benefits for the
approval of land for construction use promotion of renewable energy development and utilisation; and on
MHUD/ March 2012 Indicators of land for construction of power the basis of timely adjustments for the development and utilisation of
MLR/ projects (wind farms)
renewable energy technology. The grid connected power from wind
SERC
NPC September 2000 The regulations on construction survey and energy projects is decided by government-guided pricing; power
design management pricing standards are determined by the pricing authorities of the
MHUD August 2004 The measures on administration of reviews State Council according to prices set through bidding [24]. The price of
of construction design drawings and
grid-connected power shall be publicly announced. Issues related with
documents for building and infrastructure
MHUD July 2001 The measures on administration of
the pricing, Chinese government implemented the fixed pricing policy
construction license in different region has promoted the wind energy developments with a
rapid expansions and now it crossed US and EU countries for sharing
of highest new wind energy installed capacity in the world. In 2007,
Commission. Source: [45] (Permission is taken from author). China got rid of the lowest price bidding and in exchange used an
The Chinese Govt. has taken the provisions of rebalance to the average price bidding, which allowed foreign investors to have a greater
renewable energy sectors. The most priority of rebalance is made chance of securing projects. In 2010, the revision of Energy
domestic deployment of solar power, improving grid connectivity of Conservation Law analysed that the grid companies should strengthen
wind farms, and reducing curtailment of renewable electricity by grid the power grid constructions such that wind energy can be connected
operators. China's installed wind energy capacity, many wind genera- with the grid. It should be supportive by NDRC for full purchasing
tors remain unconnected to the grid. According to the China Renewable system [47]. The pricing value of grid connected renewable energy
Energy Industries Association (CREIA), between 2010 and 2012, up to power generation projects shall be proceeded with successfully tenders
one-third of installed wind capacity in China was not grid-connected. which will be not more than cost of renewable energy. Pricing policy
However, the new installed wind energy was connected with the grid by plays an important role in non-rich wind resources and non-pricing
48% in 2013 [46]. The rate of grid curtailment decreased slightly in policy with rich wind resources. The pricing policies should be further
2014 (8% nationwide), down by about 4% from previous year, and is flexible as per the availability of wind resources and it can be reduced
the lowest in the past four years since curtailment became an issue. But the wastes of generations by wind energy resources. In other words, the
due to poor quality of turbines in China, its malfunctions are affected benchmark prices can’t be lowest by technological innovation to the
constantly. Other countries are also facing same problems, but the enterprises in reasonable profit margins [51]. In addition of this, non-
consequences are particularly severe for China's mega wind farms. The pricing policies should be supervision reform, power dispatch reform
Northwest Power Grid in the Gansu Jiuquan wind power base suffered or tax or financial reform in the rich wind areas [52].
a short circuit fault in February 2011 that led to a massive output loss
of 840 MW from 598 turbines [47]. 4.2. Public finance policies
In Chinese wind industry, has been divided into three stages i.e.
pilot phase (1985–1993; competitive tariff: cost issues were solved by It is a fund support to the grid-connected pricing and cost-sharing
supported of favourable loan and foreign financial assistance and state as well as technological development of R & D, testing and demonstra-
aid), industrial phase (1993–2003; approval tariff: regional govern- tion. The National public finance authorities introduce the Renewable
ment was regulated wind power prices on basis of the regional Energy Development fund for supports the national public financing
situations, and then submitted the approval to the central government) via the arrangement of project funds. The Chinese government has
and large scale commercial stage 2003–2009, bidding tariff: address introduced a policy “Interim Measures of Ministry of Finance on
the variance of regional economic development and wind energy Management of Special Fund for Wind Power Equipment
resource distribution) [48]. Industrialization” for Chinese companies, or companies. This policy
Chinese wind energy is encouraged by Renewable Energy Law promotes government investments in renewable energy, better intro-
(which passed in 2005 and amended in 2009) and the important role of ducing social investment and bank funds into the sector and develop-
this law is to develop the renewable energy supplies, improve the ments the wind energy. Chinese controlling shareholders that develop
energy structure, guarantee energy safety and protect the environ- and industrialize production of 1.5 MW and larger-capacity wind
ments, preferential pricing, power purchase mandates, and cost shar- turbines and components, will receive subsidy of CNY600/kW for the
ing arrangements [49]. This law will encourage to the renewable energy first 50 turbines in year 2008 [53]. This subsidy encourages for first
generations for achieving 15% of total energy by 2020 and large state fifty turbines in technological innovations. Access to the low-cost
owned power companies at least to be contributed by 5% in the same finance system from state owned banks has supported extraordinary
years. In 2009, China introduced a FIT for wind energy power levels of expansion of renewable energy deployment for balance sheets

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B.K. Sahu
but it may act as a barrier to new entrants and small companies as well
as may be influenced by political considerations, so that finance is not
necessarily allocated to the most economically feasible projects [54].
