April 2014 - Chemical Engineering - P&ID DEvelopment PDF

April
2014 COMPRESSORS
Two-Part
Feature Report
Starts on Page 50
www.che.com
P&ID
Development
Air-Sensitive
Materials
Capturing CO2
Focus on:
Temperature
Measurement
and Control
Two-Part Feature Report

Starts on Page 38
Powder & Bulk Solids

Show Preview
Solids Processing
Special Advertising Section
IFAT 2014
Show Preview
Facts at Your Fingertips:

Static Electricity Discharge
and Fire Prevention
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www.che.com
APRIL 2014 VOLUME 121, NO. 4
COVER STORY
38 Cover Story Part 1 Overcoming Solids Caking with Flow Aids
A wide range of active and passive flow aids are available to help assist
gravity flow of solids from bins and hoppers
38
42 Cover Story Part 2 Solids Drying: Basics and Applications
Several types of batch and continuous dryers exist in the CPI for
removing moisture from solids
NEWS
11 Chementator An organic waste-to-biogas system to be scaled up in
first installation; A promising process to recover Li from seawater; An
inorganic paper for preserving information and other applications; This
new water-treatment polymer improves scale control in boilers; A solid
chelating ligand for making heterogeneous catalysts; and more
21 Newsfront CO2 Gets Grounded As major carbon-capture-and-stor-
age products enter the startup phase, R&D efforts to reduce the costs
for capturing CO2 continue
24 Newsfront Mastering the Challenges of Air-Sensitive Materials
New equipment strives to make handling air-sensitive materials more ef-
ficient and economical
24
ENGINEERING
36 Facts at Your Fingertips Static Electricity Discharge and Fire Pre-
vention This one-page reference provides information on potential
sources of static electrical discharge
37 Technology Profile Bio-based Succinic Acid
This one-page profile describes a process for producing succinic
acid from sugar feedstock with a fermentation-based process
50 Feature Report Part 1 Protecting Against Compressor Pul-
sations Minimizing detrimental pulsation behavior by exam-
ining harmonics improves operations and safety
56 Feature Report Part 2 Integrally Geared Compressors in the
CPI Follow this guidance to improve operation, safety and reliability
of integrally geared compressors
62 Engineering Practice Principles of P&ID Development The tips
provided here will streamline efforts to develop the piping and instru-
mentation diagram
56
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2014 1
02_CHE_040114_TOC.indd 1 3/18/14 1:04:58 PM

28
EQUIPMENT & SERVICES

28 Focus on Temperature Measurement and Control
A dual-sensor temperature transmitter with HART protocols;
Temperature-control hoses with improved flow characteristics;
A thermal controller with user-friendly software; A temperature
scanner for both the laboratory and the factory; These bimetal
thermometers eliminate mercury; and more
30 New Products These manometers feature extended service inter-
vals; These compressors have new energy-saving features; Use this
flowmeter to optimize air-gas ratio in burners; These stackers are
designed with ergonomics in mind; and more
33 Show Preview IFAT 2014 The world’s largest environmental
tradeshow will take place in Munich, Germany on May 5–9. In-
cluded here is a small selection of products to be displayed there
35 Show Preview International Powder and Bulk Solids Confer-
ence and Exhibition 2014 The tradeshow will be held in Rose-
mont, Ill. from May 6 to 8. Included here are some of the products
that will be showcased at the event
COMMENTARY
5 Editor’s Page Cybersecurity: The challenges of interconnec-
tivity Interconnected devices in an industrial setting bring many
advantages, and some challenges — the biggest of which is argu-
ably cybersecurity
73 The Fractionation Column A better look into kettle reboilers

FRI installed two new windows on its industrial-sized kettle reboiler,
greatly enhancing the view of liquid-droplet entrainment
DEPARTMENTS 30
6 Letters 78 Who’s Who
8 Calendar 79 Economic Indicators
76 Reader Service
ADVERTISERS
46 Solids Handling Special Advertising Section
74 Product Showcase/Classified
77 Advertiser Index
33
COMING IN MAY
Look for: Feature Reports on Leak Detection; and Heat Exchangers;
ONLY ON CHE.COM
Engineering Practice articles on Managing Data; and Fuel-Gas-Fired
Heaters; A Focus on Granulation and Agglomeration; A Facts at Your Look for Web-exclusive articles;
Fingertips on Pump Maintenance; News articles on Petroleum Refining; and “Test your Knowledge”
Wireless Technology; and more quizzes; New Products;
Latest News; and more
Cover: David Whitcher
2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2014
02_CHE_040114_TOC.indd 2 3/18/14 1:07:18 PM

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Winner of Eight Jesse H. Neal
Awards for Editorial Excellence
Editor’s Page
Published since 1902

An Access Intelligence Publication Cybersecurity: The challenges
of interconnectivity
PUBLISHER ART & DESIGN
MICHAEL GROSSMAN DAVID WHITCHER

Vice President and Group Publisher Art Director/
B
mgrossman@accessintel.com Editorial Production Manager
dwhitcher@che.com
ig-time security threats and breaches, like the recent Target data
EDITORS
PRODUCTION
breach involving confidential consumer information, remind us
DOROTHY LOZOWSKI of how vulnerable our interconnectivity makes us. And yet, the
Editor in Chief JOHN BLAYLOCK-COOKE
dlozowski@che.com Ad Production Manager advantages of the technological advances that we enjoy are so many
GERALD ONDREY (Frankfurt)
jcooke@accessintel.com that there is no turning back.
Senior Editor INFORMATION In his keynote presentation at the recent ARC Industry Forum
gondrey@che.com SERVICES
(February 2014; Orlando, Fla.; www.arc.com), ARC Advisory Group
SCOTT JENKINS CHARLES SANDS
Senior Editor Director of Digital Development president Andy Chatha described how intelligent assets, devices,
sjenkins@che.com csands@accessintel.com sensors, data communication platforms, analytics and software are
MARY PAGE BAILEY AUDIENCE already in place, and form the building blocks for the industrial In-
Assistant Editor DEVELOPMENT
mbailey@che.com ternet of Things (IoT) — a term that is now commonly used to refer to
SARAH GARWOOD
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS Audience Marketing Director
the network connectivity of objects. Chatha cited the multitude of ca-
SUZANNE A. SHELLEY sgarwood@accessintel.com pabilities that are now being built into automobiles as an example of
sshelley@che.com GEORGE SEVERINE how our world is increasingly interconnected through technology. He
Fulfillment Manager
CHARLES BUTCHER (U.K.) predicts that this year will see a breakthrough in wearable devices,
gseverine@accessintel.com
cbutcher@che.com
PAUL S. GRAD (Australia) JEN FELLING such as those already available for monitoring health.
List Sales, Statlistics (203) 778-8700
pgrad@che.com
j.felling@statlistics.com
The advantages of interconnectivity in an industrial setting can be
TETSUO SATOH (Japan)
tsatoh@che.com EDITORIAL
many, for example: enabling better performance through predictive
JOY LEPREE (New Jersey) ADVISORY BOARD maintenance; remote monitoring and fixes; better field-service capa-
jlepree@che.com JOHN CARSON bilities through mobile devices; and for platforms, such as cloud com-
GERALD PARKINSON Jenike & Johanson, Inc. puting, cost savings by being able to pay for only what you use.
(California) gparkinson@che.com DAVID DICKEY
MixTech, Inc.
Along with the advantages comes a number of challenges, such
MARKETING
MUKESH DOBLE as an increase in complexity. As one ARC Forum participant noted,
MICHAEL CONTI
Marketing Director
IIT Madras, India things have become so complex these days that it can be a challenge to
TradeFair Group, Inc. HENRY KISTER figure out how to operate a car when you rent one — sometimes even
michaelc@tradefairgroup.com Fluor Corp.
GERHARD KREYSA (retired) how to turn it on is not obvious. But for industrial IoT, Chatha says
CRISTANE MARTIN
Marketing Manager
DECHEMA e.V. that “Cybersecurity is by far the biggest challenge.”
TradeFair Group, Inc. RAM RAMACHANDRAN One part of this challenge is that the “fixes” to maintain cyber-
cmartin@accessintel.com (Retired) The Linde Group
security are continuously evolving as the threats advance. A mile-
HEADQUARTERS
88 Pine Street, 5th Floor, New York, NY 10005, U.S.
stone in addressing the cybersecurity challenge was the release, on
Tel: 212-621-4900 Fax: 212-621-4694 February 12, of the U.S. Cybersecurity Framework (www.nist.gov/
EUROPEAN EDITORIAL OFFICES
cyberframework). The intention is for the Framework to be a living
Zeilweg 44, D-60439 Frankfurt am Main, Germany document that will be updated as industry provides feedback. The
Tel: 49-69-9573-8296 Fax: 49-69-5700-2484 Cybersecurity Framework is the result of partnership efforts among
CIRCULATION REQUESTS: The White House, the Automation Federation and its founding or-
Tel: 847-564-9290 Fax: 847-564-9453 ganization, the International Society of Automation (ISA; Research
Fullfillment Manager; P.O. Box 3588,
Northbrook, IL 60065-3588 email: chemeng@omeda.com Triangle Park, N. C.; www.isa.org). In fact, the ISA’s industrial au-
ADVERTISING REQUESTS: see p. 76
tomation and control system (IACS) security standards (ISA99/
For reprints, licensing and permissions: Wright's Media, 1-877-652-5295, IEC63443) are among the framework’s recommendations.
sales@wrightsmedia.com But even with guidelines, the challenges faced by industry are many.
ACCESS INTELLIGENCE, LLC In a survey of end users conducted by the ARC Advisory Group and
DON PAZOUR ROBERT PACIOREK reported by Sid Snitkin (vice president and general manager of En-
Chief Executive Officer Senior Vice President,
Chief Information Officer terprise Advisory Services), major hurdles to industrial control system
ED PINEDO
Executive Vice President SYLVIA SIERRA (ICS) security include a lack of understanding of the difference be-
& Chief Financial Officer Senior Vice President,
Corporate Audience Development tween cybersecurity for IT and for ICSs, and the lack
MACY L. FECTO
Exec. Vice President, MICHAEL KRAUS of resources with the needed cybersecurity expertise.
Human Resources & Administration VP, Production, Digital Media
& Design These issues, among others, were discussed during
HEATHER FARLEY
Divisional President, STEVE BARBER an ARC Forum panel on the topic. While there are no
Access Intelligence Vice President,
Financial Planning and Internal Audit easy answers, two strong messages that came across
DANIEL MCKINNON are the following: (1) both IT and ICS experts need
Vice President, GERALD STASKO
Energy and Engineering Events Vice President/Corporate Controller to work together on industrial cybersecurity; and
(2) maintaining security is hard work that requires
great diligence on the part of the user. ■
4 Choke Cherry Road, Second Floor Dorothy Lozowski, Editor in Chief
Rockville, MD 20850 • www.accessintel.com
03_CHE_040114_ED.indd 5 3/19/14 7:33:07 AM

Mu?llerGmbH_ChemicalEngineering_e_86x123_2014.qxd:MüllerGm
Chemical Engineering e 1.6 Messe 86x123 2014
Letters
INTERPACK DÜSSELDORF
from 08 to 14 May 2014
Hall 7.0 / Booth B20 Honors for commercialization
tsubstances?
oxic
of scientific innovations
Transferring potent or In an effort to acknowledge great scientific achieve-
ments each year, the Industrial Research Institute
(IRI) — an association that brings together leading
practitioners in technological innovation and R&D
management to seek, share, learn and create best
practices — recognizes the invaluable contribution
of individual innovators to the advancement of sci-
ence, industry and society with its presentation of
the IRI Medal.
For the commercialization of scientific innovations
Müller Containment Valve MCV
in areas ranging from plastics manufacturing to nano-
– Suitable for OEB 5 (OEL < 1 μg/m3)
– Available sizes: DN 100, DN 150, medicine, which demonstrate significant economic, en-
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– Explosion pressure shock resistant year’s medal to Dr. Joseph DeSimone, the Chancellor’s
up to +10 bar
– Vacuum-tight version down to –1 bar Eminent Professor of Chemistry at the University of
– Explosion-proof to ATEX for Zone 0/20 North Carolina (UNC) at Chapel Hill and William R.
– Easy-to-wipe flat surfaces Kenan, Jr. Distinguished Professor of Chemical En-
– AISI 316 L stainless steel, Hastelloy
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– GMP-compliant design Chemistry at UNC.
Müller GmbH - 79618 Rheinfelden (Germany) DeSimone is a polymer chemist who has aided
Industrieweg 5 - Phone: +49(0)7623/969-0 - Fax: +49 (0) 76 23 /9 69 -69 breakthroughs in fluoropolymer synthesis, colloid sci-
A company of the Müller group
ence, nano-biomaterials, green chemistry and most
info@mueller-gmbh.com - www.mueller-gmbh.com
recently, 3-D printing. He holds 140 patents, with over
Circle 17 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/50975-17 80 patents pending, and has published over 300 sci-
entific articles. He received a B.S. in chemistry from
Ursinus College in 1986 and a Ph.D. in chemistry from
Virginia Tech in 1990.
The award ceremony for Dr. DeSimone is on the
evening of May 21, 2014, at the Sheraton Boston Hotel
during IRI’s Annual Meeting.
IRI is an organization of more than 200 industrial
and service companies having a common interest in
the effective management of technological innovation.
The Industrial Research Institute
Arlington,Va.; www.iriweb.org
Postscripts, corrections
January 2014, “Propylene Production via Propane
Dehydrogenation,” p. 27. In the January Technology
Profile, an error was made in printing the assump-
tions for the economic analysis. The issue states the
analysis is based on a plant with a capacity of 590
ton/yr. It should have said a 590,000 ton/yr capacity.
The corrected version of the full article can be found at

www.che.com. ■
Do you have — • Ideas to air? • Feedback about

our articles? • Comments about today’s engineering
practice or education? • Job-related issues to share?
If so — Send them, for our Letters column, to
Dorothy Lozowski, Chemical Engineering,
Access Intelligence, 88 Pine Street,
5th Floor, New York, NY 10005; letters@che.com
6 Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014
04_CHE_040114_LET.indd 6 3/17/14 8:41:15 AM

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Y
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TOLL MANUFACTURE SINCE 1982 IW Best Plants 2014. Manufacturing Enterprise So-
lutions Assn. (MESA) International (Chandler, Ariz.)
and Industry Week. Phone: 216-931-9512; Web:
iwbestplants.com
Custom Catalyst ISO 9001:2008 Milwaukee, Wisc. May 5–7
Milling / Grinding Screening
Battcon 2014 — International Stationary Battery
Calcining / Drying Vacuum Impregnating Conference and Trade Show. Albercorp/Battcon
(Pompano Beach, Fla.). Phone: 800-851-4632; Web:
Solids or Liquid Metal Reclaim battcon.com
Boca Raton, Fla. May 5–7
Mixing/Blending/ Pelletizing
Packaging PTXi Powder and Bulk Solids 2014. UBM Canon
(Los Angeles, Calif.). Phone: 310-445-4200; Web:
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YS Inc.
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Collinsville, AL 35961 Optimal Solid State Form for Pharmaceutical De-
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ysinc@ys-inc.com and Rutgers University (New Brunswick, N.J.). Phone:
+44-1435-873062; Web: scientificupdate.co.uk
Rosemont, Ill. May 6–8
ESTECH 2014 — 60th Annual Technical Meeting
and Expo of IEST. Inst. of Environmental Sciences
and Technology (IEST; Arlington Heights, Ill.). Phone:
The Chemical Engineering bookstore 847-981-0100; Web: iest.org
offers a variety of industry topics San Antonio, Tex. May 13–16
you will come to rely on. Residuals and Biosolids 2014. Water Environment
Federation Specialty Conferences (Alexandria, Va.).
Phone: 800-666-0206; Web: wef.org
Austin, Tex. May 18–21
Refinery & Petrochemical Wastewater Treatment

Training. Refinery Water Engineering & Assoc. (Ned-
erland, Tex.) and Lamar University (Beaumont, Tex.).
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beaumont-texas-june-2014
Arlington Heights, Ill. June 3–4
• Environmental Management: 14th Annual AWMA Conference. Air & Waste Man-
Air-Pollution Control
agement Assn. (Pittsburgh, Pa.). Phone: 412-232-3444;
• Environmental Management: Wastewater Web: awma.org
and Groundwater Treatment Long Beach, Calif. June 24–27
• Fluid Handling
• Gas-Solid and Liquid-Solid Separation Establishing and Monitoring a Clean Manufactur-
• Liquid-Liquid and Gas-Liquid Separation ing Program. Institute of Environmental Sciences
and Technology (Arlington Heights, Ill.). Phone: 847-
• Managing Bulk Solids
17792
981-0100, Ext. 6012; Web: iest.org
Arlington Heights, Ill. July 16
For a complete list of products, visit the
Chemical Engineering bookstore now.
2014 Chemical Sector Safety Security Summit
http://store.che.com/product/book
and Expo. SOCMA (Washington, D.C.). Phone: 202-
721-4100; Web: socma.com
Baltimore, Md. July 22–24
05_CHE_040114_CAL.indd 8 3/17/14 8:59:17 AM

Endless steel belt systems
for the chemical &
petrochemical industry
Gasification Technologies Conference 2014. Gas-
ification Technologies Council (Arlington, Va.). Phone:
703-276-0110; Web: gasification.org
Washington, D.C. Oct. 26–29
Europe
IFAT 2014: Trade Fair for Water, Sewage and
Waste Management. Messe München GmbH
(Munich, Germany). Phone: +49-89-949-21478;
Web: ifat.de
Munich, Germany May 5–6
22nd Annual European Biomass Conference and

Exhibition. ETA Florence (Florence, Italy). Phone:
+39-55-5002280, Ext. 221; Web:
conference-biomass.com
Hamburg, Germany June 23–26
PEPP 2014: 22nd Annual Polyethylene-Polypropyl-

ene Chain Technology and Business Forum. IHS
Chemical (Englewood, Colo.). Phone: 512-582-2015;
Web: ihs.com/pepp2014
Zurich, Switzerland June 25–26
What Bear discovered:
Nanofair 2014. VDI Wissensforum GmbH (Düssel-
dorf, Germany). Phone: +49-351-83391-3317; Web:
nanofair.com SBS Steel Belt Systems Group designs
Dresden, Germany July 1–3 and builds continuous conveyors for a
10th European Soc. of Biochemical Engineering wide range of applications, equipped
Sciences and 6th International Forum on Indus- with steel belts from Berndorf Band.
trial Bioprocesses. University of Lille (Lille, France),
in collaboration with the American Chemical Soc. Having been pioneers in the develop-
(Washington, D.C.). Fax: +33-3-2876-7356; Web: esbes-
ifibiop-lille2014.com
ment of pastillating units, SBS now
Lille, France Sept. 7–10 provides turnkey solutions along with
cooling conveyors for the solidification
IWA World Water Congress 2014. IWA Exhibition
Management (The Hague, The Netherlands). Phone:
of liquid sulphur into pastilles.
+31-70-382-0028; Web: iwa2014lisbon.org
Lisbon, Portugal Sept. 21–26 Rolldrop® and Accudrop® are
registered trademarks of SBS Steel
ICBR 2014: 19th International Congress for Bat- Belt Systems Group.
tery Recycling. ICM AG (Birrwil, Switzerland).
Phone: +41-62-785-1000; Web: icm.ch
Hamburg, Germany Sept. 24–26
Asia & Elsewhere

Interpack Fair Recycling Conference. Plastics Re-
cyclers Europe (Brussels, Belgium). Phone: +32-2-742- SBS Steel Belt Systems USA Inc.
96-82; Web: plasticsrecyclers.eu 59 Prairie Parkway, Gilberts, IL 60136
Düsseldorf, Germany May 8 Phone: (+1) 847 841 3300
Fax: (+1) 847 931 5299
InaChem. Federation of the Indonesian Chemical In- info@steelbeltsystemsusa.com
dustry (Jakarta, Indonesia), Indonesian Institution of www.steelbeltsystems.com
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nesia. Phone: +62-21-789-2938; Web: ina-chem.com
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Edited by Gerald Ondrey April 2014
Biomethane Electricity
Solids separation
An organic waste-to-biogas system Organic

waste
system
to be scaled up in first installation or sludge Anaerobic

biological
reactor
Effluent
C onstruction will soon begin at a site in

Korea on an anaerobic digester tech-
nology that converts organic waste and
nique involves nano-grind-
ing units, called Molecular
Chemical Grinding (MCG), Anaerobic solids
Fertilizer
products,
recycle as applicable
biomass to methane at high conversion which reduce the particle
rates, while also producing a fertilizer size of solid materials and
Molecular
stream. Technology developer Bioconver- selectively break down Solubilized chemical Anaerobic
sions Solutions LLC (Exton, Pa.; www. large macromolecules into anaerobic grinding
(MCG) unit
solids
solids to MCG
bioconversionssolutions.com) announced smaller polymer units and
that this first large-scale facility in Korea monomers, explains Rozich. Organic
will be followed by a second in Australia The process works by first fermenting waste
or sludge
in 2015. organic waste or sludge in the anaero-
Known as AFC2 (Advanced Fluidized bic bioreactor, where biomethane is re-
Co-Digestion & Co-Generation), the tech- moved for electrical power generation.
nology uses naturally occurring anaerobic The remaining solids are sent to the
Ammonia synthesis
bacteria to convert a variety of organic MCG unit, where they are broken down, Last month, Haldor Topsøe
A/S (Lyngby, Denmark; www.
wastes and biomass to methane by fer- solubilized and sent back to the reactor
topsoe.com) introduced a new
mentation, for use in power generation. At for further digestion. The process also ammonia-synthesis catalyst.
the same time, the process removes nitro- has a separation system that removes Tradenamed KM 111, the new
gen, phosphorus and potassium nutrients the fertilizer products. catalyst is a magnetite-based
that can be used as agricultural fertilizer. “The process features low operating catalyst developed for optimal
The digester operates at between 90 costs, and can reduce the amount of sol- performance in the lower beds
and 105°F and is capable of converting ids requiring disposal to very low levels,” of NH3 converters.
up to 90% of waste solids into biogas, says Rozich says. The first large-scale instal- The KM 111 catalyst pos-
Bioconversions CEO Al Rozich. A key to lation of the AFC2 technology is at a mu- sesses an activity that sur-
the high conversion rates is a particle- nicipal wastewater facility in Daejeon, passes the market-leading
activity of KM1, says the
size reduction technique developed by South Korea, where the goals include
company. The increase in
the company that increases the digest- minimizing sludge production and asso- activity improves the kinet-
ibility of the organic material. The tech- ciated costs at the plant. ics of the synthesis reaction,
which allows for reductions
in temperature — a critical
A promising process to recover Li from seawater advantage, since chemical
equilibrium favors higher con-
L ithium is an element of growing impor-

tance for the production of batteries
and nuclear fuels. Because Japan relies
to pass through the ionic liquid, thus
forming a concentrated Li+ solution on
the cathode side.
version at lower temperatures.
As a consequence, users who
select the combination of KM1
(upper bed) and KM 111 (lower
completely on imports of this material, In the laboratory, using a Nasicon-type
bed) can expect a consider-
with the majority coming from South crystalline ceramic as a support for the able increase in NH3 capacity,
America, the country is looking for alter- ionic liquid, the researchers have demon- says Topsøe.
native sources for this element. The an- strated the ability to recover 7% of the Li+ An additional benefit of the
swer may be in the island-nation’s own from 25 L of seawater after 3 days, while higher conversion with KM 111
“backyard” — namely, seawater. A prom- generating electricity (0.04 V, 0.1 mA). is a savings in plant operating
ising, “revolutionary” technology, which After 30 d, a 50% recovery was achieved costs. At existing plants, energy
recovers lithium from seawater while from a brine solution (Li+ concentration consumption can be reduced
simultaneously generating electricity, is 50–100 times higher than seawater). by operating at lower loop pres-
being developed by Takeshi Hoshino and The lithium is subsequently recovered as sures and lower converter inlet
flows with no compromise to
colleagues at the Japanese Atomic En- purified Li2CO3 after precipitation with
production levels. For grass-
ergy Agency (JAEA; Aomori; https://www. Na2CO3, filtration and drying. roots plants and for new NH3
jaea.go.jp). The researchers are planning to build converters at existing plants,
The process uses electrodialysis with a pilot plant to further develop the tech- KM 111 can meet capacity re-
an ionic-liquid film as the separator be- nology, which may also be suitable for quirements with a smaller vol-
tween the cathode and anode. As seawa- recycling lithium from batteries, and re- ume of catalyst, allowing users
ter flows through the anode side of the covering lithium and other minerals from to reduce reactor size.
electrodialysis cell, only Li+ ions are able desalination brine.
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number
on p. 76, or use the website designation. Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014 11
06_CHE_040114_CHM.indd 11 3/17/14 1:12:53 PM

C HEMENTATO R
An inorganic paper for preserving

information and other applications
A new kind of highly flexible and non-
flammable inorganic paper that can be
used for the permanent and safe storage of
information has been developed by a team
led by professor Ying-Jie Zhu, from the
Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese
Academy of Sciences (www.sic.cas.cn). The
work has been described in a recent issue
of Chemistry — A European Journal. hydrophobicity. The calcium oleate pre-
The team developed the paper, which cursor was synthesized by using CaCl2, New electrocoats
is made from ultra-long nanowires of NaOH, and oleic acid in mixed solvents of A new line of cationic epoxy
hydroxyapatite [HAP; Ca10(OH)2(PO4)6] ethanol and water at room temperature. electrocoats designed by PPG
— a member of the calcium phosphate The team found that the ultra-long Industries’ (Pittsburgh, Pa.;
family with high biocompatibility and no HAP nanowires can be an ideal raw www.ppg.com) industrial coat-
toxicity. HAP is the major inorganic com- material for fabricating highly flexible ing business unit is launching
ponent of bone and teeth in vertebrates, and non-flammable inorganic paper by in North America. In anticipa-
and is also abundant in seawater. a simple process of suction filtration. tion of upcoming regulatory
Various HAP-based materials have The thickness and area of the paper can mandates on heavy metals,
been tested for biomedical applications, be easily tuned by varying the amount these electrocoats feature a
proprietary metal-free catalyst.
but they usually exhibit poor flexibility. of nanowires. The team says the HAP
PPG believes the metal-free
The team employed a new method for paper has proven very suitable for print- catalyst it has developed and
the fabrication of HAP paper. They syn- ing and writing (photo). The paper has patented will instill confidence
thesized ultra-long HAP nanowires with also shown excellent performance as an in users, alleviating their con-
high aspect ratios using calcium oleate, adsorbent for organic pollutants. In ad- cerns about the regulatory is-
along with its mother reaction solution, dition, this new kind of paper has many sues and price volatility asso-
as precursor. The amounts of reagents other potential uses, such as medical ciated with metallic catalysts.
and solvothermal reaction times were paper, as a drug carrier, bone defect re- Formulated for low-temper-
varied. The HAP nanostructured materi- pair, fire-resistant material and high- ature curing, the electrocoats
als have readily tunable hydrophilicity/ temperature-resistant material. can cure at temperatures up to
55°F lower than existing cat-
ionic epoxy electrocoats, de-
creasing the energy demands
This new water-treatment polymer required for their application.