This policy is further required for the rewarded turbines must be used
the domestic manufactured components.
4.3. Preferential tax policies
Preferential tax policies based on price and expense cost sharing
and supporting the public finance system which gives the financial
incentives for the developments of wind powers in R & D, constructions
and utilizations, reduction of costs with improvement of power quality
and prepared by the State Council. The Enterprise Income Tax Law has
provision to reduce at the rate of 20% for small low profit enterprises
and 15% for large profit enterprises. However, VAT transition policies
implemented as of 1 January 2009, allowed enterprises to deduct the
input tax included in newly purchased machines and equipment, which
reduced the local tax payments of wind farms remarkably. In order to
benefit from the wind power development, some areas even require
wind power development enterprises mandatorily to introduce wind
turbine or spare parts manufacturers while developing wind farms
locally [55].
4.4. Grid-connected wind power policy
China has increased the wind energy capacity by grid connection
systems by 87% in the last six years [56]. The National Energy
Administration has released his guidelines for distributed wind energy
power to grid connected systems. Henan, Anhui, Shanxi, Guizhou,
along with some other province's are key issued for connections of wind
energy from distributed system into the grid connected system.
According to the guidelines, distributed wind power projects, where
installed capacity is not allowed to exceed 50 MW, can only connect to
the existing 110-kV or 66-kV power grid systems through multi-access
points. For a large Chinese wind power farm expected that all existing
wind turbines are designed to connect to higher-voltage power grid
systems, which means that all distributed wind turbines will need
further upgrade work before they can be connected to the power grid
[57]. On October 2012, The IEC released a white paper on renewable
energy for the grid connection system that "Grid Integration of Large-
capacity Renewable Energy Sources and Use of Large-capacity
Electrical Energy Storage". The primary goal of this projection is to
enhance the renewable energy through the state of the art and future
directions for grid integration of large-capacity RE sources, such as
wind power and solar power [58]. The constructions of any renewable
energy followed to the rule and regulation of the State Council. The grid
connected wind energy enterprises should strengthen to the construc-
tions, developments, technology, transmission lines and grid-connec-
tion services. The power grid enterprises purchase the power within the
coverage area from the renewable energy projects [59]. However, grid
curtailment and integration is a prominent issue for China's wind
industry. On the grid integration side, the state grid has tracked the
progress of wind power projects and adjusted their requirements on the
construction of transmission lines. By the end of 2013, State Grid had
invested 71.6 billion Yuan in constructing wind power substation of
24.77 million kVA and operating a 34,000 km long wind power
transmission for wind integration.
The electricity infrastructure plays an important roles for increase
in the penetration of renewable energy into power grid has a large
impact on the future need for the upgrades of electricity infrastructure
[60]. However, the weak grid infrastructure are caused of transfer
electricity over the long distances from China's three wind-rich north-
ern regions (Northern China, Northeastern China and North- western
China) to the load centres in the south and east, and the weak peak
regulation capacity resulted from insufficient flexible power sources, as
well as the incomplete market mode in the country, among others,
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large scale wind curtailment has occurred since 2009 [61]. On the other
hand, China's smart grid construction which is still in the initial stage
restricts the development. Chinese Government should encourage to
the grid companies for purchasing and transmitting of the generating
power from wind farms to their industrial and residential customers.
4.5. Preferential policies for foreign-investing enterprises
According to the laws and regulations related to foreign investment,
Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures, Chinese-foreign contractual joint
ventures and wholly foreign-owned enterprises (hereinafter collectively
called foreign-invested enterprises) that are established within the
territory of China and have obtained the related legal documents,
including foreign-invested enterprise approval certificates and business
licenses, of which the invested projects comply with the encouraged
projects in the Catalogue for Guidance of Foreign Investment
Industries or The Catalogue of Priority Industry for Foreign
Investments in Central and Western Areas, the imported self-use
equipment and the supporting technology, fittings and spare parts
(hereinafter referred to as self-use equipment), apart from the com-
modities listed in The Catalogue of Non Tax-Free Imported
Commodities of Foreign-Invested Projects, shall be exempted from
tariffs and import value-added tax. Example: Siemens entered a JV
with Shanghai Electric for producing of 4 MW offshore turbines in
Jiangsu province [62].
4.6. Local government policy for wind power industry
The National Energy Regulator referred to the local governments
for measurements of the energy consumption from wind energy and
resolution to the problems. The company can’t get the subsidies from
renewable energy development funds and grid connection systems of
wind powers, if the project is not under the government approvals. Due
to this, many projects were approvals after 1st September 2011 which
helps for high growth rates [63]. The local governments also introduced
the policies for development of the wind powers by 2020. Inner
Mongolia, Xinjiang, Gansu, Jilin, Hebei and Jiangsu provinces have
all launched planning work for 10 GW-scale wind power bases under
the unified organisation of the National Energy Administration. The
Chinese government has reformed the proposal for the developments
of wind energy by their targets as well as development of the policies of
the supportive incentives so that it will attract to the interested parties
as well as local benefits will come. For example: the increase of 3–5
yens in the price of electricity through the economic developments and
this policy is especially more attractive for the western part of the
China. Encourage the specific policies to the grid connected companies
through the economic policies under the rules so that they will accept
to it. Again, the better management is very much essential for the
renewable energy funds. Improve the various incentives and penalties
as per the requirements for the generating of electricity by non-hydro
power plants [64].
5. National supportive policies
The Chinese government has made the supportive policies with the
help of industrial policy, standards setting, information administration
and grid connected systems which would give the attractive to the large
scale of wind firms.
5.1. Industrial policy
The industrial policy gives the clear return investment values for the
investors and also it encourages for exploitations of high quality
resources and guarantee the orderly progress of wind power develop-
ment.
B.K. Sahu
5.2. Standard setting
In January 2010, the National Energy Bureau introduced a new
regulation for the offshore wind energy developments and construc-
tion. This policy covers whole systems such as planning, prefeasibility
and feasibility studies and operation and maintenance of the offshore
wind power plants.
5.3. Construction information
In February 2009, the National Energy Bureau has established one
information centre named as Nation Wind Power Information
Administration for providing of all information about the wind power
construction in the country. However, it was started the formal work
done by officially from June 2010.
5.4. Grid construction
By various studies in different wind power regions, in April 2010,
the National Energy Bureau has developed the relationships of the
power systems for the large scale wind power plants into the grid
connected systems.
6. Supportive policies for wind energy in China
Liao Z. analysed 72 nos. of different policies implemented by
different organizations for the developments of wind energy since
1995. He found that there are twenty organizations that had indepen-
dently or jointly issued wind energy policies including the Standing
Committee of the National People's Congress, the State Council, the
National Development and Reform Commission, the State Economic
and Trade Commission, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the
Ministry of Finance, the Customs Head Office, the State Bureau of
Taxation, the State Intellectual Property Office, the Ministry of Land
and Resources, and the Propaganda Department of the Central
Committee of the CPC. Through the polices China's wind energy help
to promote development of the energy sectors by in all aspects [65].
The law along with relevant government departments such as the
National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) determines
grid-connected wind power prices and cost sharing policies. Pricing
authorities of respective state councils shall determine the grid con-
nected power prices for renewable energy power generation projects.
On the other hand, the public finance polices has provision for public
finances through the Energy Development Fund. This fund is created to
support R & D in renewable energy, project development in farming
and ranching areas, construction of electric power systems in remote
and island areas, local design of renewable energy technologies etc.
Moreover, power grid enterprises that cannot recover, through power
prices, grid connection expenses and other related expenses can apply
to the Renewable Energy Development Fund for support. The prefer-
ential tax policies provide financial incentives that support the devel-
opment of wind power. The government grants tax benefits to the
projects listed in the renewable energy industrial development gui-
dance catalogue. The Enterprise Income Tax Law (passed in 2007)
proposed enterprise income tax at a reduced rate of 20% for small low-
profit enterprise satisfying the prescribed conditions and 15% for
important high-tech enterprises which need to be supported by the
state. The grid-connected wind power policy ensures achievement of
the renewable energy target in total electric power volume within the
time period of the plan and also formulates specific measures for
power-grid enterprises to priorities management and fully purchase the
power generated from renewable energy. There are also several
provisions for foreign investment in wind power sector of China. A
foreign joint venture may enjoy the preferential treatment of reduction
of or exemption from tax and also a foreign joint venture that reinvests
in China its share of the net profit may apply for a refund of part of the
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income taxes already paid. In Local governments of wind resource rich
provinces of China (such as Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Gansu, Jilin,
Hebei and Jiangsu), have also introduced policies for wind power
development, including wind power development plans and 2020
targets, and interim measures for wind power projects [39]. The
NDRC has implemented medium and long term development goals
to increase China's renewable energy target up to 10% in 2010 and then
up to 15% in 2020. Further, the Chinese government has feeded four
different types of tariff rates specific to each geographical region. The
tariffs are RMB (Renminbi) 0.51 per kW h (7.5 US cents per kW h) for
best wind resource regions of Inner Mongolia and parts of Xinjiang.