With the capability to coat
improves scale control in boilers even highly intricate parts,
the electrocoats’ compatibility
A newly developed proprietary terpoly-

mer from GE Water and Process Tech-
nologies (Trevose, Pa.; www.gewater.com)
dresses iron oxide deposition, which is
often the dominant contaminant that
enters boilers, which are equipped with
with aluminum and alloys is a
key factor, as manufacturing
trends continue to favor more
has been shown to provide improved membrane-based reverse osmosis pre- lightweight construction.
scale control on heat-transfer surfaces treatment systems, explains Tony Rossi,
in low- to intermediate- (up to 900 psig) boiler product manager at GE Water & Scratch-resistance
pressure-steam boilers. Deposit forma- Process Technologies. Evonik Industries AG (Essen,
tion on heat-transfer and steam-generat- The polymer’s anionic functional groups Germany; www.evonik.com)
ing surfaces can result in reduced boiler complex with calcium and magnesium has developed an industrial-
efficiency and tube failures. cations in solution to prevent scale forma- scale process for producing
silane-modified binders for
Known as Solus AP, the GE material is tion, Rossi says. Simultaneously, Solus AP
automotive finishes. Prior to
a random terpolymer of three subunits prevents iron oxide particles from attach- this, the production of silane-
that are carefully selected for specific ing to boiler heat-transfer surfaces, and modified binders has been too
chemical functionality, and assembled in from coalescing to form larger particles complex and expensive for
a controlled ratio. Solus AP is designed to that settle as sludge. This process occurs such large-scale applications.
provide extra forgiveness, in terms of cal- through a surface-adsorption mechanism. Key to this development is
cium, magnesium and silica scale forma- The polymer has been shown to be very a new process for making silyl
tion, particularly in boilers where water efficient at transporting both hardness, isocyanate IPMS or (3-isocya-
pretreatment or other systems have iron and silica contaminants through the natopropyl)trimethoxysilane
failed or are operating sub-optimally. boiler, says Rossi, so they do not deposit — a critical building block for
(Continues on p. 14)
In addition, Solus AP specifically ad- on internal system surfaces.
Circle XX on p. XX or go to adlinks.che.com/230XX-XX
06_CHE_040114_CHM.indd 12 3/17/14 1:14:47 PM

You will turn
wastewater into
working water.
®™ The DOW Diamond Logo, Solutionism and design are trademarks of The Dow Chemical Company © 2014
Dow’s expertise in reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration and ion exchange

technologies is making a real difference for manufacturers across the
globe, helping to transform wastewater into useable water for a broad
range of applications—while meeting stringent discharge requirements,
saving energy costs and boosting uptime. Make Real Progress.
To find out how Dow can help you put wastewater back to work, with
more efficiency and less energy, visit us at MakeRealProgress.com.
WATER & PROCESS SOLUTIONS
14-DOW-017 Wastewater AD_ChemEng_Rv0.indd 1 3/6/14 11:41 AM

C hementato R (Continued from p. 12)
producing silane-modified
binders. Evonik began com-
mercial production of IPMS
in a new facility in Marl, Ger-
Imitating nature leads to a separator for oil droplets many since the middle of last
year. By combining IPMS with
S eparation of micron-sized oil droplets

from water is difficult by conventional
methods. A Chinese team has developed
ronments, says team leader, professor
Lei Jiang, of the Academy and Beihang
University. To collect oil instead of water,
the right additional raw materi-
als, the company can adapt
coating binders to the require-
an oleophilic array of conical needle oeleophilic, rather than hydrophilic sub- ments of a given application.
structures that can continuously col- stances, are used to build conical spikes The silane group in these
lect micron-sized oil droplets from an with a rough surface. “Oil separation binders increases the cross-
oil-water mixture with high efficiency using those needle arrays has an effi- linking density, making it pos-
sible to create automotive fin-
and high throughput. The team includes ciency of over 99%,” Lei says.
ishes that are flexible yet hard,
staff from the Institute of Chemistry of The team fabricated a series of conical leading to improved scratch
the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dept. copper-based needles from commercial resistance, says the company.
of Chemistry at Tsinghua University, copper wire (0.5-mm dia.), as well as con-
College of Chemistry and Molecular En- ical needles from polydimethylsiloxane Nanoelectrocatalysts
gineering, Peking University, and the (PDMS). Both materials are oleophilic,
A new class of bimetallic nano-
School of Chemistry and Environment, but the PDMS is easier to mold. An oil-
catalysts that are an order of
Beihang University (all Beijing; http:// water mixture (oil droplets <10 µm) is magnitude higher in activity
ev.buaa.edu.cn). The researchers say the sprayed onto the needles, which were al- than the 2017 target level set
conical needle array could find applica- ready immersed in water. On the smooth by the U.S. Dept. of Energy
tions in cleaning up oil spills. needle, the collected oil droplets grew (DOE) for fuel cells and elec-
The team’s work was inspired from cac- through frequent coalescence and slowly trolyzers has been discovered
tus needles, which collect water by con- moved toward the base of the needle. On by researchers at the DOE’s
densing moisture from air and directing the rough needle, however, the collected Lawrence Berkeley National
it to the root of the spines, which keeps oil droplets could be driven very quickly Laboratory (LBL; Calif.; www.
the plant hydrated in dry desert envi- toward the base of the needle. (Continues on p. 20)
Model relief devices in flow-

balanced simulations.
Good thinking.
Feedback from our users is what inspires us to keep making
CHEMCAD better. As a direct response to user need, many
features like this one were added to our integrated suite of
chemical process simulation software. That’s why we consider
every CHEMCAD user part of our development team.
Get the whole story behind this user-inspired feature and
learn more about how CHEMCAD advances engineering
at chemstations.com/balance.
AD
MC 6
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Trevor Rice, CHEMCAD Developer →

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AVA IL A
Engineering advanced AVA IL A © 2014 Chemstations, Inc. All rights reserved. | CMS-3300 4/14
W
B
ON
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CMS-3300 2014 April Ad CemEng halfpg-v1.indd 1 3/13/14 5:39 PM
06_CHE_040114_CHM.indd 14 3/17/14 1:18:12 PM

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Magnetrol_ChemEng_April2014.indd 1 3/12/14 9:39 AM

C HEMENTATO R
A new tantalum line of heat exchangers

for corrosive service
L ast month, Alfa Laval AB (Lund,
Sweden; www.alfalaval.com) intro-
duced a new range of tantalum heat
the company. The combina-
tion of superior flow charac-
teristics with the improved
exchangers that offer the corrosion heat-transfer properties of metal
resistance of a solid-tantalum heat ex- enables the new tantalum exchangers
changer, but at a much lower invest- to deliver up to 100 times higher ther-
ment cost. The heat exchangers are mal efficiency than non-metal shell-
made of stainless steel that has un- and-tube units, says Alfa Laval. As a
dergone a surface treatment whereby result, the Alfa Laval TA exchangers
a thin layer of tantalum is metallur- have a much smaller footprint than
gically bonded to all surfaces that are designs based on graphite, glass or
exposed to corrosive media. The steel silicon carbide, or shell-and-tube
core gives the exchangers high me- ones made of any material (in-
chanical stability, making them much cluding metals).
more resistant to thermal shock than The new tantalum range
glass, silicon carbide and graphite heat can be used with most cor-
exchangers, says the company. rosive media at temperatures
The new exchangers are based on up to 225°C. The exchangers
plate technology. Thanks to a highly are available with surface areas
turbulent flow, they have a signifi- from 0.58 to 11.2 m². Depending
cantly higher thermal efficiency than on duty, the biggest size can handle a
RG SafetySuite Ad_7x4.875.pdf 1 3/5/14 3:47 PM
a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, says flowrate of up to about 45 m³/h.
06_CHE_040114_CHM.indd 16 3/17/14 1:27:00 PM

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C hementato R
A solid chelating ligand for making heterogeneous catalysts

S hinji Inagaki and colleagues at
Toyota Central R&D Labs, Inc.
(Nagakute City, Japan; www.tytlabs.
which bipyridine groups are densely
and regularly packed and exposed on
the surface, thus preserving a high
12 h using the heterogeneous BPy-
PMO-supported Ir catalyst. In con-
trast, a 84% yield was found for the
com) have synthesized an entirely coordination ability for metals. By homogeneous (soluble) Ir catalyst,
new immobilization support that can simply dispersing BPy-PMO pow- a 63% yield was found for Ir cata-
be used to recycle and reuse metalo- der in a solution at 90°C with the lyst supported on mesoporous silica,
organic-complex catalysts, which are desired metal, they were able to pre- and 33% for Ir catalyst supported on
widely used for the synthesis of phar- pare various bipyridine-based metal silica gel. The BPy-PMO-supported
maceuticals and fine chemicals. complexes containing Ru, Ir, Re and catalyst can be simply recovered by
Already in 1999, the research Pd, after 24 h. filtration and dried for reuse. The
group had synthesized the world’s The BPy-PMO showed excellent researchers demonstrated it can be
first mesoporous organosilica (PMO), ligand properties for the direct, het- reused up to four times (with the
which has homogeneous micropores erogeneous Ir-catalyzed borylation yield dropping to 78%), and less
with diameters of 2–30 nm. Now, of arenes — an important reaction than 1 ppm of Ir remains in the re-
using a newly synthesized organosi- for the one-step synthesis of raw action after filtration.
lane precursor and a surfactant-di- materials for coupling reactions As another example, the group was
rected self-assembly procedure, they that produce some drugs. The im- able to make an efficient photocata-
succeeded in synthesizing a new, pe- mobilized catalyst showed superior lytic system for producing hydrogen
riodic mesoporous organosilica that activity, durability, and recyclability by integrating a Ru-complex (as a
contain 2,2'-bupyridine (bpy) ligands compared to the conventional ho- photo sensitizer) and Pt (as catalyst)
within the framework (BPy-PMO). mogeneous Ir catalyst and alterna- onto the pore surface of BPy-PMO.
The BPy-PMO has a unique pore- tive supports. For instance, a 94% This system requires no “electron
wall structure (3.8-nm dia. pores) in yield was achieved at 80°C after relay” molecules.
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p. XX
76 or go to adlinks.che.com/230XX-XX
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06_CHE_040114_CHM.indd 18 3/17/14 1:28:29 PM

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C hementato R (Continued from p. 14)
lbl.gov) and Argonne National
Laboratory (Ill.; www.anl.gov).
The catalysts feature a hollow
nanoframe structure with 3D
CO2-utilizing electrocatalytic reaction cell demonstrated platinum-rich surfaces that
are accessible for catalytic
P roduction of monoethylene glycol (MEG)
from waste carbon dioxide has been
validated in a demonstration-scale reac-
overall process are on target for having
cost-advantaged economics at large scale
for a number of chemicals. For its MEG
reactions, explains LBL chem-
ist Peidong Yang. “By greatly
reducing the amount of Pt
tion cell developed by Liquid Light Corp. process, the company estimates the feed- needed for O2 reduction and
(Monmouth Junction, N.J.; www.llchemi- stock costs would be 10–20% of existing H2 evolution reactions, our new
cal.com). The company says the catalytic- processes using petroleum, natural gas class of nanocatalysts should
electrochemistry-technology platform used or corn as feedstocks. MEG has a $27 bil- lead to the design of next-gen-
to make MEG can also produce a range of lion annual market and is used in making eration catalysts with greatly
other important industrial chemicals from consumer products, such as plastic bottles, reduced cost but significantly
CO2, including isopropanol, acetic acid, antifreeze and polyester fabric. enhanced activities,” he says.
When encapsulated in an
methyl methacrylate and others. The company has developed several pro-
ionic liquid, the Pt/Ni nano-
The company’s recent announcement prietary catalysts for the reaction cell, both frames exhibited a 36-fold
is an example of the increasing interest homogeneous and heterogeneous, with enhancement in mass activity
in utilizing the greenhouse gas CO2 as a designs that can be tuned to selectively and 22-fold enhancement in
feedstock for new chemicals (Chem. Eng., produce various chemicals. The catalyst specific activity compared with
July 2013, pp. 16–19). for the MEG process is a heterogeneous conventional Pt nanoparticles
Liquid Light’s core technology is a low- material from which the electrodes are dispersed on carbon for the O2
energy catalytic electrochemical reaction constructed, and allows the production of reduction reaction. An order-
cell that operates based on a concept simi- an oxalate intermediate. From the inter- of-magnitude enhancement
lar to that used in the chlor-alkali process mediate, a range of two-carbon chemicals for the H2 evolution reaction
was achieved when electro-
to electrolyze brine solution to make so- can be formed.
chemically modifying the Pt/
dium hydroxide and bleach, explains Liq- Liquid Light is seeking to license its Ni nanoframes with Ni(OH)2,
uid Light CEO Kyle Teamey. process technology to manufacturers for says LBL. ❏
The company says the reaction cell and chemical production. ■
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Circle
CircleXX
23 on
on p.
p. XX
76 or go to adlinks.che.com/230XX-XX
06_CHE_040114_CHM.indd 20 3/17/14 1:30:08 PM

The Global CCS Institute
Newsfront
CO2 GETS FIGURE 1. In

the carbon cap-
GROUNDED
ture and storage
(CCS) process, CO2
is captured from the
source, such as the flu-
egas from a power plant,
transported to its final
destination, then injected
into a geological formation,
As major carbon capture and storage such as saline aquifers or,
depleted oil or gas wells. Al-
projects enter the startup phase, ready for decades this process
has been used for enhanced oil
R&D efforts to reduce the costs for recovery (EOR)
capturing CO2 continue
“A s long as fossil fuels and

carbon-intensive industries
play dominant roles in our
economies, carbon capture
2011 — a sign of growing confidence
in the application of CCS technol-
ogy at large scale, says the report.
Since 2011, China has doubled its
as ammonia production; or not yet
determined (2 projects).
A more extensive database, which
also includes smaller-scale and
and storage (CCS) will remain a crit- number of projects, with 12 large- pilot CCS projects, is maintained
ical greenhouse gas reduction solu- scale CCS projects. by Howard Herzog, senior research
tion. With coal and other fossil fuels engineer at the Massachusetts In-
remaining dominant in the fuel mix, CCS background stitute of Technology (MIT; Cam-
there is no climate friendly scenario An integrated CCS project (Figure 1) bridge, Mass.; https://sequestration.
in the long run without CCS.” So be- involves capturing CO2 from a large mit.edu/tools/projects/index.html).
gins the 2013 edition of the “Tech- stationary source, transporting the
nology Roadmap — Carbon Capture captured CO2 and injecting it under Carbon capture mature, but …
and Storage,” published last year by pressure deep into the earth to a Capturing carbon dioxide from gas
the International Energy Agency geological formation where it will, streams has been used for over
(IEA; Paris, France; www.iea.org). hopefully, be stored or sequestered 70 years, such as for “sweetening”
“This decade is critical for moving indefinitely instead of entering the natural gas, to purify synthesis gas
deployment of CCS beyond the dem- atmosphere. Such geological forma- or hydrogen from gasifiers and re-
onstration phase in accordance with tions include depleted oil-and-gas formers. As such, CO2 capture can
the 2DS,*” says the report. wells and saline aquifers. In fact, be considered a mature technology.
Although some might argue that the idea is not new — CO2 injec- However, when one considers the
CCS deployment is moving too tion has been used for many years major sources of anthropogenic CO2
slowly, progress is being made. As of for enhanced oil recovery (EOR), in entering the atmosphere — namely
February 2014, there are 12 large- which case, the goal has been to get combustion processes in power
scale projects in operation globally, more oil per well rather than for en- plants, cement kilns or steel mills
9 under construction and another vironmental concerns. — the conditions are such that the
39 in various stages of development GCCSI maintains a comprehen- process is very expensive. Unlike
planning, according to the Global sive database of all large-scale CCS natural gas sweetening, in which
CCS Institute (GCCSI; Melbourne, projects around the world — cur- gas streams are typically under
Australia; www.globalccsinstitute. rently a total of 60 projects. Of those high pressure and contain little or
com), which published “The Global 60 projects, 10 involve post-combus- no oxygen, fluegas from a combus-
Status of CCS: February 2014” on tion capture technology, all of which tion plant is closer to ambient pres-
the 18th of February. The 21 proj- involve power plants (Table 1). sure, so the operating conditions
ects in operation or under construc- Other methods used for capturing for the CO2 scrubber are very dif-
tion represent a 50% increase since the CO2 are pre-combustion from ferent. And the presence of O2 leads
natural gas (13 projects) or gasifica- to degradation of traditional CO2
*IEA’s 2°C senario (2DS) describes how tech- tion (22 projects); oxy-fuel combus- absorbers, such as monoethylamine
nologies across all energy sectors may be trans-
formed by 2050 for an 80% chance of limiting tion (4 projects); separation from in- (MEA), as well as to corrosion prob-
average global temperature increase to 2°C. dustrial processes (9 projects), such lems. As a result, the application of
07_CHE_040114_NF1.indd 21 3/19/14 3:13:11 PM

Table 1. Large-scale,* integrated CCS projects
using post-combustion CO2 capture from power plants
Name of project Region Stage/status Transport Storage Capacity, Startup
m.t./yr date
Boundary Dam Integrated Canada Execute/ Onshore-to-onshore EOR 1 million n.s.
Carbon Capture and Se- active pipeline 51–100 km
questration Demonstration
Project
Bow City Power Project Canada Evaluate/ Onshore-to-onshore EOR 1 million 2017
planned pipeline 51–100 km
Emirates Aluminum CCS Middle Evaluate/ Onshore-to-onshore EOR 2 million 2018
Project East planned pipeline 351–400 km
Industrikraft Möre AS Europe Identify/ Onshore-to-onshore n.s.** 1.4 million 2016
Norway planned pipeline
Korea-CCS 1 Korea Evaluate/ Shipping/tanker GEO 1.5 million n.s.
planned (Offshore deep
saline forma-
tions)
NRG Energy Parish CCS Texas Define/ Onshore-to-onshore EOR 1.4 million 2016
Project planned pipeline 101–150 km
Peterhead Gas CCS Europe Define/ Onshore-to-offshore GEO 1 million n.s.
Project planned pipeline 101–150 km (depleted oil/
gas reservoir)
Rotterdam Opslag en Europe Define/ Onshore-to-offshore GEO 1.1 million 2017
Afvang planned pipeline <50 km (depleted oil/
Demonstratieproject gas reservoir)
(ROAD)
Sinopec Shengli Oil Field China Define/ Onshore-to-onshore EOR 21–30 2015/2016
EOR Project (Phase 2) planned pipeline 51–100 km million
Surat Basin CCS Project Australia Evaluate/ Onshore-to-onshore GEO 2.5 million 2017/2018
(formerly Wandoan) and planned pipeline 151–200 km (Onshore deep
New saline forma-
Zealand tions)
Notes: ** n.s = Not specified
* Large-scale integrated CCS projects are defined as those that involve the capture, transport and storage of EOR = Enhanced oil recovery
CO2 at a scale of at least 800,000 m.t./yr of CO2 for a coal-fired power plant, or at least 400,000 m.t./yr of CO2 GEO = Dedicated geological storage
for other emissions-intensive industrial facilities (including natural-gas-fired power generation). Source: the Global CCS Institute
post-combustion CO2 capture from uses a regenerable solvent — a pro- tion. The construction of the plant
huge stationary sources has — for prietary amine technology — to cap- was completed in 2013.
the most part** — eluded commer- ture the CO2 from the fluegas and A significant advantage of Shell
cial status, while considerable R&D release it as a pure stream, which Cansolv’s technology is cost and
has been, and continues to be aimed can be sold for enhanced oil recov- minimal environmental impact.
at developing new absorbents and ery (EOR), as a commodity chemical The technology uses regenerable
other means to reduce the costs for or for eventual sequestration. amines to capture both SO2 and
capturing CO2 from fluegas. SaskPower (the first entry in CO2, which means that no direct
Table 1) will be Cansolv’s first (and waste byproducts are generated.
Full scale ahead the world’s first) commercial appli- In addition, 1 million metric tons
Shell Cansolv (Montreal, Canada; cation of post-combustion CO2 cap- (m.t.) per year of CO2 will be cap-
www.shell.com/shellcansolv) has de- ture at a power station. Provincial tured from the coal-fired unit. This
veloped a process to treat post-com- regulations limiting the emissions will be compressed, transported
bustion (fluegas) streams, which are of CO2 from power stations to 420 through pipelines and used for EOR
at atmospheric pressure and con- kg/MWh forced SaskPower (crown- in nearby oilfields. This project is a
tain high levels of O2, and where the owned power provider in Saskatch- milestone for the fossil-fuel power
CO2 is quite dilute. The presence of ewan) to evaluate the economics industry worldwide, as it proves the
O2 introduces potential corrosion of replacing an aging 150-MW tur- viability of large-scale CO2 capture
and solvent degradation concerns bine (Boundary Dam unit 3) with and demonstrates that carbon cap-
to manage, and the lower pressure an equivalent combined-cycle gas ture can be brought to commercial
means that equipment sizes are turbine (CCGT), or to retrofit the scale, says the company.
much larger, says the company. station by equipping it with CCS. Cansolv has applied its patented
The Cansolv process (Figure 2) After a thorough evaluation, Sask- SO2-capture systems at coal-fired
power came to the conclusion that power plants in China that are cur-
** Since 1976, Searles Valley Minerals captures post-combustion CO2 capture using rently in operation. The technology
around 270,000 m.t./yr of CO2 (from a coal-fired
power plant) at its soda ash plant in Trona, the Cansolv process with CO2 sold employed there is essentially identi-
Calif. The CO2 is captured using an amine solu- into nearby EOR operations was the cal, using a different amine that tar-
tion, and used for the carbonation of brine in the
production of soda ash. better net present value (NPV) solu- gets SO2 instead of CO2.
07_CHE_040114_NF1.indd 22 3/19/14 3:17:17 PM

CO2 to Shell Cansolv
Treated fluegas
compression
Condenser
Wash water Amine

cooler purification Reflux
unit accumulator
Wash water
Filter
section Lean amine FIGURE 2. The
CO2 stripper
cooler Cansolv CO2-capture
system uses an
Main Lean
Reflux advanced amine
absorption amine
section pumps pumps solution to absorb
Intercooler
Wash water CO2 from fluegas.
pumps The captured CO2 is
Intercooled Lean amine then stripped from
section feed pumps the amine, and the
Fluegas from CO2 recovered CO2 can be
preconditioning absorber
compressed for injec-
Energy tion into a geological
Rich amine recovery Reboilers formation
pumps
Lean amine pumps
Last September, Shell Cansolv MHI and SCS, and is currently the the pilot plant until the end of 2016.
and Technip (Paris, France; www. world’s largest in scale (operating), Since 2010, BASF has also been
technip.com) signed an agreement handling some 500 m.t./d. It has ca- working with RTI International
to leverage their respective exper- pacity to recover 150,000 m.t./yr of (Research Triangle Park, N.C.; www.
tise in marketing an end-to-end so- CO2 with recovery efficiency above rti.org) to further develop cost-effec-
lution for CCS projects. Last month, 90%. For CO2 recovery, the facility tive technology to capture CO2 from
Technip was awarded a contract adopts the KM CDR Process, which coal-fired power plants. The collabo-
to provide front-end engineering uses a proprietary KS-1 high-per- ration is investigating non-aqueous
design (FEED) for the onshore el- formance solvent for CO2 absorp- solvent systems that can be recy-
ements of the Peterhead Gas CCS tion and desorption that was jointly cled. The capture process could use
demonstration in Aberdeenshire, developed by MHI and the Kansai 40% less energy than conventional
Scotland — a project to capture, Electric Power Co., Inc. (Chem. Eng. amine-based processes, says BASF.
compress and transport by pipe- January 2008, p. 12). Meanwhile, last June, the Energy
line 1 million m.t./yr of CO2 to an Sector of Siemens AG (Erlangen, Ger-
offshore gas reservoir for longterm Progress on the amine front many; www.siemens.com) completed
storage beneath the North Sea. The Last August, BASF SE (Ludwig- a concept study and successful test-
design will utilize Shell Cansolv’s shafen, Germany; www.basf.com) ing of its PostCap process using flue-
CO2 capture technology. granted a license to JGC Corp. (Yo- gas from a natural-gas-fired combus-
Meanwhile, Mitsubishi Heavy In- kohama, Japan; www.jgc.co.jp) for tion process, achieving 3,000 hours
dustries, Ltd. (MHI; Tokyo, Japan; a gas-treatment technology, called of operation. Prior to this, the Post-
www.mhi.co.jp) announced in Janu- OASE, that JGC will use in the plant Cap pilot facility operated for more
ary that a demonstration test for for Japan’s first large-scale CCS than 6,000 h on fluegas from E.ON’s
capturing and sequestering CO2 demonstration project in Tomako- coal-fired Staudinger Power station
recovered from emissions from a mai, Hokkaido, Japan. Performance near Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
coal-fired power plant — conducted testing of the plant is scheduled for Drawing on experience gained from
jointly by MHI and Southern Com- completion by the beginning of 2016. pilot operations, the company offers
pany Services, Inc. (SCS; Atlanta, With technology from BASF, CO2 PostCap technology for large-scale
Ga.; www.southerncompany.com), will be removed from a gas stream projects, says Siemens.
has completed an initial demon- from a petroleum refinery close to In the PostCap process, an amino
stration phase. the location. The unit is designed acid salt is used as an absorbent in-
The demonstration test got under- to capture about 200,000 ton/yr of stead of conventional amine. Because
way in June 2011. After verifying CO2, preventing it from being re- amino acid salts do not evaporate, no
the technology for recovering CO2 leased into the atmosphere. additional washing unit and related
from the coal-fired plant fluegas, Since 2009, BASF and Linde AG equipment on top of the absorber is
as well as recovery performance, (Munich, Germany; www.linde.com) required. Furthermore, the solvent
integrated capture and sequestra- have been developing and testing is said to be robust against O2 deg-
tion demonstration testing began new technology for capturing CO2 radation. Through improved process
in August 2012. High-performance from fluegas in a 7.2-ton/d pilot configuration, the thermal energy
continuous and stable operation of plant at RWE’s Niederaussem power demand for stripping CO2 from the
the large-scale CO2 recovery plant plant near Cologne, Germany. New solvent is lower than that required
was confirmed. aqueous-amine-based solvents de- by conventional MEA, which leads
The CO2-capture demonstration veloped by BASF can reduce energy to a reduction by about 20% with
plant that supplied the CO2 under input by about 20%, says the com- PostCap, says the company. ■
this project was built jointly by pany. The partners intend to operate Gerald Ondrey
07_CHE_040114_NF1.indd 23 3/19/14 3:18:23 PM

Newsfront
Mastering the Challenges

of Air-Sensitive Materials Labconco
New equipment strives to make

handling air-sensitive materials
more efficient and economical
W
hile air-sensitive materials als are aware of these
may not be a part of every difficulties and are
chemical process, certain working to improve
catalysts, OLED (organic existing technologies
light-emitting diode) applications, to meet the needs of
inert gas welding, lithium-ion bat- the processors who
tery applications and other chemi- must use them.
cal processes do, indeed, require the
inclusion of air-sensitive materi- Need versus cost
als. And, when such materials are In many situations
present at either research or mass- involving air-sensi-
production scale, it can create an tive materials, the
abundance of challenges for those cost of the equipment
charged with handling them. needed to maintain
Depending on the material and a tightly controlled
the application, there are gener- atmosphere can be
ally two possible reasons why pro- astronomical. How-
cessing air-sensitive materials may ever, Bob Applequist,
be an issue. The first is that if the product manager, Figure 1. Precise gloveboxes can be an economical
material comes in contact with the with Labconco (Kan- alternative to more sophisticated gloveboxes
air, it could be destroyed or oxidized sas City, Mo., www.
and lose its properties, rendering it labconco.com) says it is important economical solution to more sophis-
useless in the process or damaging to consider the application and the ticated gloveboxes. They have seam-
the final product. The second possi- level of controlled atmosphere that less, one-piece molded polyethylene
ble reason is that some air-sensitive it truly mandates, and select equip- shells that withstand chemicals, are
materials may react strongly with ment based upon the actual require- easy to clean and offer a simple de-
air, which could be dangerous for ments. For example, is a 1 part-per- sign, which allows them to be cus-
the individual handling the mate- million (ppm) oxygen atmosphere tomized with optional accessories
rial. And, in some cases, there are really necessary or can you success- to meet application needs. Precise
materials where both these reasons fully complete the process with an Controlled Atmosphere gloveboxes
may come into play. In any and all atmosphere of 5 ppm oxygen? are designed to create low-oxygen
of these situations, working under “As manufacturers, we try to as- or low-moisture environments. And,
an inert atmosphere while handling sess the required needs of the ap- Precise HEPA- (high-efficiency par-
air-sensitive materials is critical. plication and then bridge the gap ticulate absorption) Filtered glove-
Not only is it critical, but also it between the absolute needs of the boxes and Xpert Weigh Boxes have
is fraught with challenges, such as equipment user and the economic inlet and outlet HEPA filters to pro-
balancing the needs of the applica- limits the user is faced with,” says tect the operator from hazardous
tion with the cost of the equipment, Applequist. airborne particles and powders.
managing the controlled atmo- As a result, many equipment In many pharmaceutical and
sphere and finding the best equip- providers are developing more eco- chemical applications such as hy-
ment for specialized applications. nomical products. For example, drogenation, carbon filtration,
Manufacturers of equipment devel- Labconco offers its line of Precise catalyst recovery, pre-filter for mi-
oped to handle air-sensitive materi- gloveboxes (Figure 1) to provide an crofiltration, active pharmaceutical
08_CHE_040114_NF2.indd 24 3/17/14 2:32:27 PM

Please visit us:
Powder Systems IFAT 2014
Munich, Germany
5. – 9. May 2014
Hall A4 Stand 437
Figure 2. The simplefil-

ter consists of a heated
insulated vessel with a
filtration medium attached
to a heated base and a side
discharge hatch for efficient
drying and removal of the
product
ingredients (APIs) and intermedi- ity of a process or product, says Alan

ate filtration, the available tech- George, business development man-
nologies can be costly and complex, ager with ILC Dover (Frederica,
says Camille Flores, business de- Del.; www.ilcdover.com). “If a cus-
velopment manager with Powder tomer is trying to verify that his or
Systems, Ltd. (Liverpool, U.K.; her product will work in his or her
www.powdersystems.com). As a own customer’s application, they
simplified alternative, the company often don’t want to lay out capital
developed the simplefilter with an on new or expensive equipment be-
agitation option to simplify and re- cause the product might not make
duce costs in these processes. it to market, so we need to create
The simplefilter consists of a
heated insulated vessel with a
something that is inexpensive and
flexible enough to attach to their
STANDING IN
filtration medium attached to a
heated base and a side discharge
existing equipment without modify-
ing it,” he explains.
PERFORMANCE
hatch for efficient drying and un- For these applications, ILC Dover
complicated removal of the product has adapted the DoverPac Flexible Electric actuators for the
through a purged GloveBag (Figure Containment Technologies (Figure
2). Combined filtration and drying 3) to include enclosures for almost water industry
equipment, such as the simplefilter, any process. Use of the company’s Reliable, powerful, efficient. AUMA
provides an ergonomic and efficient ArmorFlex film and integral gloves
answer to pharmaceutical, biophar- and sleeves can support operations offer a large portfolio of actuator
maceutical, chemical and labora- from filter dryer discharge to tray and gearbox type ranges.
tory industry requirements, where dryer loading and unloading.
■ Automating all types of industrial
safe heel removal is vital because The benefits of this flexible sys-
the intermediate or end product is tem, says George, are quick imple- valves
often of great value. mentation from design through ■ Integration into all commonly
“The simplefilter and its Glove- installation, reduced capital ex-
Bag are a cost-effective alternative penditures and improved operator used control systems
to the costly investment of a pres- ergonomics because the enclosures ■ High corrosion protection
sure filter plate, tray dryer or simi- are connected to a frame with elas-
lar and stainless-steel gloveboxes tic cords, which allow the enclosure ■ Service worldwide
for product transfer and offloading,” and gloves to move with the individ-
notes Flores. “The capital invest- ual users. “It allows users to com-
ment and footprint are greatly re- plete and try the process without a
duced by using the simplefilter tech- large capital outlay for small batch
nology. And when the total recovery pre-production runs, while making
of the finished product is essential it ergonomically easy and keeping
for chemical development due to costs low,” explains George.
the value of the product, every gram
can be recovered safely using the Managing an inert atmosphere
simplefilter and the GloveBag with In an inert atmosphere, it’s all about
a low capital investment.” the chemistry, the reaction and the
The cost of ownership often drives percentage of reaction efficiency,
the use of flexible containment over explains Labconco’s Applequist. Discover
rigid systems. This is seen in pro- “Aside from trying to protect sensi- our solutions
duction installation, but cost can tive materials from the atmosphere, for the
also become a factor because the the problem is often the efficiency, water
processor is doing a trial or a pre- or lack thereof, of the reaction. industry
production run to test the feasibil- For this reason, one of the biggest www.auma.com
Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014 25
anzeige_drittel_Seite_che.indd 1 03.03.2014 17:05:22
08_CHE_040114_NF2.indd 25 3/17/14 2:38:54 PM

ILC Dover
Newsfront
challenges for our customers is the eration may be neces-

ability to properly manipulate the sary only once every
gas chemistry inside a controlled- one to three months
atmosphere glovebox. And, a lot of and completed in only
operators don’t realize that they are 13 h, which simplifies
responsible for using the controls of the task of managing
the glovebox to bring gas in and out the environment in
to create and maintain the proper critical applications.
environment inside the equipment Jerome Soullard,
for the duration of the process,” con- sales manager, tech- FIGURE 3. ILC Dover has adapted the DoverPac Flex-
ible Containment Technologies to include enclosures for
tinues Applequist. nical marketing, with almost any process
Labconco launched the AtmosPure M.Braun Inertgas-
Re-Gen Gas Purifier glovebox ac- Systeme GmbH (Garching, Ger- to large volumes and still maintain
cessory for this reason. The prod- many; www.mbraun.com) agrees the inert atmosphere.
uct produces an ultra-pure inert that maintaining an atmosphere M.Braun recently built large en-
atmosphere for materials that are can be difficult, especially over closures with complete production
sensitive to moisture or oxygen by long-term applications. “Generally lines under inert atmosphere inside.
circulating an inert gas and remov- speaking, the biggest challenge is (Figure 4) “The main difficulty is to
ing oxygen and moisture inside the to keep the inert atmosphere in the be able to maintain an inert atmo-
box. The purifier has the capacity to glovebox over the long term when sphere with a specific gas purifier
remove up to 5 L of O2 and 660 g of handling air-sensitive materials, unit able to purify these large vol-
moisture at standard temperature. or during the whole production umes of inert gas,” says Soullard.
And, Applequist says, depending on cycle,” says Soullard. And, he says, There are other associated chal-
the application, glovebox liner main some new applications, such as lenges in these larger-scale applica-
terial and frequency of use, regen- OLEDs, the challenge is to scale up tions, as well. For example in OLED
applications, in addition to keep-
ing the inert atmosphere, it is also
necessary to keep the atmosphere
GROUP clean and free of particles. Laminar
gas/air flow conditions, as they are
DRYING PASTY SOLIDS? commonly used in cleanrooms, set
the standard for particle-free envi-
EKATO SYSTEMS offers technologically
sophisticated solutions to mix and dry solids. ronments. For this reason, M.Braun
adopted cleanroom concepts and
Applications: transferred the core technical ele-
· Coating / drying of catalysts ments into the inert gas technology,
· Mixing and reaction of polymers including the HPL membrane.
· Pasteurizing and alkalyzing food components “Choosing optimum sub-com-
· Drying and mixing fine chemicals
ponents, and placing them under
· Drying pharmaceutical intermediates and API’s
clean room conditions, can allow
Advantages: large-scale manufacturing with
· No bearings in the product area moisture and oxygen concentrations
· Small wall clearances to ensure good heat transfer below 1 ppm,” he says. “Using this
· cGMP conform design interdisciplinary approach makes
· Innovative mixing technology for all applications
· Expertise in process-design it possible to produce systems rang-
· Worldwide service network ing from standard R&D equipment
up to complete production lines
www.ekato.com with inert laminar flow conditions,
reducing the particle load on sub-
strates and cover glasses to a mini-
mum, which enhances the quality of
the processes considerably.”
EKATO SYSTEMS / Hall 4 / Stand 4A26
Specialized material handling

Your Contact: In addition to the general chal-
Europe, Tel. +49 7622 69070, e-mail: systems@ekato.com lenges, there are some applications
USA, Tel. +1 201 825 4684, e-mail: usa@ekato.com that require special equipment
due to the hygroscopic or explosive
properties of the materials being
AnzChemEng_ESYS April2014_RZ.indd 1 04.03.2014 17:29:52
08_CHE_040114_NF2.indd 26 3/17/14 2:56:19 PM

IFAT 2014
5-9 May, Hall B3
Booth 108
M.Braun
Dec USA
FIGURE 4. The MBRAUN 3000-IGMS is

said to be the world’s largest and most
powerful inert-gas purifier
handled, says Peter Selby, powder

handling project specialist with
Dec USA Inc. (Brick, N.J.; www.
dec-group.net).
“Hygroscopic materials that ab-
sorb moisture from the air, materi-
als that explode when exposed to
air and — especially in the phar-
maceutical industry — materi-
als that pose a health hazard for
workers must be handled under
completely inert conditions using
the most efficient equipment avail-
able,” says Selby.
“In addition, due to even more FIGURE 5. The DCS is a stainless-steel
stringent health-and-safety regu- cylindrical glovebox with glass cover
lations, closed/contained powder- and two glove ports
handling solutions have become an
issue even for industries that have drums and ensures safe handling
not been concerned until recently. of toxic or explosive powders. (Fig-
For example, the concern is growing ure 5). It also works in combination
to an extent that in the electronics with the PTS.
and heavy-metals industries, they The PTS is a reliable method of
may completely change their manu- transferring and dispensing both
facturing procedures,” says Selby. dry and wet powders and granules.
For example, in electronics, ex- Its unique filtration concept with
plains Selby, the concern is pro- a flat membrane makes it the only
tecting the materials and process vacuum dense-phase system on the
from any foreign contaminants. The market, according to Selby.
same can be said for metals, such as The PTS uses both vacuum and
cadmium and lithium, used in the pressure to move powders as if they
manufacture of batteries. “Not only were liquid, dispensing with the
must these processes be protected need for gravity charging, making
from foreign contaminants, but in multi-floor processes unnecessary.
many cases, these materials can be The dense-phase system provides
very harmful to people.” total containment where necessary
Dec’s containment solutions, at and removes oxygen from powder
the powder source, such as with the before entering it into the pro-
company’s Drum Containment Sys- cess. It is an easy-to-clean, clean-
tem (DCS), and at the delivery point, in-place system that is both GMP
such as with the Powder Transfer (good manufacturing practice) and
System (PTS), satisfy both protec- ATEX compliant.
tion of the processes and safety of While the use of air-sensitive
the operator. materials certainly doesn’t sim-
The DCS is a stainless-steel cylin- plify the process, newer, more
drical glovebox with glass cover and economical and efficient handling
two glove ports. Economical in com- systems are making it easier to
parison with conventional isolation master the challenges these tricky
systems, the DCS ensures precise, materials present. ■
contamination-free evacuation of Joy LePree Circle 13 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/50975-13
08_CHE_040114_NF2.indd 27 3/17/14 3:06:59 PM

FOCUS ON
Temperature Measurement
And Control
Invensys Foxboro Huber Kältemaschinenbau Turck
A dual-sensor temperature hoses with fluted internal walls, vidual systems. — Oven Industries,
transmitter with HART protocols these hoses accelerate heating and Mechanicsburg, Pa.
The RTT80 temperature transmit- cooling processes. According to the www.ovenindustries.com
ter (photo) offers signal reliability, manufacturer, tests with differ-
longterm stability, high precision ent reactor systems have shown a Fully programmable temperature
and advanced diagnostics. The reduction of the heating and cool- sensor offers all-in-one solution
RTT80 is a mid-tier, two-wire tem- ing times by up to 30%, depending The TS530 temperature sensor
perature transmitter available with on the application. The insulated (photo) features an integrated RTD
HART (and soon to be released hoses can be used with operating and combines the display, process
Foundation Fieldbus) protocols, temperatures of –60 to 260°C. They connection and RTD all in a sin-
dual-sensor inputs, universal hous- are available in lengths of 100, 150, gle part. Simple push-button pro-
ing, diagnostics, alarms, resistance 200 and 300 cm. The hoses can be gramming and large LED displays
temperature detectors (RTDs) and coupled directly to reactor systems contribute to easy operation. The
thermocouples. Some of the key and other units by use of connect- display can turn up to 340 deg for
features are the following: intelli- ing threads on both ends. — Huber flexible viewing in the field, while
gent hot-sensor backup switches to Kältemaschinenbau GmbH, Offen- the sensor also sends feedback to
a secondary sensor in the event of burg, Germany a PLC for remote monitoring. —
a burnout; corrosion measurement www.huber-online.com Turck, Plymouth, Minn.
for better predictability about the www.turck.us
sensor’s quality and life expectancy; A thermal controller with
corrosion detection to prevent ex- user-friendly software A temperature scanner for both
port of incorrect values; drift detec- The Model 5R7-350/347 is an eco- the laboratory and the factory
tion; and automatic temperature- nomical thermal controller that is The 1586A Super-DAQ Precision
range sensor change to switch the designed to operate with thermo- Temperature Scanner offers up to
primary temperature measurement electric (Peltier effect) modules. 40 analog input channels and scan
from sensor 1 to sensor 2 (a differ- Most of these modules can be oper- rates as fast as 10 channels per sec-
ent sensor type). — Invensys Fox- ated in either a cooling or a heat- ond. The unit can measure thermo-
boro, Foxboro, Mass. ing mode, depending on current couples, platinum resistance ther-
www.fielddevices.foxboro.com directions. The 5R7-350/347 can be mometers (PRTs), thermistors and
field-configured for either of these more. With the flexibility of both in-
Temperature control hoses with operating modes. These tempera- ternal and external input modules,
improved flow characteristics ture controllers were designed with the 1586A has a color display with
These hoses (photo) feature smooth a proportional-integral control al- channel indicators that can chart
internal walls that improve the gorithm, and a fixed or adjustable up to four channels simultaneously.
flow characteristics and heat proportional bandwidth and inte- It features four modes of operation
transfer. Compared to traditional gral rate permit optimizing indi- (scan, monitor, measure and digital
28 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2014 Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number
on p. 76, or use the website designation.
09_CHE_040114_CUS.indd 28 3/17/14 7:48:23 PM

technology. An additional clip-on
protective module prevents erro-
neous measurements caused by
too-strong sunlight in outside ap-
plications. — WIKA Alexander Wie-
gand SE & Co. KG, Klingenberg,
Germany
www.wika.com ■
Ashcrof WIKA Alexander Wiegand Dorothy Lozowski
multimeter), and alarms that indi-

cate when a channel measurement
exceeds an assigned high or low
limit. — Fluke Corp., Everett, Wash. Engineering Excellence has now become
www.flukecal.com
3
These bimetal thermometers
eliminate mercury
Bimetal thermometers (photo)
available from this company elimi- ThyssenK
rupp Uhde
nate the use of mercury to measure ThyssenK
rupp Reso
and
urce Tech
temperature. They are available ThyssenK
ru
nologies ar
e now
pp Indust
in dial diameters from 2–5 in. and ri al Solutio
ns
for temperature ranges from –80
to 1,000°F, and in standard stem
lengths from 2.5–24 in. Special
order stem lengths of up to 60 in.
are available. Maxivision thermom-
eters provide a fixed rear or bot-
tom stem, while the Everyangle
design allows the stem angle to be
adjusted. The stainless-steel ther-
mometers are hermetically sealed
for easy wash-down, or liquid-filled
to counter high vibration. — Ash-
croft Inc., Stratford, Conn.
www.ashcroft.com
Miniature temperature sensors

designed for tight spaces
These new temperature sensors
(photo) fit into even the tightest of Introducing ThyssenKrupp Industrial Solutions, a new company that
combines the strengths of ThyssenKrupp Uhde with those of ThyssenKrupp
spaces. The model TF40 was devel- Resource Technologies, itself the product of last year’s merger between
oped specifically for use in venti- ThyssenKrupp Fördertechnik and ThyssenKrupp Polysius.
lation ducts, and model TF41 was We now provide expertise in the engineering and construction of chemical
developed for outside-temperature plants, refineries, cement works and other industrial complexes as well as
measurement. The measuring ele- advanced technologies for mining, mineral processing and bulk materials
handling systems.
ments of both sensors are inserted
into a UV-resistant plastic housing Engineering Excellence3: a new dimension of true expertise for customers
everywhere. Why not contact us today?
that measures 44 × 32 × 30 mm.
The instruments are compatible
with all common control systems.
The model TF40 is tailored to the
needs of air-conditioning and venti-
lation technology and offers an op-
tional plastic mounting flange and ThyssenKrupp
Industrial Solutions
thermowell. The TF41 is primarily www.thyssenkrupp-industrial-solutions.com
suited to applications in renewable

energies, HVAC and refrigeration
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MARCH 2014 29
09_CHE_040114_CUS.indd 29 3/17/14 7:55:32 PM

Fluid Components International
Kaeser Kompressoren
Benko Products
MKS Presto Lifts

Instruments
These manometers feature including a direct-drive design, ovens and heaters, this flowmeter
extended service intervals premium efficiency motors, lower provides three outputs; the mass
The a-Baratron Capacitance Ma- internal pressure differentials and flowrate, the totalized flow and the
nometer (photo) has a high tol- optimized screw elements. Built- media temperature, allowing users
erance to ambient temperature in heat-recovery options provide to monitor and control fuel and
changes. Internally heated to 45, further energy savings. Other new air requirements. The ST74 is de-
80 or 100°C, this manometer of- features on these compressors in- signed for small line sizes (0.25–2
fers full-scale measurement ranges clude enhanced cooling systems, in. diameter), making it useful in a
from 0.1 to 1,000 Torr, and service integral moisture separators (with wide variety of industries, including
intervals that are up to four times drain), and electronic thermal man- chemical processing, electric power,
longer than previous models, says agement. The SFC 30S has a flow food and beverage, pharmaceuti-
the company. Its all-digital archi- range of 37–171 ft3/min at 125 psig cals and semiconductors. Offering
tecture and new sensor-heating sys- and is available with pressures direct-flow measurement with ther-
tem contribute to longterm reliabil- up to 190 psig. The SFC 30 has a mal dispersion technology, the ST75
ity. Corrosion-resistant, due to its flow range of 47–202 ft3/min at eliminates the need for additional
nickel-alloy construction, these ma- 125 psig, with pressures up to 217 pressure and temperature sensors
nometers can be flexibly configured psig. — Kaeser Kompressoren SE, or flow computers. There are also no
for many existing or new process- Coburg, Germany orifices or inlets to clog or foul, sig-
ing systems. — MKS Instruments, www.kaeser.com nificantly reducing scheduled main-
Andover, Mass. tenance and unplanned shutdowns.
www.mksinst.com Use this flowmeter to optimize — Fluid Components International
air-gas ratio in burners LLC, San Marcos, Calif.
These compressors have new The ST75 Air/Gas Flowmeter www.fluidcomponents.com
energy-saving features (photo) measures fuel gas, process
The SFC 30 (photo) and SFC 30S gas, inert gas, waste gases and These stackers are designed
compressors are variable-drive air in a variety of small line sizes. with ergonomics in mind
rotary screw compressors with Designed to optimize air-gas ratio The PowerStak line of compact fully
updated specific-power features, for control of burners in boilers, powered stackers (photo) have been
30 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2014 Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number
10_CHE_040114_NP.indd 30 3/18/14 7:36:21 AM

handle is released. Other features standard blue inspection lamps, al-
include a reduced-speed capability lowing for easier detection, says the
for more precise positioning and company. The inspection range for
new component arrangement the flashlight is up to 25 ft. The kit’s
for better heat dissipation. The other components include a bottle of
equipment’s maximum load patented concentrated fluorescent
capacity is 2,200 lb, with a dye, a spray bottle of dye cleaner,
Spectronics
maximum lift height ranging a charger, dye-treatment tags and
from 62 to 150 in. — Presto fluorescence-enhancing glasses.
updated with new ergonomic fea- Lifts Inc., Norton, Mass. These components come packed in a
tures. The units are built on a short, www.prestolifts.com compact carrying case. — Spectron-
stable wheelbase to enhance ma- ics Corp., Westbury, N.Y.
neuverability, even in tight quar- A bright, violet LED provides www.spectroline.com
ters. An ergonomically designed contrast and precision for leaks
handle puts all controls within op- The OLK-441 Leak Detection Kit Melt materials in drums or totes
erator reach for comfort and conve- (photo) is designed for use with hy- with this versatile oven
nience. Forward- and reverse-drive draulic systems, compressors, en- The Sahara Hot Room Model S32
thumb switches are located on gines, gearboxes and fuel systems. oven (photo, p. 30) can quickly melt
both sides of the handle to accom- The kit includes the Opti-Lux 400, materials in drums or totes. Ca-
modate either left- or right-hand a flashlight that features a high- pable of heating 32 drums on pal-
operation. The unit’s narrow mast output violet light-emitting diode lets (or eight totes), the Sahara Hot
and offset control handle ensure a (LED), allowing for precise detection Room S32 can use saturated steam
clear forward view, with virtually of fluid leaks through the illumina- (up to 200 psig), hot oil or hot water
no blind spots. An automatic brake tion of fluorescent dyes. The violet as the heating medium. Fully in-
halts travel when the drive/steering light provides more contrast than sulated, this steel-constructed
Circle 18 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/50975-18 Circle 1 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/50975-01