The second and third levels are RMB 0.54 per kW h (7.9 US cents per
kW h) and RMB 0.58 per kW h (8.5 US cents per kW h) for more
average regions throughout large sections of the country such as parts
of western, central and north-eastern China. The fourth level is RMB
0.61 per kW h (9.0 US cents per kW h) for the least favourable resource
regions. In December 2015, National Development and Reform
Commission (NDRC) has decided to cut feed-in tariff for new projects
after 2018 in Zone I, II, III and IV by RMB0.04, RMB0.02, RMB0.02,
and RMB0.01, per kW h respectively. However, technically, companies
can satisfy with the 2016 feed-in tariff as long as the project is approved
and included into subsidies list before 2018 and started construction
before 2019. Increasing tariff spread between Zone IV and Zone I will
encourage companies to get more approval in Zone IV. In addition to
the reduction by NDRC, Shandong cut its provincial subsidy from
RMB0.06/kw h of 2015 to RMB0.02/kw h in 2016. Yunnan proposed
to calculate wind feed in tariffs by using hydro power tariff as the
reference prices, which would cut down the wind tariff by around
RMB0.13/kw h from its current Zone IV tariff. Tariff cut in Yunnan and
subsidy cut in Shandong will may affect all existing wind power
companies in 2017.
7. Deficiencies of wind energy policies in China
However, there are certain deficiencies in China's wind policies and
major of them are:
(i) Current Chinese policies provide renewable power generation
quotas for power supply enterprises only and there are no quotas
defined for power grid enterprises.
(ii) Lags in development objectives in China's wind power policy.
Due to a fear that industrial development would not be able to
keep pace, China's wind power development goals were much
lower in the past than the rate of developments. Although the
government has indicated that wind power development target
should not be less than 80 GW by 2015 and 150 GW by 2020,
this is still not a formal, legally binding document.
(iii) The changes in the national value-added tax (VAT) system has
affected the investment enthusiasm of local governments which
may also have a negative impact on wind power industry. At a
national level, changing the VAT from production to consump-
tion and the implementation of a pre-tax deduction in terms of
the machinery and equipment of secondary industries will reduce
the tax burden on wind power development companies, but the
income to local governments will be substantially reduced. These
changes have encouraged several types of local protectionism
[44].
(iv) The issue of wind curtailment remains unresolved. The raising of
curtailment with weak grid infrastructures affects the develop-
ments of wind energy since last few years. It is estimated that the
average rate of rejection of electricity has been increased by 10%
in the last six years. The curtailment cannot be solved overnight
and will continued to be an issue for the industry for years to
come. However, the current FIT did not take into account the
factor of curtailment when it was introduced back in 2009. Due
to this continuous raised of curtailments may affects to the reach
B.K. Sahu
the targets
(v) FIT Premium Reimbursement Delay has also created some
problems for the developers which creates a huge cash flow
problem.
(vi) (V) Lack of co-ordinations among the relevant departments
makes the difficult to approve, constructions and implementa-
tions of offshore wind energy.
(vii) Cheap electricity on the demand side effects the developments of
wind energy for China's power generators and grid operators to
ensure adequate supplies.
(viii) Existing transmission lines were designed for thermal and hydro
power where output of generation is constant. However, the
integration of wind power with same transmission lines may
affect to the grid quality and reliabilities.
(ix) Due to poor quality, turbines installed affects to the grid qualities
constantly.
(x) It takes more than 2 years for grid companies to get the permit of
approval from central government for the grid facilities.
8. Conclusion
Most of coastal belts have good wind energy resources in China. The
Chinese government has been introducing different attractive subsidies
for the local and outsider manufacturing companies. Both pricing and
non-pricing policies are played key roles for the developments of wind
energy capacities. The pricing policies gives more emphasised to the
local developers as well manufacturers for prompting to the wind
energy developments in the country. Without technological regulations
for qualities of wind turbines, most of companies are integrating the
lower qualities of wind turbines to the grid which are making several
challenges. In the other hand, technically, there are various issues and
challenges for the wind energy developments due to increasing of
curtailments of wind energy integrations with the weaker grid infra-
structures. The integrations of wind powers with the existing grid may
affects the power qualities and grid reliabilities. The excessive wastes of
wind powers may affect to reaching of the targets and economics of the
country. So, improvement of policies, power managements, invest-
ments, co-ordinations, planning, technologies and supportive of gov-
ernments are required for the developments of wind energy in the
country. The development of wind energy enhanced the power sectors
as well as the economic growth rates.
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