10_CHE_040114_NP.indd 31 3/18/14 7:38:08 AM

New Products
oven is forklift-portable and

includes built-in spill contain-
ment. The heating capabil-
ity of each oven is designed
based on users’ needs, with
optional features available,
such as air circulation, ex-
haust system capabilities and
digital temperature control.
— Benko Products, Sheffield
Village, Ohio
www.benkoproducts.com
Stafford Manufacturing Bronkhorst High-Tech
A mass flow controller with

no moving parts or bypass
The T23 mass flow control-
ler (photo) contains no moving
parts and has no obstructions
to the flow path, making them
capable of performing in appli-
cations where there is very low
pressure drop. With minimal
sensitivity to moisture and par-
ticulate matter, the T23 works
on the basis of direct through-
flow measurement with no by-
pass. The meter’s electronic
housing is water- and dust-
proof. The T23’s updated design Otek
features an integrated direct
operating valve that can handle a Continue signal transmission,
wide range of high gas flowrates. — even after loop-power failure
Bronkhorst High-Tech BV, Ruurlo, The LPD series of loop-powered
the Netherlands bargraphs (photo), available in
www.bronkhorst.com vertical or horizontal configura-
tions, can be installed in parallel
Vacuum conveyors with updated as a replacement for analog loop
interactive transfer systems meters. In the event of loop fail-
The VS Series Multijector vacuum ure, the meter will flash its dis-
conveyor (photo) can transfer mate- play for approximately 20 seconds
rials at a wide range of flowrates — and then transmit an isolated Se-
from as little as 10 lb/h to as much rial I/O for data recording and re-
as 12,000 lb/h over distances up to covery. Only 2 in. deep, the meter
200 ft, when used with a level-con- can be installed into industry-
Volkmann
trolled buffer hopper. Used for the standard panels. The meters come
transfer of powders, granules, pel- with a plastic or metal (aluminum- for connecting virtually any type of
lets, capsules, tablet or food parti- nickel plated) case to ensure per- pump, mixer or drive shaft. All de-
cles under vacuum conditions, these formance in harsh environments. signs can incorporate straight- or
conveyors can supply many types of In addition, LPD meters are also stepped-bores for mating dissimi-
process equipment on demand. An available in nuclear grades. — lar shafts. Machined from high-
interactive, enclosed transfer sys- Otek Corp., Tucson, Ariz. temperature alloys, stainless steel
tem gives these conveyors impor- www.otekcorp.com or aluminum, these couplings are
tant advantages in the transfer of available in diameters from 1 to 6
difficult or sensitive materials. The Couple many components, even in., with or without keyways, which
cyclic vacuum plug-flow convey- those with dissimilar shafts can be formed to customer specifi-
ing arrangement prevents prod- This company’s line of rigid cou- cations. — Stafford Manufacturing
uct separation or segregation. — plings (photo) are offered in one-, Corp., Wilmington, Mass.
Volkmann Inc., Bristol, Pa. two- and three-piece designs, with a www.staffordmfg.com ■
www.volkmannusa.com variety of configurations and sizes Mary Page Bailey
10_CHE_040114_NP.indd 32 3/19/14 7:45:34 PM

032a-032b_CHE_0414_PNC.indd 1 3/18/14 2:53:26 PM

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 Burner Operating Characteristics  Heat Transfer: System Design II
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032a-032b_CHE_0414_PNC.indd 2 3/18/14
3/18/14 2:45:52
2:53:54 PM
PM
IFAT 2014 Show Preview
Flexim Flexible Industriemesstechnik
T
he world’s largest environ-
mental technology trade show,
IFAT (www.ifat.de), takes
place in Munich May 5–9. A re-
cord of nearly 3,000 companies from
50 countries are presenting innova- Microdyn-
Nadir Group
tions and services in water, sewage,
waste and raw materials manage-
ment, covering some 230,000 m2 of
exhibition space. What follows is a
small sample of new products being
exhibited at the show.
This modular analyzer

measures water parameters
As the population continues to
grow, the need for clean drinking
water is rising. Today, water-treat-
ment plants utilize a wide variety Pump Solutions Group
of different analysis tools to mea- Positive displacement pumps

sure various water parameters. for all your needs
This company has made its mission On display at the stand of this major
to simplify industrial water treat- manufacturer of positive-displace-
ment, and is introducing its new on- ment pumps is the Almatec E-Series
line analysis system, the Type 8905 (photo) of air-operated double dia-
(photo), which is said to combine, phragm (AODD) pumps, which fea-
for the first time, the largest num- ture a plastic, solid-body design for
ber of measurement functions in po- use in general chemical transfer, and
table-water treatment into a single, the AH-Series AODD pumps in high-
modular device. Hall A5, Stand 423 pressure configurations for charging
— Bürkert Werke GmbH & Co. KG, filter presses with chemical wastes
Ingelfingen, Germany Bürkert Werke and sludge. Also exhibited is the Nep-
www.buerkert.de tune 700 Series Mechanical, 500/600
tion system draws the MCP granu- Series Hydraulic and PZ Series Elec-
The launch of a late up between the membrane tronic diaphragm metering pumps,
new membrane for MBRs sheets. As the MCP granulate rises, which are suitable for chemical-feed
Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) are a the membrane area is continuously and chemical injection applications.
well-established and indispensable cleaned through the direct contact The Wilden Original (clamped) and
technology in wastewater treat- of the granulate with the sludge on Advanced (bolted) Series AODD
ment. This company offers its Bio- the membrane surface. The Bio-Cel pumps with innovative Pro-Flo Shift
Cel membrane (photo) module with MCP system enables much higher air distribution systems will be pre-
an integrated mechanical cleaning specific flowrates. This lowers in- sented at the exhibition. Hall A6,
process (MCP). The patented MCP vestment costs (smaller membrane Stand 214 — Pump Solutions Group,
helps reduce operating costs by re- area needed) and reduces energy Oakbrook Terrace, Ill.
ducing the formation of a fouling consumption (crossflow) for the en- www.psgdover.com
layer by supporting the crossflow tire system by 30–50%. At IFAT,
aeration through the use of inert, or- the company will be introducing Clamp-on flowmeters localize
ganic material. The MCP granulate the next generation of Bio-Cel. Hall leaks in water pipelines
is added directly into the activated A2, Stand 516 — Microdyn-Nadir The Fluxus ADM 7407 ultrasonic
sludge. The airflow induced by the Group, Wiesbaden, Germany clamp-on flowmeter is said to be a
module-integrated membrane aera- www.microdyn-nadir.de superior solution for monitoring wa-
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2014 33
11_CHE_040114_SHO_IFAT.indd 33 3/17/14 9:31:32 AM

Lenzing Technik
Show Preview
ter-distribution pipelines for

leaks. Because the sensors are
mounted on the outside pipe
wall, the installation of the
system does not interrupt the
supply. Moreover, the perma-
nent coupling on the pipe, the
rugged stainless-steel mount-
ing fixture (Varioflex; photo,
p. 33) and the IP-68-protected Oschatz
sensors themselves ensures compares the setpoint signal with

safe and longterm stable mea- the actual position of the quarter
surements — even when bur- turn actuator. Any deviations auto-
ied underground. A matched matically trigger an error message
sensor pair combined with and an emergency stop. If there
powerful measurement algo- should be a power supply failure,
rithms for accurate and reli- the process valve can be brought to
able signal processing enables a previously specified safety posi-
the Fluxus to detect even small tion. Hall A1, Stand 335 — Festo AG
volume streams with high pre- & Co. KG, Esslingen, Germany
cision, says the company. A Festo
www.festo.com
network with multiple mea-
surement points enables leaks Innovative oil recovery
in pipelines to be directly localized. incineration process has proven from plastic waste
Hall B3, Stand 141C — Flexim Flex- itself over many years. This com- As a manufacturer of specialized
ible Industriemesstechnik GmbH, pany offers individually designed reactor solutions, this company has
Berlin, Germany grate-firing systems for almost all significantly advanced the develop-
www.flexim.de solid fuels, such as rejects, discards, ment of pyrolysis processes for re-
waste with a high calorific value, al- covering oil from plastic waste. Two
This anaerobic reactor has a ternative fuels and secondary fuels. pilot projects are currently being
mixer and a membrane built in Individually designed boiler sys- implemented at industrial sites. In
Unlike conventional anaerobic tech- tems utilize the energy from the flu- one, a European company is using
nologies, the IM-MS (integrated egas to generate usable steam. On a pyrolysis process for processing
mixer and membrane separator) request, it is also possible to convert plastic fluff coming from car recy-
incorporates a mixer that achieves the energy from the incineration cling. This waste can now be pro-
high circulation velocities. This process to electric power, in waste- cessed in a two-step, batch process
eliminates the need for external to-energy plants (photo). Depending under normal pressure to obtain
sludge recirculation with a drastic on requirements, both horizontal- recyclable oil: in the first reaction
reduction in energy demand, says pass and vertical-pass boilers can step the bulk density of the fluff is
the manufacturer. Gases, solids and be used. At IFAT, this company is thermally compacted by a factor of
liquids are separated by means of a also presenting its know-how re- 5 to 10; in the second reaction step
membrane, which is also integrated garding turnkey power plants. Hall installed downstream, a catalytic
into the reactor. The first industrial B3, Stand 271 — Oschatz GmbH, pyrolysis is performed to obtain
implementation of this technology Essen, Germany recovery of oil. The heating of this
has been realized (photo), with a unit www.oschatz.com reactor is carried out at an input
capable of treating up to 5,000 m3/d temperature of 500°C by using a
of highly concentrated wastewater. This controller provides salt melt. Another company is re-
The IM-MS technology also ensures precise positions for actuators covering oil from recycled plastic
a sustainable operation related to The position controller CMSX using catalytic pyrolysis. For this
the reduction of very high sulfur (photo) for double-acting, quarter- purpose, a reactor by the exhibiting
loads. Hall 3, Stand 520 — Lenzing turn actuators provides a pre-defin- company is used, in which electric
Technik GmbH, Lenzing, Austria able safety position for the process heating (2 MW) heats the machine
www.lenzing.com/engineering valve. The end positions can be de- walls up to 700°C. The product tem-
fined flexibly via freely configurable perature is approximately 500°C
Tailored and turnkey plants analog signals. In the standard vari- in this application. Hall A4, Stand
to utilize waste ant of the position controller, its mi- 519 — Gebr. Lödige Maschinenbau
Because the chemical composition of crocontroller continuously displays GmbH, Paderborn, Germany
solid residue is heterogeneous with these feedback signals. In closed- www.loedige.de ■
frequent fluctuations, the grate- loop mode, the CMSX continuously Gerald Ondrey
11_CHE_040114_SHO_IFAT.indd 34 3/17/14 9:34:12 AM

Netzsch Premier Technologies
T
he International Pow- air jets. The integrated dy- Control bin level, even in areas
der & Bulk Solids namic air classifier in the with high levels of vibration
Conference and Exhi- housing can be precisely Model CT tilt-level controls are de-
bition is taking place adjusted to the desired signed for level detection of dry bulk
May 6–8 at the Donald E. fineness, for exact grind- materials in hoppers, silos, stack-
Stephens Convention Cen- ing parameters and repro- ers, crushers and conveyors, both
ter in Rosemont, Ill. Fea- ducible product quality. in general-purpose outdoor applica-
turing a large expo hall The s-Jet 25 also includes tions and hazardous-location appli-
and a variety of technical integrated components on cations. Featuring a stainless-steel
sessions, as well as some its skid for dosing, product probe enclosed in a rugged cast-
hands-on demonstrations separation, controls, fit- aluminum housing, the product line
at the show’s Tech Theater, tings and steam genera- includes models that are available
this year’s event expects tion. All product-contacted with various degrees of weather-,
to attract thousands of in- parts, as well as the as- dust- and explosion-proofing for
dustry professionals. The sembly frame, are made flexibility in a variety of industries.
conference program con- of stainless steel. The unit These level controls can be used in
sists of four distinct tracks is delivered completely operations with high levels of bin
that will lead attendees mounted and ready for op- vibration and where bin walls are
through technical work- eration. Designed for use not available for mounting controls.
shops, educational presen- Porvair Filtration Group with a variety of solids, the Booth 2734 — Conveyor Compo-
tations and guided tours of unit is also capable of han- nents Co., Croswell, Mich.
the show floor. Each morning of the dling moist products, via a simulta- www.conveyorcomponents.com
three-day conference will commence neous grinding and drying process
with a Keynote Technology Panel, using superheated steam. Booth Fluidizing media that withstand
where experts from industry and ac- 2349 — Netzsch Premier Technolo- very aggressive environments
ademia will discuss relevant topics, gies LLC, Exton, Pa. This company’s range of fluidizing
including the mitigation of combus- www.netzsch-grinding.com media (photo), available in both sin-
tible-dust hazards, discrete-element tered porous plastic and sintered po-
modeling and solids-handling appli- Sanitary drying and agitation rous metal, can be engineered into a
cations for computational fluid dy- with these microwave units variety of structures, including flat
namics. The tradeshow floor boasts Sanitary microwave mixers from this beds, cones and domes, to provide
over 350 registered exhibitors, who company feature a 75- or 100-kW solutions for a variety of fluidizing
will showcase new products and ser- microwave transmitter for uniform needs. The uniform pore-size distri-
vices related to the solids processing heating and drying of powders, slur- bution of these sintered materials
industries. The following is a small ries, greases and more. Constructed enables controlled and consistent
selection of some of these exhibitors’ of stainless steel, the mixer unit is distribution, ensuring even flow
offerings at this biennial event. designed specifically for safety, with and efficient low-energy powder
measures to prevent microwave fluidization. The easily cleanable
This system uses superheated leakage from the vessel. Featuring and reusable products, which are
steam for extremely fine milling short batch times, a small footprint suitable even in high-temperature,
The s-Jet 25 (photo) is a combination and simplified maintenance, these chemically aggressive environ-
mill system consisting of a spiral mixers are highly scalable for use ments, are used in a range of mar-
jet mill and an integrated dynamic in a variety of applications, includ- kets, such as construction, food-and-
air classifier. Using superheated ing biomass treatment, powder de- beverage and pharmaceuticals, and
steam as its milling gas, this very watering, carbon-black addition, py- are used in applications including
compact unit (with a height of only rolysis for plastics recycling, as well silos and road-and-rail containers.
2,450 mm) can manufacture nano- as providing gentle agitation for a Booth 2311 — Porvair Filtration
particles on a laboratory scale. High wide range of processes. Booth 3826 Group Ltd., Hampshire, U.K.
fineness can be obtained with this — Marion Mixers Inc., Marion, Iowa www.porvairfiltration.com ■
mill, independent of the load in the www.marionmixers.com Mary Page Bailey
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2014 35
12_CHE_040114_SHO_PBS.indd 35 3/17/14 10:04:12 AM

Static Electricity
Discharge and Fire
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins Prevention
W
hen flammable or combus- non-conductive materials are sufficiently Table 1. Typical MIE values
tible atmospheres are present, insulating, so as to to possibly prevent Material Minimum
uncontrolled discharges of static the proper dissipation of static charge. (gas/vapor or Ignition Energy
electricity are potentially dangerous or powder/dust) (MIE), mJ
even catastrophic. A significant portion Static discharge sources Carbon disulfide 0.009
of industrial explosions and fires are Static discharges come in several forms, Methanol 0.14
attributable to static electricity each year. the most important for CPI interests being Xylene 0.20
In theory, controlling static electricity by spark and brush discharges. A spark Toluene 0.24
grounding potential sources is simple, but is a discharge from a charged isolated Propane 0.25
in practice, doing so effectively requires conductor to another conductor at lower
Ethyl acetate 0.46
thorough knowledge of processes and potential. A brush discharge occurs from
Zirconium 5.00
operations, sound engineering controls, an electrostatically charged insulator to a
Epoxy resin 9.00
properly specified safety equipment and grounded conductor.
Aluminum 10.00
properly trained operational staff. This Typical possible sources of static elec-
Sugar 30.00
column provides information on potential trical discharges include the following:
Wheat flour 50.00
sources of static electrical discharge. • Spark discharges from any conductive,
but not earthed (grounded), bag, bin, Note 1: Minimum ignition energy (MIE) is defined
as the minimum energy that can ignite a mixture
Static risk drum, container and so on, from which of a specified flammable material with air or oxy-
Static electricity discharges are pos- a powder is transferred into a reactor gen, measured by a standard procedure.
sible almost continuously in the chemi- • Brush discharges from any non-conduc- Note 2: MIE values are provided for guidance
cal process industries (CPI), because tive bag, bin, drum, container, and so only — specific MIE data for any material
should be verified. Source: NFPA, IChemE
static electricity is generated whenever on, from which a powder is transferred
surfaces come into contact and then into a reactor
been formulated with some added semi-
separate. In most cases, the charging • Spark discharges from any conductive,
conductive additives. “Bonding” means
currents generated over time in indus- but not earthed, auxiliary device used
linking these objects together by means
trial processes are small — typically no in the transfer procedure, including, but
of a suitably strong conductor (wire), and
greater than 1 × 10–4 Amps. However, not limited to, shovels, funnels, chutes
“grounding” refers to a true “ground/
in hazardous areas, even small charges and pipes
earth” connection that is applied to one
can be a problem when the allowed to • Spark discharges from the operator, if
or more of the bonded objects.
accumulate on objects that are not at he or she is not adequately earthed
When one or both of these techniques
ground (earth) potential. If no ground is • Brush discharges from any non-conduc-
is applied, and while a low resistance
present, voltages in excess of 30 kV can tive auxiliary devices, such as shovels,
connection between the objects and
develop. Depending on the capacitance funnels, chutes and pipes
ground is maintained, operators are
of the object, this may result in signifi- • Brush discharge from the dust cloud
able to prevent dangerous levels of static
cant levels of energy being available formed within a reactor during powder
charge from accumulating. In the case
for discharge. If the energy equals or transfer
of fixed installations such as pipe work,
exceeds the minimum ignition energy • Spark discharges from any conductive,
storage tanks and so forth, grounding is
(MIE) of the surrounding flammable at- but not earthed, fixtures and fittings
relatively simple to implement.
mosphere, the potential for an explosion within a reactor
However, these preventive measures
and fire exist. Many commonly used • Brush discharges from the charged sol-
are more difficult to implement with
solvents and other flammable chemicals vent, suspension or emulsion preloaded
portable objects, such as drums, IBCs
have MIEs that are relatively low — on in a reactor
and tankers. In these instances, purpose-
the order of 1 mJ or less (Table 1). • Brush discharges from the powder
designed temporary grounding and
heap formed on top of the liquid phase
bonding devices must be used, with
Isolated conductors within a reactor
strict procedures to ensure that they are
Isolated conductors are electrically • Cone discharges from the powder heap
always in place prior to starting the
conductive objects that are either inher- formed on top of the liquid phase
process. For instance, specific types of
ently or accidentally insulated from earth. • Liquids flowing through pipelines or
clamps and devices for grounding and
During day-to-day operations at indus- filling into drums and tanks
bonding portable or mobile plant equip-
trial facilities, isolated conductors are • Persons walking across an insulating
ment, drums and containers are recom-
probably the most likely source of static floor
mended in NFPA 77, and such ground-
ignition incidents.
ing clamps and devices generally should
The insulation effectively keeps any Static discharge prevention
employ sharp contact points. These
static electricity buildup from safely Where recommendations tend to
contact points should be made of a wear-
discharging, thereby resulting in ac- converge is in the recommendation to al-
resistant material, have positive spring
cumulation of charge on the object. If ways use conductive or static dissipative
pressure, and be universally adaptable to
the isolated conductor then comes into materials, and to ensure effective bond-
a wide range of plant objects.
proximity with another object at a lower ing and grounding. For information on
potential, energy could be released in grounding best practices and examples References
the form of an incendive spark. of preventing static electrical discharge,
Isolated conductors may arise from consult National Fire Protection Associa- 1. Tyers, G., Avoiding Static Sparks in Hazardous At-
metal flanges, fittings or valves in pipe- tion (NFPA; Quincy, Mass.; www.nfpa. mospheres, Chem. Eng., June 2009, pp. 44–49.
work systems; portable drums, containers org) standards 77 and 30. 2. Glor, M., Preventing Explosions During the Trans-
or vessels; tanker trucks, railcars and In this context, the term “conductive” fer of Solids into Flammable Solvents, Chem.
intermediate bulk containers (IBCs); and would apply to metal materials, such Eng., October 2007, pp. 88–95.
even people. as stainless or carbon steel, aluminum Editor’s note. This edition of “Facts at your Finger-
Many modern industrial paints, and others; and “static-dissipative” may tips” was adapted from information in the two ar-
coatings, gaskets, seals and other indicate rubber or plastics that have ticles referenced above.
13_CHE_040114_FAC.indd 36 3/18/14 7:12:00 AM

Production of Bio-based
Succinic Acid
By Intratec Solutions
S uccinic acid is an important industrial

chemical that is traditionally derived
from petroleum feedstocks. It can be
used in several areas — from high-value
niche applications, such as food, bever-
cooled before being fed into the fermenter.
A solution of ammonia (NH3) is added to
the fermenters to maintain a pH level of
about 7.
Cell separation. The fermentation broth is
2,500
2,000
1,500
$/ton of product
ages and pharmaceuticals, to large-volume sent to surge tanks and then to centrifuges
applications, such as plasticizers, resins and in order to completely remove cell biomass.
1,000
coatings. However, the current market for Ultrafiltration is used to remove the remaining
succinic acid is limited to specialized areas contaminants, such as cell debris and precipi-
because of its costly production process. tated proteins. Following that, the aqueous 500
Bio-based succinic acid, produced from solution, free of microorganisms, is sent to
renewable feedstocks, appears to be an al- the product recovery and purification area. 0
ternative to the petroleum-derived chemical Recovery and purification. In this stage, a Net raw materials costs
and may have advantages surrounding con- decolorization process is performed with Main utilities consumptions
cerns about rising atmospheric greenhouse the addition of activated carbon. Then, the Fixed costs
gas (GHG) concentrations and volatile mixture is filtered to separate the activated
FIGURE 2. The operating expenses for bio-
crude oil prices. Bio-succinic acid is chemi- carbon. The aqueous phase is sent to a succinic acid are broken down here
cally equivalent to conventionally produced vacuum-distillation column, where volatile
succinic acid, and is suitable for the same byproducts and some water are removed. lion, and the operating expenses are about
applications. For more on bio-based suc- This distillation leads to a more concen- $2,200/ton of product (Figure 2).
cinic acid, see Chem. Eng., August 2013, trated succinic acid stream. The succinic Beginning with high-value applica-
pp. 14–17. acid product is then crystallized at low tions, bio-succinic acid has the potential to
temperature. HCl is used to adjust pH, become a key building block for commod-
The process allowing selective crystallization of succinic ity chemicals, since consumers of end-use
In the process depicted in Figure 1, succinic acid. Succinic acid crystals are washed with products are increasingly demanding more
acid is obtained via microbial fermenta- water in a filter and dried with hot air. Part eco-friendly products. Also, further develop-
tion of glucose from sugarcane juice. The of the succinic acid product that is lost in the ment in bio-based succinic acid processes
process steps and equipment were compiled filtrate is recycled to the distillation column. will likely lead to more cost-effective produc-
based on publically available information tion, resulting in an increase in the demand
from the scientific literature. Economic performance for this product compared to the costly
Sugar inversion. The sugar consumed in this An economic evaluation of the bio-based petroleum-based succinic acid.
fermentation-based process is glucose. It is succinic acid process was conducted. The Based on these features, several new
obtained by the inversion of sucrose through following assumptions were taken into projects for producing bio-based succinic
its hydrolysis to glucose and fructose. This is consideration: acid have begun operations, and others
achieved by subjecting the juice containing • A 77,000 ton/yr unit erected on the U.S. are planned in the near future, thus grow-
sucrose to an acidic medium by addition Gulf Coast (the process equipment is rep- ing the worldwide production capacity for
of hydrochloric acid (HCl). After inversion, resented in the simplified flowsheet below) this key industry chemical. ■
the pH is adjusted with sodium carbonate • Storage of product is equal to 30 days
(Na2CO3) and the stream is cooled before of operation, and there is no storage for Editor’s Note: The content for this column is supplied by
being sent to the fermentation step. feedstock Intratec Solutions LLC (Houston; www.intratec.us) and
Fermentation. Glucose is converted to • Outside battery limits (OSBL) units consid- edited by Chemical Engineering. The analyses and
models presented herein are prepared on the basis
succinic acid through an anaerobic fer- ered: steam boilers, cooling towers and of publicly available and non-confidential information.
mentation supplied with carbon dioxide. ammonium refrigeration system The information and analysis are the opinions of In-
The microorganism culture is prepared The estimated capital investment (including tratec and do not represent the point of view of any
third parties. More information about the methodology
for inoculation in a two-stage seed train. total fixed investment, working capital and for preparing this type of analysis can be found, along
Carbon dioxide is compressed, filtered and other capital expenses) is about $260 mil- with terms of use, at www.intratec.us/che.
Lights
Exhaust Activated 1. Hydrolysis reactor
gases carbon 2. Neutralization vessel
Cane CW
3. CO2 compressors
juice Microorganisms Water
seed 4. Seed train
HCl 6 77 5. Fermenters
1 4 5 NH3 6. Cells centrifuge
To waste 7. Vacuum column
Na2CO3 treatment
ST 8. Crystallizer
2 CW
Purge 9. Dryer
3 10. NH3 refrigeration unit
CO2
9 RF 11. Cooling tower
CW CW HCl
Succinic 12. Steam boiler
acid Process
water 8
RF Refrigeration fluid
To waste Hot air RF 10 CW 11 CW Cooling water
treatment ST Steam
ST 12
FIGURE 1. Bio-succinic acid is produced via the fermentation of glucose
14_CHE_040114_TP.indd 37 3/18/14 7:18:41 AM

Feature
Cover Story
Report Part 1
Overcoming Solids
Caking with Flow Aids
A wide range of passive
and active flow aids
are available to assist
gravity flow of solids
from bins and hoppers
Figure 1. Many solids exhibit caking FIGURE 2. The Jenike Shear Test
Joseph Marinelli or packing properties when under pres- Method, for determining a solid’s flow
Solids Handling Technologies, Inc. sure, such as that seen in a bin or silo properties, is used in an ASTM standard
U
sing gravity to initiate flow in solids are very high and can easily scientific approach to the storage
the discharge of solid materi- cause the material to consolidate. and flow of bulk solids, developed in
als from bins and hoppers is Measuring the flow properties of a the 1950s, remains relevant today.
the simplest, and often best, bulk solid is critical to understand- The device used for the Jenike
approach to solving solids-han- ing how it will flow in a new system, Shear Test is considered a lin-
dling challenges. However, not all or why it is troublesome in an ex- ear direct shear tester (Figure 2).
solid materials flow well by gravity isting system. Knowing the type of Other devices include Schulze’s
alone. The propensity for fine solid flow pattern that develops in a bin Ring Shear Tester, Brookfield An-
materials to cake can lead to flow or silo is a prerequisite to reliable nular Shear Tester, Peschl’s Rotary
problems that will adversely affect handling. Two major types of flow Shear Tester and the Freeman Tes-
your process. For situations where patterns can develop in solids flow: ter. Keep in mind that all of these
material caking disrupts gravity funnel flow and mass flow. In funnel devices compare their results to the
flow, a range of flow aid approaches flow, whenever any material is dis- Jenike Shear Test results.
are available to solve a variety of charged from a container, some ma- Once information is gathered on
flow issues. This article discusses terial moves while the rest remains the flow properties of a solid mate-
the operation of passive and active stagnant. Funnel flow can lead to rial, it may be necessary to select a
flow aids, and points out consider- ratholing, erratic flow, flooding and gravity flow aid to overcome parti-
ations for their use. segregation. When material flows cle caking. The following discussion
in mass flow mode, all the material of flow aids categorizes the devices
Particle caking moves whenever any is withdrawn into two types: active and passive.
Cohesive strength is a characteristic from the bin or hopper. This means
of many materials, and fine solids that the material is sliding at the mechanical flow aids
tend to cake, agglomerate and pack walls of the container and segrega- Mechanical, or active devices include
because of it. But what is cohesive tion is minimized, while ratholing vibrating dischargers, vibrators,
strength? Most of us understand and flooding generally do not occur. agitations and forced-extraction de-
it intuitively — gently reach into Several test methods are available vices. Air-operated devices, such as
a box of laundry detergent and the to identify a material’s flow proper- air blasters, air pads, air fluidizers
detergent sifts or flows through our ties. The Jenike Shear Test method and so on, are also included in the
fingers, but squeeze or compact the is the most important and has been active flow-aid discussion.
material, and it retains its shape the standard in the U.S. and Europe.
and no longer flows over our fingers The ASTM International consensus Vibrating bin discharger
(Figure 1). This effect is due to com- standard D 6128-06 for measuring Some mechanical flow-aid devices
paction or consolidation pressure, bulk-solids flow properties is based rely on internal components to force
which is a key factor in bulk-solids on it. The method is named after material to flow. Probably the most
handling. Consider that inside a bin Andrew Jenike, a pioneer of the commonly used device is the vibrat-
or silo, the pressures acting on the theory of bulk solids flow. Jenike’s ing bin discharger (Figure 3). A
15_CHE_040114_SCJ1.indd 38 3/18/14 7:54:57 AM

FIGURE 5. Agitators produce a
downward flow of solids into a
discharge auger
FIGURE 3. Eccentric weights are at FIGURE 4. Vibrators can be mounted

work in a vibrating bin discharger on the side of a bin to initiate flow
vibrating discharger can accommo- • Pressure-sensitive materials usu- FIGURE 6. A cone unloader has a
date hopper openings from about 3 ally do not flow well through dis- vibrating cone that extends into the
to 15 ft and is intended to keep ma- chargers. They tend to pack in the product to initiate flow
terial completely live over a hopper annulus created by the baffle and
outlet’s entire cross-sectional area. outer shell side the bin, due to vibration
This type of device is hung from a • Do not operate a vibrator unless
storage bin by rubber bushed links, Vibrators the solid material has somewhere
and incorporates a rubber skirt to Vibrators have long been used to to move. The feeder must be op-
prevent leakage and to isolate the enhance material flow. Sledgeham- erating or the gate opened; other-
bin from the vibrations. Vibration mers or mallets are probably the wise packing will occur
is transmitted through an outer most common flow aid of this type • Chutes are a good place to mount
shell and into an internal dome or used. These can be the the least ex- vibrators, as they will enhance
cone-shaped baffle by a motor with pensive way to encourage flow in a flow down a shallow chute
eccentric weights. A cohesive bulk bin (and in some cases modify the • Be aware of the vibrator’s effect on
solid can be broken up and made to shape of a bin). There are however, the structural integrity of the bin
flow, depending on the amplitude of vibrators available that will essen-
vibration applied. tially replace the sledgehammer. Agitation
Several issues should be consid- Vibrators can be mounted on the Devices that agitate a solid product
ered when using a vibrating bin dis- side of a bin or chute in an attempt are available, and are typically com-
charger, including the following: to initiate flow. These vibrators can posed of multiple segmented helical
• It must discharge over its entire be air- or electrically operated and sections that slowly rotate within
cross-sectional area and be oper- come in all shapes and sizes. Rotary, the body of the discharger (Figure 5).
ated according to manufacturer in- piston, turbine, linear, electromag- This produces a downward flow into
structions, which usually require netic, eccentric and several others a discharge auger that controls the
it to be cycled on and off intermit- are specific types of vibrators (Fig- rate of withdrawal. For agitator-type
tently. Otherwise, small preferen- ure 4). Some types are designed to flow aids, consider the following:
tial flow channels will form, af- provide high-frequency, low-ampli- • The conditioning auger operates
fecting solids flow and potentially tude vibration to a surface. Others slowly (about 1–2 rpm) to mini-
causing structural problems are used to generate high-amplitude mize consolidation
• If solids in a bin are flowing in a vibrations, such as those required to • The size of the unit is usually
funnel-flow pattern, the diameter provide a “thump.” Battering rams based on the arching dimensions
of the discharger must be larger are even used to bang the side of a of the material
than the ratholing capability of large bin in order to move material. • These flow aids can have difficulty
the material (as long as the dis- However, vibrators should be used with flaky or cohesive materials
charger cross-section is fully live) with caution. Here are a number of
• A discharger cannot control solids considerations: Cone unloading
flowrate and it is not a feeder. As • The material in the bin should A cone unloader is a device simi-
such, it requires a feeder to con- not be pressure-sensitive. If the lar to a vibrating-bin discharger
trol the discharge rate to the pro- material can be squeezed to form but it has an internal cone that
cess or system a “snowball,” it is likely to pack in- is raised into the product and vi-
15_CHE_040114_SCJ1.indd 39 3/18/14 9:27:48 AM

Cover Story
FIGURE 9. Giro whips

are powered by com-
pressed air and manipu-
lated by operators
FIGURE 7. Traveling-auger unload- FIGURE 8. Cone-bottom systems

ers work well with woodchips, bio- have scews that rotate around their
mass and granular or flaky materials own axes, while also advancing FIGURE 10. AIrpads dis-
around the silo charge air at bin walls to
provide localized fluidiza-
tion of products
brated to initiate flow (Figure 6). withdrawal and a collecting
This device uses a vibrating cone auger to discharge material
that is intended to promote mass away from the silo. This type
flow and break bridges. It can be of flow aid handles dry meals,
used as a gate as well as a dis- chemicals, plastics and small-parti- bon dioxide, which breaks apart
charging device. Cone unloaders cle wood waste. the surrounding solid material
are dust-tight, and if they fail, they • This is a dangerous approach to
will fail safe-closed. Rotating-arm unloader encouraging flow from a bin, and
Some materials, such as marl lime- is used in specialized situations
Forced extraction stone, sludge and clay, do not re- • Cleanout devices can create large
Traveling-auger unloaders have spond well to vibration. However, boulders of solid material that,
been in use for years and are typi- a rotating-arm discharger may be when falling, can cause structural
cally used to discharge solids from used. These devices use a travel- damage to equipment
flat-bottomed bins and silos. These ing arm to discharge product. They Giro whips (Figure 9) are another
heavy-duty, track-driven systems drag material to a central discharge type of cleanout device. They are
are designed for continuous opera- point. Advantages of the rotating- powered by compressed air and ma-
tion under the most challenging arm unloader include first-in, neuvered by an operator who ma-
conditions (Figure 7). Traveling first-out material flow, gentle han- nipulates the cleaning head. They
augers cause solid material to dis- dling of material, and repeatable, use a variety of whips and cutting
charge, dragging products to a cen- accurate discharge rates, creating edges. An advantage of this type
tered discharge point. Traveling consistency in operation. The rotat- of device is that they are mobile
augers work well with woodchips, ing arm unloader works well with and can be easily positioned at the
biomass and granular or flaky ma- sticky materials, such as synthetic cleaning location.
terials. This type of flow aid occu- gypsum, sludge and others.
pies minimal headroom. Aeration
Cleanout devices Air pads (Figure 10) have been used
Cone-bottom systems Cardox systems use a tube or car- for years and work by discharging
Cone-bottom storage and reclaim tridge that is filled with liquid car- air along the walls of bins and hop-
systems work for materials with bon dioxide. When the cartridge is pers. They provide localized fluidi-
moderate flow characteristics (Fig- energized by the application of a zation to aid flow, and require sev-
ure 8). The screw rotates about its small electrical charge, the chemi- eral pads to be effective. Users must
own axis, moving material toward cal inside instantly converts the be careful, because the pads may
the center of the silo outlet. At the liquid CO2 to gas. This conversion also obstruct flow.
same time, the screw slowly ad- expands the CO2 volume and builds Fluidizers are a popular means
vances, sweeping around the entire up pressure inside the tube until it of achieving locally fluidize product
silo hopper. Material is discharged causes the rupture disc at the end of along the walls of a hopper (Figure
to the center of the silo hopper, then the tube to burst. This releases the 11). Fluidizers basically work by
flows down through a central chute CO2 (now 6,000 times its original undercutting solid material to pro-
below the hopper and into a dis- volume) through a special discharge vide localized fluidization. They can
charge auger or conveyor for trans- nozzle to create a powerful heaving be mounted externally so that aid
fer out of the silo and to the next force, at pressures up to 40,000 psi. can be obtained without emptying
step in the material handling pro- Keep the following in mind: the bin.
cess. The cone bottom unloader uses • The rupture (shear) disc bursts, Air blasters inject high-pressure
a rotating auger to provide product releasing a heaving mass of car- air into a bin or silo that has trouble
15_CHE_040114_SCJ1.indd 40 3/18/14 9:40:02 AM

FIGURE 11. Fluidizers are FIGURE 12. Cone-in-cone devices FIGURE 13. Letdown FIGURE 14. Splitters pre-
an alternate method to gener- are designed to convert funnel-flow chutes lower solid mate- vent stagnation of material
ate localized fluidization, but patterns to mass-flow solids flow rial gently into the bin when one discharge stream is
they are mounted externally stopped
with arching, ratholing or both. An per. The design is intended to mini- work if both legs of the pant-leg hop-
air blaster uses air or nitrogen that mize hopper height and promote per are discharging simultaneously.
is stored in a tank at about 80 to 100 mass flow (Figure 12). The inner If, however, one leg of the pant leg is
psi. Air blasters also have a piston- cone, which is open at the top and stopped, most of the material in the
sealed exhaust and quick-acting bottom, is designed for mass flow bin becomes stagnant.
valve to fire the high-pressure air and it forces the material to flow The preferred way to provide
at an arch or rathole. The expand- along the walls of the shallow outer multiple discharge points is to use
ing air breaks bridges and causes cone. The cone-in-cone design is a splitter concept (Figure 14). If one
material to flow. used to perform the following: leg becomes blocked, the vertical
• Help convert a funnel flow pat- section above it will allow the pref-
non-mechanical aids tern to mass flow erential flow channel that forms due
Non-mechanical solids-flow aids • Prevent segregation to the flowing leg, to expand within
are also known as passive aids, • Promote blending it such that the product at the out-
and there are several types. Among The surface finish of the hoppers is let is fully live. This prevents the
them are powders and chemicals critical to ensure mass flow. stagnation created by the stopped
that can be added to some solids to pant-leg hopper. ■
improve their flowability. Flow aid Letdown chute Edited by Scott Jenkins
chemicals, such as fumed silica, can When dealing with solid materials
improve flow, reduce caking and im- that are fragile and tend to break
prove storage stability. down easily when handled using Author
Joseph Marinelli is presi-
bins and feeders, a letdown chute dent of Solids Handling Tech-
Freeze conditioning agents may be used to minimize attrition nologies, Inc. (1631 Caille
Court, Fort Mill, SC 29708,
These flow aids are available for (Figure 13). When using the let- phone: (803) 802-5527; Email:
products that are exposed to sub- down chute, the material is depos- joe@solidshandlingtech.com).
Marinelli is a bulk-materi-
freezing conditions. Freeze-condi- ited in the top of the spiral chute, als-handling expert who has
taught hundreds of highly
tioning agents interfere with the and is lowered to the bottom of the acclaimed engineering semi-
bonds between the solid mate- bin, where it gently spills out of the nars. Since 1972, he has been
active in testing bulk solids
rial and frozen moisture, creating openings provided. and consulting on materials-handling systems
a slush instead of a frozen block. design. Marinelli has worked with Jenike & Jo-
hanson, Inc., world-renowned experts on solids
Freeze-conditioning agents serve to Splitter handling. He received a B.S. degree in mechani-
reduce a solid’s arching dimensions. Often, a process requires two dis- cal engineering, from Northeastern University in
Boston, Mass. He lectures frequently, on solids-
charge streams to provide product flow principles and flow-property testing, and
has authored several papers and an encyclopedia
Cone-in-cone to two different processes, conveyors section on the subject. Since 1997, he has been
This approach to aiding solids flow and so on. Most of the time, a pant- involved with popular seminars at the University
of Wisconsin in the areas of bin and feeder design
involves a conical hopper mounted leg-type hopper is used to discharge and solids-flow-property testing. He is also a col-
within another larger conical hop- to the two points. This approach will umnist for www.powderbulksolids.com.
15_CHE_040114_SCJ1.indd 41 3/18/14 7:59:55 AM

Feature
Cover Story
Report Part 2
Solids Drying: Basics

and Applications
Several types of batch (A) (B)
B A
and continuous dryers Moisture content A
exist in the CPI
Rate of dryying
for removing moisture
C
from solids B
C
D
Dilip M. Parikh
DPharma Group Inc. Time Moisture content
A
Figure 1. Segment AB of the graph represents the constant-rate drying period,
djustment and control of mois- while segment BC is the falling-rate period
ture levels in solid materials
through drying is a critical
process in the manufacture of This article provides basic infor- is determined by the set of factors
many types of chemical products. As mation on the sometimes compli- that affect heat and mass transfer.
a unit operation, drying solid mate- cated heat- and mass-transfer pro- Solids drying is generally under-
rials is one of the most common and cesses that are important in drying, stood to follow two distinct drying
important in the chemical process and discusses several technologies zones, known as the constant-rate
industries (CPI), since it is used in used to accomplish the task. period and the falling-rate period.
practically every plant and facility The two zones are demarcated by a
that manufactures or handles solid Mechanism of drying break point called the critical mois-
materials, in the form of powders Drying may be defined as the va- ture content.
and granules. porization and removal of water In a typical graph of moisture
The effectiveness of drying pro- or other liquids from a solution, content versus drying rate and
cesses can have a large impact on suspension, or other solid-liquid moisture content versus time (Fig-
product quality and process effi- mixture to form a dry solid. It is a ure 1), section AB represents the
ciency in the CPI. For example, in complicated process that involves constant-rate period. In that zone,
the pharmaceutical industry, where simultaneous heat and mass trans- moisture is considered to be evapo-
drying normally occurs as a batch fer, accompanied by physicochemi- rating from a saturated surface at
process, drying is a key manufac- cal transformations. Drying occurs a rate governed by diffusion from
turing step. The drying process can as a result of the vaporization of the surface through the station-
impact subsequent manufacturing liquid by supplying heat to wet feed- ary air film that is in contact with
steps, including tableting or encap- stock, granules, filter cakes and so it. This period depends on the air
sulation and can influence critical on. Based on the mechanism of heat temperature, humidity and speed
quality attributes of the final dos- transfer that is employed, drying is of moisture to the surface, which in
age form. categorized into direct (convection), turn determine the temperature of
Apart from the obvious require- indirect or contact (conduction), ra- the saturated surface. During the
ment of drying solids for a subse- diant (radiation) and dielectric or constant rate period, liquid must be
quent operation, drying may also microwave (radio frequency) drying. transported to the surface at a rate
be carried out to improve handling Heat transfer and mass transfer sufficient to maintain saturation.
characteristics, as in bulk powder are critical aspects in drying pro- At the end of the constant rate
filling and other operations involv- cesses. Heat is transferred to the period, (point B, Figure 1), a break
ing powder flow; and to stabilize product to evaporate liquid, and in the drying curve occurs. This
moisture-sensitive materials, such mass is transferred as a vapor into point is called the critical moisture
as pharmaceuticals. the surrounding gas. The drying rate content, and a linear fall in the dry-
16_CHE_040114_SCJ2.indd 42 3/18/14 9:53:45 AM

Table 1. Comparison of Direct and Indirect dryers [4]
Property Direct/adiabatic dryer Indirect/non-adiabatic
(convective type) contact dryer
(conductive type)
Carrier gas Uses sensible heat of gas Little or no carrier gas is re-
that contacts the solid to quired to remove the vapors moisture analyzers are also rou-
provide the heat of vapor- released from the solids tinely used in batch processes. The
ization of the liquid
water vapor sorption isotherms
Heat transfer Heat transfer medium is in di- Heat needed to vaporize are measured using a gravimetric
rect contact with the surface the solvent is transferred moisture-sorption apparatus with
of the material to be dried through a wall
vacuum-drying capability.
Risk of cross Persists Avoided, as the heat trans- For measuring moisture content
contamination fer medium does not con- in grain, wood, food, textiles, pulp,
tact the product
paper, chemicals, mortar, soil, cof-
Solvent Difficult as there is a large Easier because of limited fee, jute, tobacco, rice and concrete,
recovery volume of gas to be cooled amount of non-condens-
electrical-resistance-type meters
to recover the solvent able gas encountered
are used. This type of instrument
Operation Not possible Allows operation under vac- operates on the principle of elec-
under vacuum uum, ideal for heat sensitive trical resistance, which varies mi-
materials
nutely in accordance with the mois-
Dusting High Minimized because of small ture content of the item measured.
volume of vapors involved Dielectric moisture meters are also
Explosion Higher rate Easier to control as vapors used. They rely on surface contact
hazard can be easily condensed with a flat plate electrode that does
Handling of Not suitable Suitable because of low gas not penetrate the product.
toxic materials flow For measuring moisture content
Energy Significant energy lost Higher energy efficiency
in paper rolls or stacks of paper,
efficiency through exhaust gas as the energy lost through advanced methods include the use
the exhaust gas is greatly of the radio frequency (RF) capaci-
reduced tance method. This type of instru-
Evaporation Higher than contact dryers Drying rates are limited by ment measures the loss, or change,
and produc- heat transfer area, lower in RF dielectric constant, which is
tion rates production rates affected by the presence or absence
Cost High Higher initial cost; difficult of moisture.
to design, fabricate and
maintain Types of dryers
Adiabatic dryers are the type where
ing rate occurs with further drying. essential to this process are inlet air the solids are dried by direct contact
This section, segment BC, is called temperature and air flowrate. The with gases, usually forced air. With
the first falling-rate period. As dry- higher the temperature of the dry- these dryers, moisture is on the
ing proceeds, moisture reaches the ing air, the greater its vapor hold- surface of the solid. Non-adiabatic
surface at a decreasing rate and the ing capacity. Since the temperature dryers involve situations where
mechanism that controls its trans- of the wet granules in a hot gas de- a dryer does not use heated air or
fer will influence the rate of dry- pends on the rate of evaporation, other gases to provide the energy
ing. Since the surface is no longer the key to analyzing the drying pro- required for the drying process
saturated, it will tend to rise above cess is psychrometry, defined as the Dryer classification can also be
the wet bulb temperature. This sec- study of the relationships between based on the mechanisms of heat
tion, represented by segment CD in the material and energy balances of transfer as follows:
Figure 1 is called the second fall- water vapor and air mixture. • Direct (convection)
ing-rate period, and is controlled by • Indirect or contact (conduction)
vapor diffusion. Movement of liquid Drying endpoint • Radiant (radiation)
may occur by diffusion under the There are a number of approaches • Dielectric or microwave (radio fre-
concentration gradient created by to determine the end of the drying quency) drying
the depletion of water at the sur- process. The most common one is Direct, or adiabatic, units use the
face. The gradient can be caused by to construct a drying curve by tak- sensible heat of the fluid that con-
evaporation, or as a result of capil- ing samples during different stages tacts the solid to provide the heat of
lary forces, or through a cycle of va- of drying cycle against the drying vaporization of the liquid.
porization and condensation, or by time and establish a drying curve. With adiabatic dryers, solid mate-
osmotic effects. When the drying is complete, the rials can be exposed to the heated
The capacity of the air (gas) product temperature will start to gases via various methods, includ-
stream to absorb and carry away increase, indicating the completion ing the following:
moisture determines the drying of drying at a specific, desired prod- • Gases can be blown across the
rate and establishes the duration of uct-moisture content. Karl Fischer surface (cross circulation)
the drying cycle. The two elements titration and loss on drying (LOD) • Gases can be blown through a bed
16_CHE_040114_SCJ2.indd 43 3/18/14 9:54:28 AM

Table 2. Classification of Dryers [5]
Cover Story Criterion Types
Mode of operation Batch
Continuous*
of solids (through-circulation); Heat input type Convection*, conduction, radiation, electro-
magnetic fields, combination of heat trans-
used when solids are stationary, fer modes
such as wood, corn and others Intermittent or continuous*
• Solids can be dropped slowly Adiabatic or non-adiabatic
through a slow-moving gas State of material in dryer Stationary
stream, as in a rotary dryer Moving agitated, dispersed
• Gases can be blown through a bed Operating pressure Vacuum*
of solids that fluidize the particles. Atmospheric
In this case, the solids are moving, Drying medium (convection) Air*
as in a fluidized-bed dryer Superheated steam
• Solids can enter a high-velocity Fluegases
hot gas stream and can be con- Drying temperature Below boling temperature*
veyed pneumatically to a collector Above boiling temperature
Below freezing point
(flash dryer)
Non-adiabatic dryers (contact dry- Relative motion between dry- Co-current
ing medium and solids Countercurrent
ers) involve an indirect method of
Mixed flow
removal of a liquid phase from the
solid material through the appli- Number of stages Single*
cation of heat, such that the heat- Multistage
transfer medium is separated from Residence time Short (<1 min)
the product to be dried by a metal Medium (1–60 min)
wall. Heat transfer to the product Long (>60 min)
is predominantly by conduction * Most common in practice
through the metal wall and the im-
peller. Therefore, these units are Heat is usually supplied by passing frozen and drying takes place by sub-
also called conductive dryers. steam or hot water through hollow liming the solid phase. Freeze-drying
Although more than 85% of the shelves. Drying temperatures can is extensively used in two situations:
industrial dryers are of the con- be carefully controlled and, for the (1) when high rates of decomposition
vective type, contact dryers offer major part of the drying cycle, the occur during normal drying; and (2)
higher thermal efficiency and have solid material remains at the boil- with substances that can be dried at
economic and environmental ad- ing point of the wetting substance. higher temperatures, and that are
vantages over convective dryers. Drying times are typically long thereby changed in some way.
Table 1 compares direct and indi- (usually 12 to 48 h). Microwave vacuum dryers. High-
rect dryers, while Table 2 shows Fluidized-bed dryers. A gas-fluid- frequency radio waves with frequen-
the classification of dryers based ized bed may have the appearance cies from 300 to 30,000 MHz are
on various criteria. of a boiling liquid. It has bubbles, utilized in microwave drying (2,450
which rise and appear to burst. The MHz is used in batch microwave
Batch dryers bubbles result in vigorous mixing. A processes). Combined microwave-
The following are descriptions of preheated stream of air enters from convective drying has been used for
various types of batch dryers. the bottom of the product container a range of applications at both labo-
Tray dryers. This dryer type op- holding the product to be dried and ratory and industrial scales. The
erates by passing hot air over the fluidizes it. The resultant mixture bulk heating effect of microwave
surface of a wet solid that is spread of solids and gas behave like a liq- radiation causes the solvent to va-
over trays arranged in racks. Tray uid, and thus the solids are said to porize in the pores of the material.
dryers are the simplest and least- be fluidized. The solid particles are Mass transfer is predominantly due
expensive dryer type. This type is continually caught up in eddies and to a pressure gradient established
most widely used in the food and fall back in a random boiling mo- within the sample. The tempera-
pharmaceutical industries. The tion so that each fluidized particle ture of the solvent component is el-
chief advantage of tray dryers, is surrounded by the gas stream for evated above the air temperature
apart from their low initial cost, is efficient drying, granulation or coat- by the microwave heat input, but
their versatility. With the exception ing purposes. In the process of flu- at a low level, such that convective
of dusty solids, materials of almost idization, intense mixing occurs be- and evaporative cooling effects keep
any other physical form may be tween the solids and air, resulting in the equilibrium temperature below
dried. Drying times are typically uniform conditions of temperature, saturation. Such a drying regime is
long (usually 12 to 48 h). composition and particle size distri- of particular interest for drying tem-
Vacuum dryers. Vacuum dry- bution throughout the bed. perature-sensitive materials. Micro-
ers offer low-temperature drying Freeze dryers. Freeze-drying is an wave-convective processing typically
of thermolabile materials or the extreme form of vacuum drying in facilitates a 50% reduction in drying
recovery of solvents from a bed. which the water or other solvent is time, compared to vacuum drying.
16_CHE_040114_SCJ2.indd 44 3/18/14 9:57:06 AM

Source: Anhydro
Flow control
valve
Feed system
Sterile filter
Heater
N2
Pressure
control
valve Chamber
Flow control HEPA filter

valve Heater Coarse Police Isolator
filter filter
Continuous dryers Cyclone Figure 2. Spray dryers

Continuous dryers are mainly used have high capital and oper-
in chemical and food industries, due ating costs, but can be the
to the large volume of product that Powder
least expensive method at
needs to be processed. Most common discharge large scales
are continuous fluid-bed dryers and
spray dryers. There are other dryers,
depending on the product, that can this time, high gas temperatures of as this added heat in the material
be used in certain industries — for 1,508 to 2,008°C may be used, even often cannot be economically re-
example, rotary dryers, drum dry- with thermolabile materials. For covered. Other newer technologies
ers, kiln dryers, flash dryers, tunnel these reasons, it is possible to dry have been developed, such as sonic
dryers and so on. Spray dryers are complex vegetable extracts, such drying, superheated steam, heat-
the most widely used in chemical, as coffee or digitalis, milk products, pump-assisted drying and others.
dairy, agrochemical, ceramic and and other labile materials without
pharmaceutical industries. significant loss of potency or fla- Concluding remarks
Spray dryer. The spray-drying vor. The capital and running costs Drying is an essential unit opera-
process can be divided into four of spray dryers are high, but if the tion used in various process indus-
sections: atomization of the fluid, scale is sufficiently large, they may tries. The mechanism of drying
mixing of the droplets, drying, and, provide the cheapest method. is well understood as a two-stage
removal and collection of the dry process and depends on the drying
particles (Figure 2). Atomization Dryer efficiency medium and the moisture content
may be achieved by means of sin- With increasing concern about of the product being dried.
gle-fluid or two-fluid nozzles, or by environmental degradation, it is Batch dryers are common in chem-
spinning-disk atomizers. The flow desirable to decrease energy conical and pharmaceutical industries,
of the drying gas may be concur- sumption in all sectors. Drying has while continuous dryers are rou-
rent or countercurrent with respect been reported to account for any- tinely used where large production
to the movement of droplets. Good where from 12 to 20% of the energy is required. Since the cost of drying
mixing of droplets and gas occurs, consumption in the industrial sec- is a significant portion of the cost of
and the heat- and mass-transfer tor. Drying processes are one of the manufacturing a product, improv-
rates are high. In conjunction with most energy-intensive unit opera- ing efficiency or finding alternative
the large interfacial area conferred tions in the CPI. drying routes is essential. ■
by atomization, these factors give One measure of efficiency is the Edited by Scott Jenkins
rise to very high evaporation rates. ratio of the minimum quantity of
Author
The residence time of a droplet heat that will remove the required
Dilip M. Parikh is presi-
in the dryer is only a few seconds water to the energy actually pro- dent of the pharmaceutical
(5–30 s). Since the material is at vided for the process. Sensible heat technology development and
consulting group DPharma
wet-bulb temperature for much of can also be added to the minimum, Group Inc. (Ellicott City, MD
21042; Email: dpharma@
gmail.com). As an industrial
pharmacist, Parikh has more
Further reading than 35 years of experience in
product development, manu-
1. Séverine, Thérèse, Mortier, F.C., De Beer, 4. Sahnia, E.K., Chaudhuria, B., “Contact drying: facturing, plant operations
Thomas, Gernaey, Krist V., Vercruysse, Ju- A review of experimental and mechanistic and process engineering at
rgen, et al. “Mechanistic modelling of the modeling approaches,” International Journal various major pharmaceutical companies in
drying behavior of single pharmaceutical of Pharmaceutics, 434 pp. 334–348, 2012. Canada and the U.S. Prior to staring DPharma
granules,” European Journal of Pharmaceu- Group, he held the position of vice president of
tics and Biopharmaceutics 80, pp. 682–689, 5. Mujumdar, A., “Handbook of Industrial Dry- operations and technology at Synthon Pharma-
2012. ing” 2nd ed. edited by Mujumdar, Marcel ceuticals in North Carolina and vice president
Dekker Publishing, 1995. and general manager at Atlantic Pharmaceuti-
2. Mezhericher, M., Levy, A. and Borde, I., “Theo- cals Services in Maryland. He is the editor of
retical drying model of single droplets con- 6. Raghavan, G.S.V., Rennie, T.J., Sunjka, P.S.,
Orsat, V., Phaphuangwittayakul, W. and Ter- “Handbook of Pharmaceutical Granulation” 3rd
taining insoluble or dissolved solids,” Dry. ed. He has authored several book chapters and
Technol. 25 (6), pp. 1025– 1032, 2007. dtoon, P., “Overview of new techniques for
drying biological materials, with emphasis articles on various pharmaceutical technologies,
3. Mezhericher, M., Levy, A. and Borde, I., “Mod- on energy aspects,” Brazilian Journal of including quality by design, process assessment
elling of particle breakage during drying,” Chemical Engineering, 22(2), pp. 195–201, and contract manufacturing. He has been an
Chem. Eng. Progress. 47(8), pp. 1404–1411, 2005. invited speaker at scientific conferences world-
2008. wide on solid-dosage technologies development
and manufacturing.
16_CHE_040114_SCJ2.indd 45 3/18/14 10:08:30 AM

Solids Processing
special advertising section April 2014
Getting down to the nitty-gritty

E ffective handling and processing of
solid materials are vital to the chemical
process industries (CPI). Engineers plagued
a powder or granular solid. For the rest,
solids are sure to crop up somewhere in
the process – as water-treatment chemicals
Inside
Berndorf Band 49
Buss-SMS-Canzler 48
with blocked conveyors, abraded mixer on a pharmaceutical plant, for instance, EKATO 48
internals or potentially explosive dusts may or sulfur pastilles at a refinery. This brand- Flexicon 47
regret that fact, and it is true that liquids are new Special Advertising Section in CE GIG Karasek 46
frequently easier to move, store, mix, heat, addresses engineers’ need to handle and Müller 48
and meter. Yet, for a significant proportion process solids in many different ways. Their Ross 47
Sandvik Process Systems 46
of the CPI, the product takes the form of presentations will inform and inspire you. ■
This system dries liquids Mix solids with liquids,

to powder continuously solidify and transport
Thin-film dryers from GIG Karasek are Sandvik Process Systems offers solutions
versatile, and ideal for sensitive products for handling mixtures of solids and liquids
E ngineering company Sandvik Process Systems has developed
upstream dosing, mixing and grinding solutions that enable the
combination of liquid and solid products into suspensions ready for
solidification on its Rotoform pastillation system.
This ability to supply complete mixing, solidification and handling
systems enables the cost-effective production of speciality products
such as multi-nutrient fertilizers.
A typical plant will use precise dosing and weighing together with
a mixer and grinder to combine liquid melts and solid materials into
a suspension. The suspension then undergoes further dispensing
and grinding before it reaches the Rotoform.
Sandvik’s Rotoform pastillation system consists of a heated,
cylindrical stator and a perforated rotating shell that deposits mol-
ten droplets onto a continuously running steel belt. Cooling water is
sprayed against the underside of the solid steel belt and the result-
ing transfer of heat converts the liquid droplets into solid pastilles.
This indirect heat exchange ensures that there is no risk of cross-
contamination between the end product and the cooling medium.
Thin-film dryer unit from GIG Karasek Dust is minimal, so no dedicated scrubbing is required for air purifi-
cation, and energy consumption is low.
T hin-film drying technology from GIG Karasek can be used for

continuous drying of suspensions, municipal sludges, slurries,
pastes, wet solids, filter cakes and chemical products. It is also
suitable for heat-sensitive products, such as polymers, foods and
pharmaceuticals.
A thin-film dryer is a special type of wiped-film evaporator. The
product to be dried is distributed over the circumference of the
heating surface to form a downward-flowing thin film of liquid that
is stirred by a specially shaped rotor system to create optimal tur-
bulence. These dryers can produce dry powder from a liquid feed.
They can be used either alone, or as a pre- or post-dryer combined
with other equipment. Horizontal thin-film dryers are ideal for dry-
ing slurries and pastes, while their vertical counterparts are pre-
ferred for continuous drying of liquids to wet solids in a single step. Pastillation is just one of the technologies on offer
Both types feature short residence times (can be influenced), low
holdup, self-cleaning characteristics, and low energy consumption. Sandvik also supplies a full range of downstream systems includ-
Closed-system operation allows toxic and dangerous products such ing elevators, conveyors, storage silos, bag filling systems and load-
as solvents to be handled safely. www.gigkarasek.com ing equipment. www.processsystems.sandvik.com
CE solids 2014.indd 46 3/18/14 10:28 AM

Solids Processing 2014 Special Advertising Section
Ultra-high speed powder dispersion made simple

Ross SLIM Technology employs high shear for rapid and complete mixing of powders
into liquids, avoiding agglomerates and dust formation
gums, thickeners and pigments using a like floating powders, excessive dusting
specially modified high shear rotor/stator and formation of stubborn agglomerates
generator. (“fish eyes”) are eliminated. Because the
In both batch and inline designs, the SLIM SLIM generates its own vacuum for pow-
is easy to retrofit into almost any process. In der induction and does not rely on external
an inline set-up, the SLIM mixer pumps liq- eductors or pumps, it is free of clogging and
uid from the recirculation tank while simul- simple to operate.
taneously drawing powders from a hopper. Several models are available including
As the liquid stream enters the rotor/sta- automated skid packages where the SLIM
tor assembly, it immediately encounters the mixer is piped to a jacketed tank and sup-
powder injection at the high shear zone. plied with flowmeters, load cells, solenoid
The mixture is then expelled through the valves, level sensors and thermocouples
stator at high velocity and recirculated back all integrated into a PLC Recipe Control
into the tank. In just a few short turnovers, Panel. Each ingredient addition and process
solids are completely dissolved or reduced step can be pre-programmed so that mixer
to the desired particle size. speed, mixing time, temperature, composi-
This method for high-speed powder injection and batch weight are accurately repli-
tion is ideal for dispersing small concen- cated in every run.
trations of hard-to-wet solids like CMC or Established in 1842, Ross is one of the
xanthan gum (>5%). It is equally effec- oldest and largest manufacturers of process
Ross SLIM technology as a packaged skid tive for solid loadings as high as 70%, as equipment in the world. Specializing in mix-
in the case of titanium dioxide or magne- ing, blending, drying and dispersion equip-
T he Ross Solids/Liquid Injection Manifold

(SLIM) is a technology for dispers-
ing challenging powders like fumed silica,
sium hydroxide slurries. By introducing sol-
ids sub-surface where they are instantly
subjected to vigorous agitation, issues
ment, Ross builds standard and custom
designs for virtually any process or appli
cation. www.highshearmixers.com
Handle virtually any bulk solid material

Flexicon stand-alone equipment and automated plant-wide systems convey,
discharge, condition, fill, dump and/or weigh batch bulk materials dust-free
F lexicon Corporation engineers and manufactures a broad variety
of equipment that handles virtually any bulk material, from large
pellets to sub-micron powders, including free-flowing and non-free-
flowing products that pack, cake, plug, smear, fluidize, or separate.
The line includes: Flexible Screw Conveyors, Tubular Cable Convey-
ors, Pneumatic Conveying Systems, Bulk Bag Unloaders, Bulk Bag
Conditioners, Bulk Bag Fillers, Pallet Dispensers, Bag Dump Stations,
Bag Compactors, Drum/Box/Container Dumpers, Weigh Batching
and Blending Systems, and Automated Plant-Wide Bulk Handling
Systems – all to food, pharmaceutical or industrial standards.
Custom engineered systems incorporate equipment manufactured
by Flexicon as well as packaging machines, blenders, weigh feeders,
screeners and any other process and storage equipment required –
all integrated with the process and guaranteed to perform.
Large-scale bulk handling systems are managed by Flexicon’s
Project Engineering Division that offers dedicated Project Managers
as a customer’s single point-of-contact, Engineering Teams that
ensure smooth integration with new or existing systems, and the
resources and effectiveness only a major bulk equipment manufac- Flexicon offers stand-alone bulk handling equipment as well as
turer can provide. plant-wide systems integrated with new or existing processes
Flexicon’s worldwide testing facilities simulate full-size customer
equipment and systems, verify performance prior to fabrication, 90,000 ft2 (8350 m2) manufacturing facility and world headquar-
demonstrate newly constructed equipment for visiting customers, ters located in Bethlehem, PA, and also operates manufacturing
and study the performance of new designs. facilities in Kent, UK; Queensland, Australia; and Port Elizabeth,
The company is currently doubling the size of its current South Africa. www.flexicon.com
CE solids 2014.indd 47 3/18/14 10:29 AM

Blending pasty Transferring toxic substances?

products at high The new-generation Müller Containment Valve aids safe
handling of highly potent or toxic materials
solids content
EKATO’s VPT vertical W hether operated manually or automat-
ically, the Müller Containment Valve
MCV ensures that products transfer safely
blender is up to the task – from the intermediate bulk container into
the process line and back into a container.
E KATO SYSTEMS GmbH offers “made in

Germany” technology for mixing pasty
products with high solid contents.
After a successful start with their own split
valve in 2009, Müller has now optimized the
Containment Valve MCV to meet even higher
Quick and effective blending of requirements. The new valve generation is
such products requires agitation suitable for up to OEB Level 5 (SMEPAC),
systems with high torque. Both i.e. up to OEL <1 µg/m3. In addition to the
Z-kneaders and higher OEB Level, the operator benefits
horizontal ribbon from improvements in the valve’s handling.
blenders are quite The new construction is lightweight, com-
expensive and dif- pact and self-locking. The locking mecha-
ficult to discharge nism is smooth-running but powerful, with
completely. no rollers or bolts, so there is no mechani-
The EKATO cal wear. Changeover from a manual to a Müller Containment Valve MCV: now
SYSTEMS pneumatic version, or refitting position sen- meeting even higher standards
VPT verti- sors, is simple and easy. Several versions
cal pro- are available, covering options including “only” resistant up to 6 bar). All valves come
cess pressure rating up to 6 bar, explosion pres- in AISI 316L stainless steel, or Hastelloy if
blender sure shock resistance, and prevention of required. Available valve sizes are DN 100,
offers flame breakthrough for group IIB gases up DN 150, DN 200 and DN 250.
25% less to 10 bar (except valve size DN 250, which is www.mueller-gmbh.com/qr/containment
torque
demand
and a dis-
charge of up to Dry biosolids at low temperature
98%, compared
with horizontal drum The Buss-SMS-Canzler Thin Film Dryer saves energy in
blenders. wastewater treatment, and can use waste heat too
The VPT features a heavy-duty “top
entry” agitator, combined with a baffle sys- advantage of low-temperature (80–130°C)
Exhaust
tem designed for liquid and solids blending Condenser waste heat that is often available from
Cooling
to reduce both operation costs and batch Cooling
water water
power plants or other parts of the process,
times. The high impeller efficiency reduces
Heating
medium
Horizontal for example.
Thin Film Dryer
energy input into the blend and avoids an Condensate
To enable greater use of waste heat, bio
excessive temperature rise during the batch Vacuum
pump
solids can be dried under vacuum to reduce
cycle. Benefits include: the necessary evaporation temperature.
• vertical system with lower investment Wet sludge Tests have shown that low-temperature
and maintenance costs compared to hori- Heating Conveyor Dry sludge
vacuum drying using a Buss-SMS-Canzler
medium
zontal systems; Thin Film Dryer works well for biosolids,
• no product wetted seals mean longer life; The Buss-SMS-Canzler low-temperature with a plant layout very similar to that used
• GMP-compliant design available; biosolids drying process for conventional atmospheric-pressure dry-
• fast liquid incorporation in bulk solids – ing. The advantages are:
30% less batch time;
• high-yield discharge system for maximum
yield of valuable product – up to 98%;
D rying of biosolids – like sludge from
municipal and industrial wastewater
treatment plants – with Buss-SMS-Canzler
• lower overall thermal energy
consumption;
• use of waste heat, if available, improves
• commercially proven design; Thin Film Dryers type NDS is a technology economics and cuts emissions;
• worldwide sales and service network. proven over more than 25 years in a huge • minimized hazard potential because
Applications include: number of installations. Drying typically the product temperature remains below
• PVC in methylene chloride paste; takes place at atmospheric pressure and 100°C – much lower than the ignition tem-
• aluminum/water paste; temperatures of 130–180°C. perature of biosolids; and
• pigments in petroleum paste; To improve the environmental perfor- • downstream cooling is in most cases not
• graphite plus water/oil paste; mance and economics of biosolids treat- required, since the product outlet temper-
• cocoa powder/palm oil paste. ment, the trend is towards reducing energy ature is in the range 40–70°C.
www.ekato.com consumption. One way to do this is to take www.sms-vt.com
CE solids 2014.indd 48 3/18/14 10:31 AM

Steel belts for chemical processing

Berndorf Band supplies high-quality stainless steel belts used to cool and solidify
chemicals and a variety of other applications
Carefully chosen material grades and manufacturing methods… …yield high-quality products and long, trouble-free working life
B erndorf Band is a worldwide leader in top-quality process

belts. The company uses selected grades of stainless steel and
advanced manufacturing technologies to produce steel belts char-
The company chooses its materials to resist the dynamic stresses
created by continuous running and repeated bending over drums
and rollers. The belts are characterized by their perfect flatness,
acterized by improved machine availability and long working life. dimensional stability, and straight tracking.
Endless steel belts can be used for various applications in Berndorf Band offers state-of-the-art field service for all its prod-
chemical processing. These range from standard cooling applica- ucts. A wide variety of service activities are offered, from emergency
tions, used to solidify chemicals, up to high-end applications such repair to preventive maintenance. The company’s international ser-
as film and foil casting on mirror-polished steel belts. Whatever vice network is supported by the service centre in Berndorf, Austria.
the application, the use of an endless steel belt allows continu- As a result, customers always have rapid access to the latest repair
ous production. methods and skilled technicians. www.berndorf-band.at
Get Chemical Engineering’s plant cost index to improve plant cost estimates…
and delivered in advance of the print edition!
For more than 37 years, chemical process industries professionals- engineers, manager and technicians, have used
Chemical Engineering’s Plant Cost Index to adjust process plant construction costs from one period to another.
This database includes all annual archives (1947 to present) and monthly data archives (1970 to present). Instead
of waiting more than two weeks for the print or online version of Chemical Engineering to arrive, subscribers can
access new data as soon as it’s calculated.
510
Sep ‘06 Aug ‘06 Sep ‘05
Prelim. Final Final
CE Index 513.1 510.0 467.2
500
Equipment 606.5 602.3 541.2
Heat Exchanges and Tanks 565.1 560.9 509.2
Process Machinery 559.6 556.2 521.7 490
Pipe, valves and fittings 734.7 731.7 620.8

Process Instruments 441.4 437.2 379.5
480
Pumps and Compressions 788.9 788.3 756.3
Electrical equipment 418.9 414.2 374.6
Structural supports 643.7 637.7 579.3 470
Construction Labor 314.7 312.9 309.1

Buildings 476.9 475.2 444.7
460
Engineering Supervision 350.7 351.9 346.9 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Resources included with Chemical Engineering’s Plant Cost Index:

• Electronic notification of monthly updates as soon • Monthly data archives (1970 to present)
as they are available • Option to download in Excel format
• All annual data archives (1947 to present)
17817
Subscribe today at www.che.com/pci
CE solids 2014.indd 49 3/18/14 5:45 PM

Feature Report Part 1
Protecting Against
Compressor Pulsations
Minimizing detrimental pulsation behavior Dynamic
by examining harmonics 0–P
Pressure
improves operations and safety
P–P
Ali Ghanbariannaeeni These variations are superim- Static

Lloyd’s Register EMEA posed upon the steady (average)
Time, s
and dynamic regimes in Figure
Ghazalehsadat Ghazanfarihashemi 1. In addition, flow pulses act as P(t) = PDynamic + PStatic
AMEC Group Ltd. excitations that create pressure
and flow modulations, namely FIGURE 1. Pressure variations are shown for
P
the inlet and outlet of a reciprocating compressor
ressure variations result- acoustic waves, which propagate
ing from the oscillatory flow at a speed equal to the speed of
patterns found in positive- sound through the process fluid
displacement machinery, es- as it moves through the piping One crank rotation
pecially reciprocating compressors, system. The frequencies of flow
are referred to as “pulsations.” pulses are a function of the me- T Close
Piston displacement
Found in both liquid- and gas- chanical properties of the com- discharge
handling systems, pulsations are a pressor, including the compres-

common phenomenon in the chemi- sor’s piston-displacement and
cal processing industries (CPI). Op- crank-rotation behavior. The Time
erational problems associated with piston-displacement function
pulsations include resonance condi- for reciprocating compressors is T Open
discharge
tions, high vibrations, degradation shown in Figure 2. T Open
of support systems and increased Flow variations, as plotted suction
T Close
risk for fatigue failures caused by in Figure 3, appear as a saw- suction
dynamic forces. To avoid potential tooth flow function at both the
pulsation-related problems in re- suction and discharge sides of
ciprocating compressors and piping the compressor cylinder. The FIGURE 2. A compressor’s piston-displace-
ment function over one shaft rotation is shown.
systems, there are two design con- shape of the saw-tooth is de- The piston-displacement characteristics of a
siderations that must be taken into termined by the rotational compressor affect the flow-pulse frequency
account. The first focuses on mini- speed of the compressor, the
mizing the magnitude of the har- single- or double-acting features as higher multiples. Compressors
monic forcing functions. The second of the compressor, the geometry of in natural-gas services are mostly
method examines physical modifi- the cylinder-cylinder valve and the double-acting, and compress gas on
cations to the piping support or pip- pressure ratio. the head and crank ends of the cylin-
ing layout to mitigate issues related Actually, studying the crankshaft der. Double-acting cylinders produce
to natural frequencies and har- of a compressor allows for some pre- more pulsation at the even multiples
monics. This article covers the first dictability of the pulsation-producing of crankshaft speed and less at the
method in detail. behavior. Pulsations are produced at odd multiples. Therefore, a 600-rpm
a rate equivalent to the compressor- double-acting cylinder will produce
Excitation sources crankshaft displacement, in revolu- its strongest pulsation at 20 Hz.
In systems that employ positive- tions per minute (rpm), and mul- When compressors have more than
displacement machinery, the pres- tiples thereof. Pulsation frequencies one cylinder, the crankshaft phasing
sure and flow of the gas or liquid are are generally expressed in cycles per of the cylinders will also cause cer-
not steady. Instead, the fluid moves second, or Hertz (Hz). For example, tain multiples to be higher than the
through the piping at varied condi- a 600-rpm compressor produces pul- others. For example, if two double-
tions in a series of pressure pulses. sations at 10, 20 and 30 Hz, as well acting cylinders are phased 90 deg
18_CHE_040114_MPB1.indd 50 3/18/14 11:10:03 AM

FIGURE 5. A typical
single-volume damp-
Flowrate (104 m3/h)
8
7 Volume ener is available in two
6 types, cylindrical or
5
4 spherical
3
2 Lc, Ac , dc FIGURE 6. A double-
1
0 volume pulsation
V1 V2 dampener features two
0.10 0.15 0.20 0 volume chambers that
Time are connected with ei-
Lc, Ac , dc ther an external (top) or
FIGURE 3. Flow variations at the inlet and outlet pip-
internal (bottom)
ing of a compressor take on the form of a saw-tooth
choke tube
function V1 V2
1.0
0.9
0.8
analysis of the flow’s eners, single- or double-volume bot-
Pressure amplitude
0.7
saw-tooth function indi- tles, choke tubes and orifices. These
0.6
cates which harmonics of elements can be combined in vari-
0.5 the compressor running ous manners to achieve pulsation
0.4 speed produce the largest control ranging from attenuation of
0.3 pressure amplitude, as pulsations to true filtering.
0.2 seen in Figure 4. Pulsation dampeners of any
0.1 In most pulsation volume cause the dissipation of
0.0 analyses, the pressure pulsative energy, preventing its
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 amplitudes for the first transmission through a system. In
Harmonic component to tenth harmonics are most chemical plants, single-empty
usually used in the dampener volumes — usually
acoustic model to predict spherical or cylindrical styles —
the pulsations and un- are used. However, double-volume
balanced forces. Any pul- dampener filters with internal or
Pressure amplitude
sations must be smaller external interconnection piping are

than the limits given in also relatively common. The line be-
API 618 [1], which de- tween the two volume chambers in
fines the minimum suc- a two-volume dampener is referred
tion and discharge surge to as the choke tube. Figures 5 and
volumes required for 6 illustrate single- and double-vol-
pulsation control. Ad- ume dampeners, respectively. The
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
ditionally, unbalanced double-volume model is shown in
Frequency, Hz
forces must not produce both internal and external types,
a fatigue failure on the with choke-tube parameters as fol-
FIGURE 4. Fourier analyses of pressure and flow piping system. Typi- lows: choke-tube length (Lc), choke-
reveal the harmonic and frequency behavior for a cally, the predominant tube area (Ac) and choke-tube
compressor pressure and flow modu- internal diameter (dc).
lations generated by a In general, suction pulsation
apart, they will produce a signifi- reciprocating compressor are at dampeners are mounted directly
cantly higher pulsation level at four frequencies that can be modeled as at the top of the cylinders, and
times the crankshaft rpm level. In generalized one-dimensional waves. discharge dampeners directly at
the case of a 600-rpm machine with However, in high-speed reciprocat- the bottom. In fact, the API 618
two double-acting cylinders phased ing compressors, such as those with standard requires a top-to-bottom
90 deg apart, there will be a high speeds between 750 and 1,000 rpm, gas flow to allow for proper liquid
fourth harmonic or 40 Hz. Gener- this assumption is not correct and a drainage. To gain insight into the
ally, the higher multiples — some- three-dimensional analysis should effectiveness of the various configu-
times called compressor harmonics be conducted on both compressor rations, the pulsation transmission
or compressor orders — will contain suction and discharge manifolds. factor (TF) is used. This factor is
less energy than the lower orders. defined in Equation (1), in terms of
When a discrete Fourier analysis is Pulsation control a pulsation amplitude ratio, where
performed on the aforementioned Pulsation control in compressor pip- Qin is the amplitude of pulsation
saw-tooth function, the strength ing systems can be accomplished by at the dampener inlet and Qout
of the individual flow harmonics is proper application of the basic filter is the amplitude of pulsation at
determined. The discrete Fourier elements, including pulsation damp- the dampener outlet.
18_CHE_040114_MPB1.indd 51 3/18/14 11:11:13 AM

1
Feature Report
Tramsmission
0.1
Cylindrical volume Piping
TF = Qout /Qin (1) side
Spherical volume
The frequency at which Compressor side
0.01
Qout is equal to Qin is
called the passband fre- FIGURE 8. A pipe can be inserted directly
quency. This frequency 0.001
into the cylinder to balance forces.
indicates a maximum
0 40 80 120 160 200
in pulsations and is reg-
Frequency, Hz
istered as resonance in Suction dampener
the dampener. Thus, it is FIGURE 7. A comparison of the transmission bottle
desirable to decrease TF characteristics of cylindrical and spherical damp-
by changing the dampeners reveals the excellent attenuation potential Orifice plate
Suction
nozzle
ener dimensions and area exhibited by the spherical type projected
Suction valves
ratio to minimize pulsa- area
tion amplitude downstream. By tices, an L/D of approximately Compressor
comparing the transmission fac- three is considered acceptable, cylinder
tor of each pulsation dampener with a general assumption that
Discharge valves Discharge
with other types of dampeners, it bottle diameter should be three to nozzle
is possible to gain knowledge of four times the compressor nozzle Orifice plate projected
the strengths and weaknesses in diameter. Bottle length should area
each configuration. This matter be minimized when comparing
is explained in more detail in the acoustic length response with the
following sections. compressor excitation frequen- Discharge
dampener
cies; in this regard, dampener
Single-volume dampeners length should be selected to be
FIGURE 9. Orifice placement with respect
A single-volume (empty bottle) less than one-fourth of the com- to nozzles and flanges is crucial in pulsa-
dampener, in either a cylindrical or pressor’s main harmonic wave- tion control
spherical style, is attached to the length. Also, passband frequencies
suction or discharge of a compres- are controlled by the bottle length,
sor. This volume provides surge because they occur at half of the API 618 requirements. However,
capacity and acts as a filter, which pulsation wavelength. suction-pulsation bottles should be
can effectively isolate the piping It is important to understand the designed to prevent liquid trappage
fluid from the flow modulations differing characteristics of spherical and should not be equipped with
induced by the compressor. Based and cylindrical dampeners. In gen- internals for moisture removal. As
on the standards set in API 618, eral, a spherical single-volume type such, suction piping is sloped back
the surge volume is defined as 21 is much more efficient than the cy- toward the knockout drum to pre-
times the combined swept volume lindrical type, but because of restric- vent liquid accumulation in the ma-
of the head and crank end of the tions on fabrication costs, the cylin- chine suction bottles. Similarly, dis-
compressor cylinder, corrected by a drical dampener type is much more charge bottles must be self-draining.
square root function for the speed of commonly used. The transmission Moreover, if suction bottles and pip-
sound difference between a typical characteristics of spherical and cy- ing are provided by the compressor
natural gas with a speed of sound of lindrical dampeners are illustrated vendor, they must have attachment
600 m/s. However, in most applica- in Figure 7. Here, it is seen that the features or facilities for install-
tions, assuming 30 times the piston cylindrical volume and the ideal ing insulation and heat tracing to
sweeping volume is considered an volume are equal [2]. The spherical maintain the metal temperature at
acceptable preliminary estimation. volume transmission indicates ex- least 6°C above the rated gas tem-
The TF value of this type of bottle cellent attenuation characteristics, perature for the suction. It is recom-
is reduced with increasing volume making it a very effective choice for mended that welding-neck flange
and a decrease in the piping cross- pulsation dampening, if not for the types be used in bottle fabrication,
sectional area. In other words, the high associated costs. except for inspection or cleaning
attenuation characteristics of the flanges, and that long-welding-neck
empty volume are a function of the Practical recommendations type (LWN) flanges be used for in-
volume enclosed by the bottle, as Compressor manufacturers should strument devices. All welds in bot-
well as the expansion ratio of the provide pulsation bottles for both tle construction should be full-radi-
attached pipe and bottle diameters. the suction and the discharge side ography afterwards; the root pass of
Moreover, according to API 618, of each cylinder, and cylinders op- welding should be gas-tungsten arc
for a single-cylinder empty volume erating in parallel configurations welding (GTAW) type and the next
bottle, the ratio of bottle length to can be connected to a common suc- passes should be shielded-metal arc
inside diameter (L/D) shall not ex- tion or a common discharge bottle, welding (SMAW) type [3].
ceed four. However, in most prac- if possible, and in accordance with Suction dampener supporting
18_CHE_040114_MPB1.indd 52 3/18/14 11:14:00 AM

30 deg ≤ 0 ≤ 45 deg stallation between cylinder flanges
10 and pulsation dampener flanges has
fH an advantage. When needed, the
orifice plate can be easily changed
Flow
during a plant overhaul or a rede-
sign for new operating conditions.
Pulsation
Furthermore, orifices in outlet con-
t
nections for discharge bottles and in
inlet connections for suction bottles
can change piping cross-sectional
area, increase TF and subsequently
0 decrease the pulsation level prior to
t T
0 20 40 60 the dampener on both the suction
Flat plate Beveled plate Frequency, Hz and discharge sides.
The orifices’ recommended pres-
FIGURE 10. Orifice plates are an inte- FIGURE 11. A volume-choke-volume sure drop is a maximum of 1% of
gral part of pulsation control and must dampener configuration results in a fre- the line’s mean pressure. They are
be installed with consideration to flow quency response (fH) where pulsations typically large-bore orifice plates,
direction are amplified, and then drop off rapidly
and can provide equivalent pres-
sure drop in the order of a valve or
should be installed in a goalpost- der arrangement, interstitial spaces approximately 1/100 the diameter
type arrangement, and not on the between cylinders or supporting of the pipe. The normal orifice dis-
compressor cylinder itself. It is rec- structures for the bottles, there are charge coefficient (Cd) is 0.6, but or-
ommended that tapping on the shell some cylinders for which reach- ifices lose their efficiency at higher
be minimized and pressure and ing the center of the cylinder is not frequencies and in these cases, the
temperature indicators be installed possible from outside of the volume user might consider multiple-bore
on the main nozzles or piping mani- bottle. In these cases, a standard orifice plates [5]. The preferred
folds. One of the best practices for design practice is to insert a sec- material is stainless-steel type
the design of volume bottles is to tion of pipe directly into the bottle AISI 304 or 316 with 10-mm thick-
place the cylinder connections at to balance the volume-bottle cylin- ness. Most orifices have a clearly
the longitudinal center of both the der’s connection to the center of the marked flow direction and should
suction and discharge bottles. In volume bottle (Figure 8). be installed carefully. The flow di-
fact, the cylinder nozzle exit in the Another best practice is position- rection is always from the small-
discharge bottle, or entrance, in the ing a fixed orifice plate in the cylin- opening end to the large-opening
case of the suction side, can be the der flanges. Actually, as illustrated end (Figure 10).
origin of the pressure pulsations in Figure 9, the standing wave pat-
in the bottle itself. If this origin is tern of the pressure pulsation is car- Double-volume dampeners
placed symmetrically with respect ried from the valves through the cyl- Two-volume dampeners are an ex-
to the bottle ends, the pressure inder gas passages and the cylinder tension of the single-volume variety,
pulsations will hit the two opposite nozzle into the bottle, on each side of and there are significant differences
sides with the same phase, result- the cylinder. This pressure pulsation in these two types of dampeners,
ing in zero net pulsations. acts to produce varying positive and with regard to low-frequency char-
In addition, the length of cylinder negative forces in the vertical direc- acteristics. The first bottle, which is
nozzle connections must be limited, tion. Dampening of this resonance is directly connected to the compres-
because longer nozzle lengths re- necessary to avoid excessive shaking sor cylinder, is called the surge vol-
sult in more harmonic resonance in forces inside the bottles and to pre- ume and the second bottle is the fil-
the section of pipe between the cyl- vent damage to the cylinder valves ter volume. Recall that a choke tube
inder and the volume bottle. How- on the other side [4]. separates the two volume chambers
ever, there is an exception with very As a result, orifice plates in the in a double-volume dampener, hence
light gases, such as pure hydrogen throat of the flanged inlet or outlet the volume-choke-volume label. The
or helium, because high gas-sound nozzle connections are mandatory single most important characteris-
velocity and wavelength produce no to reduce the pulsation amplitude, tic of a dampener’s volume-choke-
resonance in short lengths of pipe. called nozzle-mode frequency, which volume configuration is its acoustic
In this case, the minimum bottle is present between the cylinders natural frequency — or Helmholtz
acoustical natural frequency that and the volume bottles. These ori- frequency. This is a value at which
could be excited in resonance is fices must be located exactly at the a frequency pulsation is amplified,
above the tenth harmonic. outlet flange for the suction volume followed by a rapid drop-off in pul-
Due to restrictions on machine bottle and at the inlet flange for the sation levels (Figure 11). Equations
component layouts, including cylin- discharge volume bottle. Orifice in- (2) and (3) are used to calculate
18_CHE_040114_MPB1.indd 53 3/18/14 11:14:52 AM

Helmholtz frequency
25 in two-bottle design
Feature Report Fixed speed compressor
order at 300 rpm
Choke tube passband
20 frequency at 4X-5X
the Helmholtz frequency (fH) [6] in Cylinder gas passage

15 nozzle response at 7X-8X
Amplitude, psi
terms of the speed-of-sound propa-
gation through the process gas (C).
L'c represents the corrected choke- 10
tube length.
C Ac  1 1 5
fH =  + 
2π Lc′  V1 V2 
(2)
0
Lc′ = Lc + 0.6 dc 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
(3)
Frequency, Hz
Figure 12 shows the realized
response of double-volume damp-
FIGURE 12. A volume-choke-volume system’s frequency response is plotted with
eners, superimposed on the pul- passbands for a 300-rpm reciprocating compressor
sation spectrum for a 300-rpm
double-acting compressor. This the compressor pulsation.
figure exhibits a relatively high This 33% margin can also 1
Helmholtz frequency compared to be applied in other cases,
Single-volume
choke-tube passband and nozzle- due to economical restric-
Transmission factor
0.1
mode response frequencies. The tions, physical impractical-
passbands, which amplify certain ity, or when pressure drop is
frequencies, are related to design very critical in low suction 0.01
considerations, such as the length pressures or when there
of choke tubes and inlet nozzles. is limitation in space for 0.001 Double-volume
The frequency of passbands must the compressor layout.
be carefully considered to ensure Double-volume dampen-
low dynamic-pressure transmis- ers can be used effectively 0.0001
0 40 80 120 160 200
sion and good compressor isolation. to control pulsation with
Actually, passband frequencies are relatively high molecular- Frequency, Hz
controlled with dampening by add- weight components and
ing pressure drop (orifices) or flow relatively low-speed sys- FIGURE 13. A comparsion of single- and double-
losses (choke tubes). However, add- tems with velocities less volume dampeners shows that double-volume
dampeners provide attenuation over a wider range
ing dampening reduces compressor than 600 m/s. Each bottle of frequencies
performance and increases power volume (surge and filter)
losses and operating costs. The min- is approximately sized to be ten be three to four times the compres-
imum surge volume requirements times the piston sweeping volume. sor nozzle and outlet piping diam-
and dampening are controlled by The preferred arrangement is sym- eter. Bottle length will depend on
pressure drop in the choke tube. At metric, with equal length between the acoustic design technique. With
frequencies below the Helmholtz the bottles and the choke tube. It is regard to nozzle frequencies, damp-
frequency, there will be no attenu- worth noting that in symmetrical ening is controlled by the pressure
ation of pulsations passing through dampeners, passband frequencies drop in the nozzle, with the ideal
the dampener. are minimized. Besides this, the location for pressure drop being the
Meanwhile, there will be a sharp inside diameter of the choke tube bottle’s connection. Design consider-
reduction of pulsation at about 20– should be so small that pressure- ations for controlling the main am-
40% above the Helmholtz frequency drop limits are minimized. Larger- plified frequencies are summarized
and extending out to several Hertz diameter choke tubes create less in Table 1.
before the passband frequency, due pressure loss but require larger
to choke-tube and cylinder-gas pas- volumes. In most applications, a Comparison of dampeners
sage. In addition, it is very impor- common procedure is to limit the The selection of a pulsation damp-
tant to account for margins between gas velocity to 30 m/s for initial ener depends on compressor speed,
the compressor pulsation and the choke-tube sizing. compressor construction, gas ther-
Helmholtz frequency. This margin Double-volume dampeners with modynamic properties, sound veloc-
can be evaluated in two ways. For internal choke tubes and baffle ity and the degree of pulsation con-
speeds above 500 rpm, the Helm- plates are generally appropriate trol required. Figure 13 compares
holtz frequency should be placed for speeds lower than 500 rpm and single-volume and double-volume
30% below the compressor pulsa- lighter gases. Conversely, dampen- dampener performance in terms of
tion (or rpm divided by 60). On the ers with external choke tubes are the transmission factor. The empty
other hand, for compressor speeds generally appropriate for speeds single-volume dampener provides
below 500 rpm, the Helmholtz fre- higher than 500 rpm and heavier adequate attenuation of pulsations
quency should be placed 33% above gases. The bottles’ diameter should between frequencies of 0 and 10 Hz.
18_CHE_040114_MPB1.indd 54 3/18/14 11:15:42 AM

TABLE 1. CONTROLLING AMPLIFIED PULSATION FREQUENCIES
Helmholtz resonance Choke tube passbands Nozzle-mode response
+
Volume of 1st
chamber Length of choke tube Cylinder passage volume
Volume of 2nd chamber Chamber length (if not Effective cylinder length
Length of choke tube center-fed by nozzle) Length of nozzle
Area of choke tube Choke tube pressure drop Volume of first chamber
After that, the two-volume damp- vibrations of compressors and pip-

ener has superior attenuation char- ing-manifold systems. Usually, when
acteristics in the 10–120 Hz spec- designers adhere to the initial sizing
trum. In other words, for maximum procedures for pulsation dampeners,
=
attenuation over a wider frequency a final acoustic and vibration study
range, two-volume dampeners will indicate the need for only minor
may be a more appropriate option. equipment modifications, such as
However, in two-volume pulsation adding orifices or changing the
dampeners, the transmission fac- support-piping type or layout. ■
tor strongly depends on compressor Edited by Mary Page Bailey
gas composition and speed, whereas
single-volume dampeners exhibit References
steady behavior under a variety of 1. Amer. Pet. Institute, Reciprocating Compres-
sors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Service
operating conditions — a single-
volume dampener experiences
Industries, API 618 5th edition, Dec. 2007.
2. Blodgett, L.E., “Theoretical and Practical De-
sign of Pulsation Design Damping”, Elsevier Add value,
add profit.
very little efficiency decrease in a Ltd., 1992.
dynamic environment. 3. Giacomelli, E., others, “Pressure Vessel De-
Actually, experience has shown sign for Reciprocating Compressors Applied
in Refinery and Petrochemical Plants”,
that a single-volume dampener is ASME Pressure Vessel Division, 2005.
effective and the preferred solution 4. Howes, B.C. and Greenfield, S.D., “Guide- SOLUTIONS FOR
lines in Pulsation Studies for Reciprocating
in pulsation dampening in most Compressors”, 4th International Pipeline MULTI-NUTRIENT
CPI plants. Moreover, pressure drop Conference, 2002.
is lowest in this type, and there is 5. Barta, M.L. and Bass, T.P., Gas piping design FERTILISER PRODUCTION
for high-speed reciprocating compressor units,
much lower possibility for mechani- Journal of Engineering for Industry, 1971.
cal problems or failure of internals. 6. Atkins, K.E., Pyle, A.S. and Tison, J.D., “Un-
derstanding the Pulsation & Vibration Con-
Conversely, in double-volume trol Concepts in the New API 618 Fifth Edi-
dampeners, internal component fail- tion”, Gas Machinery Conference, 2004.
ure is a major weakness. Overall,
operations are simpler and more
flexible with single-volume damp- Author
Ali Ghanbariannaeeni is From mixing of liquid melts and solid
eners. For example, double-volume a rotating equipment engi- additives, through environmentally-friendly
dampeners must be synchronized neer currently working at Rotoform pastillation, to downstream
Lloyd’s Register EMEA (Den-
according to the specified compres- burn House, 25 Union Ter- handling and bagging, our continuous
sor operation; this process is not nec- race, Aberdeen, U.K., AB10 process solutions open the door to new
1NN, Phone: 0044 (0)1224 possibilities in profitable, innovative and
essary for single-volume dampeners. 267413, Email: Ali.Ghanbari-
effective multi-nutrient fertilisers.
For double-volume configurations, annaeeni@lr.org) specializing
in reciprocating, centrifugal
significant changes in operating con- and screw compressors, gas  Inline mixing of liquid
and steam turbines, process and solid suspensions
ditions or gas composition may re- pumps, engines and electric machines.. He is a  Uniform, dust-free Rotoform pastilles
quire the replacement of the volume chartered engineer and a member of the Insti-
 Ultra-versatile production
tute of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE). He ob-
bottles and internals, but pulsation tained a B.S. degree in mechanical engineering for easy product switchover
control in single-volume dampen- from Iran University of Science and Technology  Low investment, low operating costs
(Tehran, Iran).
ers can be adjusted by insertion of Ghazalehsadat Ghazan-
 Single source, end-to-end capability
removable orifices or by additional farihashemi is a rotating
equipment engineer cur- Contact us to find out how
volume located close to the existing rently working at AMEC we can enhance your products.
bottle. Finally, due to the need for Group Ltd. (Pavilion 1, City
View, Craigshaw Business
bottle internals in a two-bottle de- Park, Craigshaw Drive, Ab-
sign, the cost of these devices is nor- erdeen, U.K., AB12 3BE,
Phone: 0044(0)1224 294189,
mally higher than that of a single Email: ghazaleh.ghazanfari@
empty-volume system. amec.com) specializing in re-
ciprocating and centrifugal Sandvik Process Systems
Correct design of pulsation devices compressors, process pumps, engines and elec- Division of Sandvik Materials Technology Deutschland GmbH
is an important step in ensuring safe tric machines. She obtained an M.S. and a B.S. Salierstr. 35, 70736 Fellbach, Germany
degree in mechanical engineering from Sharif Tel: +49 711 5105-0 · Fax: +49 711 5105-152
and reliable operations by mitigating University of Technology in Tehran, Iran.
info.spsde@sandvik.com
www.processsystems.sandvik.com
SANDVIK_liquid_powder_pastille_ChemicalEngineering.indd 1 23/01/2014 09:51

18_CHE_040114_MPB1.indd 55 3/18/14 11:16:57 AM
Feature Report Part 2
Integrally Geared
Compressors
in the CPI Siemens
Follow this guidance to improve

operation, safety and reliability
of integrally geared compressors FIGURE 1.
Integrally geared
compressors are
widely used in the
Amin Almasi article details some practical de- CPI for a variety of
Rotating Equipment Consultant sign considerations and presents applications
some process data for integrally
I
n an integrally geared cen- geared compressors.
trifugal compressor (Figure 1), The rotor design is the most im-
several impellers are mounted Design and operation portant factor in securing mechani-
on the ends of high-speed pin- In an integrally geared centrifugal cal stability against destabilizing
ion shafts, which are rotated by a compressor, a two-part gear casing fluid forces. Destabilizing forces
bull-gear. Each impeller’s casing is permits the gears and bearings to be usually increase as the actual dis-
mounted directly on the horizon- readily checked without removing charge pressure increases. For high-
tally split gear casing. As is the case the compressor casings. This cas- pressure stages, for instance those
for any turbomachinery type used in ing has its upper and lower halves above 70 bars, the stability of the
the chemical processing industries joined at their horizontal flanges. rotor, including the pinion, two im-
(CPI), there are advantages and Each individual compressor stage pellers and seals, should be ensured.
disadvantages associated with the has a vertically split casing design. There are usually concerns about
use of integrally geared centrifugal The pinion shafts each rotate at a high-speed shaft vibrations and
compressors. When compared to high speed, enabling the impellers the temperature of the bearing pad.
conventional centrifugal compres- fitted on each end to efficiently com- Particularly important in the design
sors, integrally geared compressors press the gas. The pinion-shaft as- phase are the vibrations of the rotor
are more compact and generally sembly is removable, providing easy and the temperature rise in the
less expensive. Also, an integrally access for maintenance. The high- high-speed bearing pads. These phe-
geared centrifugal compressor can speed rotor design should be tuned nomena should also be confirmed in
offer higher efficiency compared to based on both lateral and torsional compressor performance tests. Gen-
conventional compressors, mainly dynamic results. erally, the temperature in the high-
due to improved intermediate cool- In the CPI, tandem dry-gas seals speed bearing pads should be less
ing capabilities and the optimiza- are commonly used in integrally than 100°C. However, in actual op-
tion of impeller speed at the final geared compressors, which require erations, the observed temperature
impellers, where the gas volume longer pinion rotors, making rotor- for the entire journal bearing pad is
has been reduced after encounter- dynamic issues more complex. For often lower than 70°C.
ing the initial impellers. Also, since the high-speed rotors in integrally The shafting in the two impellers
the compressor stages use indepen- geared compressors, tilted-pad jour- is nearly symmetrical, resulting in
dent three-dimensional (3D) impel- nal bearings, either with or without a a relatively balanced aerodynamic
lers, there are more opportunities squeeze film damper, are most often thrust. Thrust loads from impellers
for intermediate cooling. used. Investigations show that the and gears should be absorbed by
On the other hand, integrally machines equipped with squeeze film individual thrust bearings on pin-
geared compressors are quite com- dampers usually perform better than ions, or transmitted to the bull-gear
plex, potentially leading to dy- the ones with only the tilting-pad thrust bearing by means of thrust-
namic and reliability issues. This journal bearing. rider rings fixed to the pinions and
19_CHE_040114_MPB2.indd 56 3/19/14 6:21:08 AM

TABLE 1: EXAMPLE Capacity casing (the main casing) has a hole robust and properly designed tem-
range FOR a five-frame in its bottom, through which the re- perature-control system is crucial
INTEGRALLY GEARED turn oil travels directly down to the to the lubrication oil system.
COMPRESSOR lubrication oil reservoir. This reser- Additionally, excessive oil tem-
Compressor Capacity range
voir is a wide, low-depth reservoir perature can sometimes be caused
frame (m3/h) integrated within the common base- by lubrication oil foaming. The gear
plate. The primary oil pump is often casing should be designed to permit
1 1,000–4,000
driven by the main equipment shaft rapid drainage of lubrication oil to
2 4,000–20,000 in a direct-coupling arrangement or minimize oil foaming. Proper atten-
3 20,000–50,000 through a gear system. This connection should be given to the design
tion or gear system needs special of certain components, including
4 50,000–110,000
attention, since in some machines, windage baffles, false bottoms, sump
5 110,000–300,000 these components can potentially depth and drain connections. Remov-
cause operational difficulties. The able and gasketed inspection covers
TABLE 2: EXAMPLE POWER lubrication oil pump and its gear should be provided in the gear cas-
CAPABILITIES OF A NINE- connection should be provided ac- ing to permit direct visual inspection
FRAME INTEGRALLY GEARED cording to American Petroleum of the full-face width of all pinions
COMPRESSOR Institute (API; Washington, D.C.; and the bull-gear. For some compact
Compressor Power range (MW) www.api.gov) standards, specifically machines, this design may not be
frame the requirements specified for gear possible, but the inspection opening
1 2–4.5 systems in chapter three of API-617. should be provided at least for one-
The lubrication oil itself can also be half the width of the gear face.
2, 3, 4, 5, 6 5–25 the source of problems, especially Other considerations must also be
7, 8, 9 25–65 due to the high sensitivity of inte- taken into account in the design of
grally geared compressors. the lubrication oil system of an in-
bull-gear. The latter approach is Generally, centrifugal compres- tegrally geared compressor. Where
commonly used in integrally geared sors are sensitive to operating con- practical, gear casings should be de-
centrifugal compressors. In many dition irregularities — this includes signed with internal oil passages to
machines, a large degree of thrust changes in gas composition or lu- minimize external piping, as external
balancing may be achieved by the brication oil temperature. For ex- piping that supplies lubrication oil
helix thrust-force direction of the ample, in a given integrally geared to the gear casing usually decreases
gearing, which offsets impeller aero- compressor in a CPI plant, a 15% the reliability of the machine. The
dynamic thrust forces. Integrally increase in compressed-gas density design of internal piping and tubing
geared compressors are typically resulted in 14% more destabiliz- should also provide proper support
fixed to the mounting plate and, if ing forces at the same compressor and protection to prevent damage
avoidable, should not be moved for discharge pressure. In another ex- from vibration, as well as damage
alignment — this can cause distor- ample, an integrally geared com- sustained from shipment, operation
tion of the integral gear unit. pressor was designed to operate at and maintenance activities.
Integrally geared centrifugal a lubrication oil supply tempera- The commonly used lubrication
compressors are offered with differ- ture of 43°C; there were no issues oils for integrally geared compres-
ent frames, and are available in a or rotor instability when operating sors are ISO VG 32 oils. In some
wide range of sizes for many appli- at this lubrication oil temperature. cases, ISO VG 46 oils might be used,
cations. As a very rough indication, However, during a short period of especially in sites with relatively hot
each frame is around 50–120% big- time, because of a problem in the ambient temperatures or relatively
ger than the previous frame. Tables lubrication oil skid, the oil supply high-temperature operations. Oils
1 and 2 show some typical frame temperature was raised by 10°C, with extreme-pressure additives
schemes for integrally geared com- causing an asynchronous vibra- may be used for some gear units, but
pressors, illustrating capacity range tion in the compressor. Generally, these oils should not be used for in-
and power range, respectively. investigations have shown that tegrally geared compressors.
integrally geared compressors are
Lubrication oil systems affected by any deviation in lubrica- Side-stream applications
The lubrication oil system in inte- tion-oil temperature, whether it in- Integrally geared compressors are
grally geared compressors is critical volves the temperature decreasing commonly used in applications
for operations, and proper design is or increasing. Usually, for large and where space or budget are limited.
key in minimizing potential issues. operation-critical integrally geared Their low weight and compact de-
For small- and medium-sized com- centrifugal compressor packages, a sign make them a popular choice for
pressors, the lubrication oil system sophisticated lubrication oil system many functions. For instance, facili-
is usually part of the compressor should be provided, designed ac- ties with marginal power availabil-
package. Often, the integral gear cording to chapter two of API-614. A ity may use these machines because
19_CHE_040114_MPB2.indd 57 3/19/14 6:41:52 AM

Feature Report
of their efficiency. An important ap- actions that can affect the IGVs, the made up of wakes generated by the
plication field for integrally geared impellers’ volute and the compres- setting angle of the IGV. The for-
compressors is services requiring sor piping. These interactions in- mer is most noticeable at small IGV
side-loads or side-streams. duce turbulent, unsteady flow pat- angles. The latter is observable in
Compressors with side-streams terns throughout the compressor moderate or large IGV angles.
(also known as side-loads) have package. The distortion patterns in The most significant fluctuations
been extensively used in some CPI front of an impeller appear to be dif- are usually caused by impeller rota-
plants due to the potential for opti- ferent from the distortion measured tion. The unsteadiness induced by
mization with these machines. Ex- at the exit of the impeller, where the impeller exists in all upstream
amples of compressor systems with flow disruptions due to the volute and downstream components. The
side-loads include some process re- are dominant. However, detailed sizes of these periodic waves are
frigeration systems, as well as pro- investigations show that the flow usually the same scale as the size
cess units where a recycled stream fields in the front of the impeller of the impeller’s blade pitch. The in-
is cycled back to a reactor. Con- are defined by both upstream and tensity of the waves can be related
ventional compressors with side- downstream components. to the IGV setting.
streams have complex aerodynamic Simulations and investigations For integrally geared centrifu-
issues and complicated operational show that significant aerodynamic gal compressors, oftentimes, all
behavior. The mixing of flows in- activities and complex flow pat- fluctuations of field quantities in
side conventional compressors can terns exist near the surface of an all directions are approximately of
be difficult and problematic. How- IGV. These activities and complex the same order of magnitude, most
ever, integrally geared compressors flow patterns indicate strong re- likely due to the impeller. Other
can manage side-loads and side- actions between the IGVs and the contributors are the structure of
streams without the same issues as inlet flow. Generally, the IGVs have each stage and the complex pip-
conventional compressors. two main effects on the inlet flow. ing network between the differ-
The first effect is the pre-swirl, ent stages and inter-stage coolers,
Capacity control via an IGV which is the predominant effect at which propagate the fluctuations
In order to enable operation at par- small IGV angles. The second effect in 3D patterns. The intensities of
tial loads with reasonable efficiency, is the flow-restriction effect, which these fluctuations are inversely
an inlet guide vane (IGV) system is is active at moderate and large IGV proportional to the distance from
used in an integrally geared cen- angles (in addition to the pre-swirl). the rotating impeller.
trifugal compressor. Essentially, an Where there is a moderate or large Simulations and field investiga-
IGV system provides safe capac- IGV angle, the IGVs reduce the tions have confirmed that a periodic
ity control. With an IGV system inlet flow area and speed up the wave pattern is present near impel-
in place, the flowrate can usually axial flows to the 3D impeller. ler inlets. The number of waves is
be reduced with an approximately IGV placement and orientation is usually the same as the number of
constant discharge pressure. De- also an important factor. The IGV impeller blades. Once again, these
pending on IGV and compressor de- angle range can often extend from waves’ sizes are related to the im-
tails, the minimum flowrate could –25 to 75 deg. With a moderate IGV peller blade pitch. To avoid the pos-
be between 50 and 70% of the rated angle, the turning of the IGV (the sibility of resonance, the number of
flow. Commonly used designs of pre-swirl effect) and the accelerat- IGVs is chosen so that there is no
integrally geared centrifugal coming axial flow (the flow-restriction common divisor of the numbers of
pressors can offer 60–100% capac- effect) generate thicker boundary the impeller blades, crossover vanes
ity control with an automatic IGV layers at the IGV surfaces. With a and diffuser vanes. For example,
at the first stage. large IGV angle, these effects can in an integrally geared compres-
The inlet guide vanes should be be intensified and flow separations sor, seven IGVs and 17 impeller
located as closely as possible to the could occur near the IGV surface. As blades prevent the exact match of
eye of the impeller. According to the IGV separates the flow field into blade pitches.
API-617, a cantilevered vane design different compartments, the flow IGVs can introduce a variety of
is preferred, rather than a center- fields inside these compartments reliability and operational prob-
supported vane design. The control subsequently display their own pat- lems, if not properly installed or
logics and failure options are also terns that could be comparatively designed. IGVs oscillate due to the
important with IGV systems. The independent of each other. unsteadiness of the flow field inside
IGV system should be designed Another feature of IGV-induced a compressor stage. The force and
such that the vanes tend to open on flow patterns is the formation of torque on the IGV system require
loss of the control signal. wakes after the IGVs. The wakes special attention. Robust design
Use of IGV systems can introduce can usually be divided into two and proper manufacturing can help
some issues, though, of which engi- types. The first type consists of the to mitigate some intrinsic problems
neers should be aware. The rotating wakes generated by the finite thick- with IGVs, including fewer oscilla-
impeller induces flow motion inter- ness of the IGV. The second type is tions and increased reliability.
19_CHE_040114_MPB2.indd 58 3/19/14 6:42:54 AM

TABLE 3. PROCESS DESIGN DATA FOR Buss-SMS-Canzler
SEVEN-STAGE INTEGRALLY GEARED COMPRESSOR
Impeller Speed Pressure Discharge Flow Required
Your partner in developing new
diameter (rpm) ratio temperature (m3/h) power products and processes
(mm) (°C) (MW)
First stage 760 7,600 1.89 118 55,000 1.46
Second stage 800 7,600 1.93 130 29,900 1.50
Third stage 410 14,700 1.94 130 15,800 1.50
Fourth stage 410 14,700 1.95 130 7,780 1.50
Fifth stage 220 23,900 1.72 115 3,990 1.19
Sixth stage 220 23,900 1.72 115 2,295 1.19
Seventh stage 130 42,100 1.72 115 1,331 1.19
The dynamic forces on IGV com- suction of each impeller. As a very

ponents are mainly composed of rough indication, the straight run
two components induced by pres- should be six times the suction di-
sure and viscosity. The asymmetric ameter. A straightener can be used
flow patterns in the system nor- in a very compact layout to reduce
mally have the same frequency as the required axial distance. When
the impeller rotation. Fluctuations the elbow forces the flow into a
at lower frequencies are usually turn, changing from vertical to hor-
induced by the IGV system. IGV izontal, the flow will be distorted.
angle is also a factor. The effects When the flow leaves the elbow,
are weak for small IGV angles and the tangential velocity forms two
are stronger for moderate and large counter-rotating vortices. These
IGV angles. The twisted shape of an vortices also generate fluctuations
IGV impacts the inlet flow field and inside the compressor stage. Also
causes unsteadiness in the flow, at because of these vortices, the pres-
the same time applying more dy- sure distribution on IGV surfaces
namic forces on the IGV system. can result in complex flow pat-
The force and torque on the IGV re- terns. In other words, the distor-
spond to the impeller-rotating fre- tion induced by the elbow can be
quency rather than the blade pass- coupled with pre-swirling, as well
ing frequency. The low-frequency as the inherent distortions induced
oscillations inside the flow field are by IGVs and impellers, resulting in
induced by the IGVs. convoluted aerodynamic patterns
Other reliability issues related to and complicated excitations.
the IGV system involve failures due
to material deterioration, such as
This aerodynamic unsteadiness
propagates to the flow field up- Thin Film
Dryer
corrosion or erosion. An excessive stream of the impellers at the suc-
liquid carryover from interstage tion piping of the stage. This un-
coolers and improper material se- steadiness is also present upstream
lection for IGV components are also and downstream of the compressor Continuous contact drying of
significant issues that could result stage. In fact, the entirety of the liquids, slurries, sludges and
in IGV failure. The materials of all compressor piping system will expe- pastes.
critical parts, especially IGV compo- rience the dynamic effects of the im-
nents, should be carefully selected pellers and IGVs. Furthermore, the
with respect to the worst possible flow field’s fluctuation is affected
design conditions. In a case study, by the package piping, especially
a failed IGV resulted in a severe the elbows, which direct piping
surge that caused major damage from different stages to intercoolers
to the machine. and vice versa.
Nozzles are another important
www.sms-vt.com
Package piping component in the piping package.
A sophisticated piping design is API-617 defines allowable nozzle
required for an integrally geared loads for integrally geared com-
compressor package, because the pressors, which generally are lower
flow must be routed from the dis- than the requirements for conven- We live process engineering
charge of each impeller to the next tional compressors. In most cases, and special manufacturing
stage, usually through an inter- the allowable nozzle load is the
cooler arrangement. The flow inlet maximum load that can be achieved
Buss-SMS-Canzler GmbH
to each impeller should be axial. while requiring expansion joints at Kaiserstraße 13-15 • 35510 Butzbach • Germany
An elbow, as well as a straight run large nozzles. This is particularly Tel: +49 60 33 - 85 - 0 • Fax: +49 60 33 - 85 - 249
of pipe, should be provided at the important for processing applica- E-Mail: info@sms-vt.com
19_CHE_040114_MPB2.indd 59 3/19/14 6:43:49 AM

Feature Report
tions where the operating tem- was around 363,000 rpm. All of
perature differs greatly from the these speeds and frequencies,
ambient temperature. along with their harmonics, were
SEPARATION
monitored in the equipment’s
Vibration and reliability vibration-analysis scheme.
Since the API-617 vibration limit
is a function of speed, the vibra- Putting it all together
tion limit can be relatively low for The previous sections of this article
ANXIETY?
high-speed pinion shafts, making covered some design considerations
™ vibration monitoring an important

part of the compressor package.
and practical recommendations for
integrally geared compressors. Now,
For example, for shafts operating this information is illustrated in
at 30,000, 40,000 or 60,000 rpm, the following example, involving a
the displacement vibration limits process-type, seven-stage integrally
would be around 16, 14 and 12 μm, geared centrifugal compressor in
YOU CAN RELAX. respectively. In a shop or site perfor- a CPI plant. The given compressor
mance test, the expectation is that provided a pressure ratio of around
the vibration appears at shaft rota- 70. The average pressure ratio of
tional speed with an amplitude well each stage would be the seventh root
below the vibration limit and with of 70, approximately 1.83. Table 3
Pentair designs and manufactures no significant asynchronous vibra- shows the process and design data
tion. An asynchronous vibration is for this machine. It can be seen that
high performance separation and
characteristic of rotor destabiliza- the pressure ratios of the four ini-
filtration technologies that help tion or an issue in the compressor tial stages (1.89, 1.93, 1.94 and 1.95)
chemical plants with: gear systems. were greater than the average value
Vibration monitoring is key for an of 1.83, while the pressure ratios of
• Filtration & Separation integrally geared centrifugal com- three last stages (1.72) were smaller
pressor, particularly for its high- than the average value. The aver-
speed pinion shafts, low-speed bull- age estimated efficiency was around
• Purification gear, gear systems and the driver. 77% for all stages. The machine used
Generally, dual vibration measure- an automatic IGV on the first stage,
• Protection ments (usually oriented at ±45 deg) providing capacity control in a range
on each bearing of the pinion shafts of 65–104% of the rated capacity. The
and the bull-gear shaft should be estimated power for the compressor
• Recovery and Reuse installed. In addition, accelerom- was around 9.53 MW. The estimated
eters and velocity meters should be driver power was 11 MW.
• Conditioning installed on the main casing. Some With this article, engineers should
relevant frequencies that should be have the information they need to
• Treatment monitored are as follows: understand the design and operation
• Shaft running speeds of integrally geared compressors. ■
• Shaft running speed harmonics Edited by Mary Page Bailey
• Gear-mesh speed
Call today to speak to someone about • IGV pass frequencies Author
achieving results that will save you more • Vane pass frequencies Amin Almasi is a rotating
equipment consultant in Aus-
time and money than ever before. • Blade pass frequencies tralia (Email: amin.almasi@
ymail.com). He previously
• Harmonics of IGV, vane and blade worked at Worley Parsons
pass frequencies Services Pty Ltd. (Brisbane,
1.888.896.6300 Australia), Technicas Re-
• Frequencies related to bearing is-
1.936.788.1000 sues and gear-system faults
unidas (Madrid, Spain) and
Fluor Corp. (various offices).
He holds a chartered pro-
As an example, for a given a four- fessional engineer license
www.pentairseparations.com stage integrally geared compres- from Engineers Australia
(MIEAust CPEng – Mechanical), a chartered
sor driven by a 1,785-rpm electric engineer certificate from IMechE (CEng MI-
MechE), RPEQ (registered professional engineer
Circle 20 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/50975-20 motor, the first pinion speed (first in Queensland) and he also holds M.S. and B.S.
and second stages) and the sec- degrees in mechanical engineering. He special-
izes in rotating machines including centrifugal,
ond pinion speed (third and fourth screw and reciprocating compressors, gas and
stages) were around 14,700 and steam turbines, pumps, condition monitoring and
reliability. Almasi is an active member of Engi-
21,900 rpm, respectively. The gear- neers Australia, IMechE, ASME, Vibration Insti-
mesh speed was around 749,000 tute, SPE, IEEE, and IDGTE. He has authored
more than 60 papers and articles dealing with
rpm and the vane passing speed rotating machines.
19_CHE_040114_MPB2.indd 60 3/19/14 6:47:04 AM

AFPM 2014
meet others.
exchange ideas.
attend 2014
afpm meetings.
Be a part of these important industry events.
Security Conference Reliability & Cat Cracker Seminar Environmental
San Antonio, TX Maintenance Houston, TX Conference
April 14 – 16 Conference and August 19 – 20 San Antonio, TX
Exhibition October 19 – 21
Register at www.afpm.org National Occupational San Antonio, TX Board of Directors
& Process Safety May 20 – 23 Meeting International
Conference Rancho Palos Verdes, CA Lubricants and
San Antonio, TX Labor Relations/ September 7 – 9 Waxes Conference
May 14 – 15 Human Resources Houston, TX
Conference Q&A and November 13 – 14
San Antonio, TX Technology Forum
May 21 – 22 Denver, CO
October 6 – 8
AFPM_GeneralMeetingsAd_ChemicalEngineering_PRINTER.indd 1 3/12/14 10:50 AM

Feature Report
Engineering Practice Loop
INS ND CO
Piping model
diagram
A
TRU
Principles of
ING
ME TROL
NTA
PIP
N
TIO
Isometrics
N
Alarm
P&ID Development
table
P&ID
Mechanical
The tips provided here will streamline efforts to Calculations
data sheets
develop piping & instrumentation diagrams
ME
SS
CH
E
OC
AN
PR
ICA
Mohammad Toghraei
L
Consultant Process
data sheets
T
he piping and instrumentation instrument lists, cause-and-effect
diagram (P&ID) is often consid- diagrams, control philosophy, de- FIGURE 1. P&IDs are technically pip-
ered to be the gold standard for scription, alarm-setpoint tables, ing and instrumentation diagrams but
the proper design, operation and line-designation tables (LDT), plot they provide a central repository of es-
sential engineering information that is
maintenance of plants in the chemi- plans, loop diagrams, tie-in lists, relevant to numerous other functions
cal process industries (CPI), includ- and many more (Figure 1). With throughout the planning and operation
ing chemical, oil-and-gas facilities, such universal applicability, P&IDs of most process plants
mining operations, food-processing are often affectionately referred
plants, and water- and wastewater- to as “primary interdisciplinary ment training in academia may re-
treatment plants. The P&ID provides documents.” sult in part from the fact that inher-
important information for manufac- ently, P&ID development involves
turing and installing equipment and Role of the process engineer more art than science. Plus, the
machinery, piping, instrumention, The duties of the process or chemi- content and structure of individual
and safe and appropriate startup cal engineer in a CPI project can be P&IDs tends to vary from company
and correct operation of the plant. broadly split into two categories — to company, and there is a constant
The P&ID is frequently refer- equipment sizing and P&ID devel- stream of new technologies being
enced by various engineering dis- opment. Therefore, most engineers introduced as older ones are retired.
ciplines — during both the design need to have skills in both areas. While volumes could be written on
stages and the operating phase. It The former skill calls for knowl- the development of P&IDs, this ar-
is also referenced in technical meet- edge related to hydraulic calcula- ticle provides a framework of recom-
ings with equipment vendors and tions, pump and compressor siz- mendations for P&ID development.
manufacturers, in hazard and op- ing, vessel and tank sizing, process
erability (HAZOP) studies, in man- safety-valve (PSV) sizing, and heat- P&ID development activities
agement meetings, and during proj- exchanger sizing. Equipment sizing The block flow diagram (BFD) is the
ect scheduling and planning. requires different skill sets, which preliminary document in the devel-
The P&ID is one of the few plant may vary by level of seniority and opment of any CPI project. It out-
documents that is created by multi- by industry segment. lines the most basic, general infor-
ple engineering disciplines working Chemical engineers should have mation related to the project. Then,
in concert. These disciplines include the knowledge that is needed to size it is the job of the process flow dia-
process engineering, instrumenta- specific equipment components re- gram (PFD) to add further details
tion and control (I&C), plot plant lated to their industry segment (for to the design before the final docu-
and piping (PL&P), mechanical, instance, distillation towers for pe- ment — the P&ID — is developed
heat ventilation and air condition- troleum refineries and clarifiers for (Figure 2). In general, the BFD cap-
ing (HVAC), and to a lesser extent water treatment). While equipment- tures the theoretical process steps
civil, structural and architecture sizing skills are routinely taught that are needed to convert a feed
(CSA), and the environmental and during the acquisition of an engi- stream to finished products while
regulatory group. neering degree, the skills needed the PFD goes inside of each of the
Similarly, the information pro- to develop meaningful P&IDs are BFD “blocks” and shows the major
vided by the P&ID allows for the often not formally taught in school, types of equipment that are needed
generation of various other impor- but rather are acquired through “on to meet the goal of each block. The
tant documents, including isomet- the job” training. BFD and PFD only show the main
ric drawings and models for piping, The absence of P&ID-develop- elements of the plant, while the
20_CHE_040114_EP_SAS.indd 62 3/18/14 2:54:14 PM

Block flow diagram Process flow diagram Piping & instrumentation
Reversible system
(BFD) (PFD) diagram (P&ID)
FIGURE 2. Before a detailed P&ID can be developed, a BFD and PFD must be devel-
oped to identify the major aspects of the process. The BFD identifies primary streams FIGURE 4. The startup of a reversible
and unit operations. The PFD expands each BFD block, adding tanks, pumps and system often requires a recirculation
some instrumentation. The P&ID pulls it together with fuller details loop; it should be sized appropriately to
minimize costs
A plant with: (to ensure ease of op- All given elements must be de-
• Low capital and eration and flexibility), signed to allow them to be appro-
operating expenses
• Quick construction
while meeting all local priately isolated, drained, vented,
• Proper operation environmental and safety cleaned and flushed (via purging,
Environmental Owner
health and regulatory requirements steaming, or water flushing).
safety (EHS) (Figure 3). 4.Provisions must be made to mini-
codes mize the impact on the rest of
Plant Essential elements plant when an item, equipment or
Ideally, the specific ele- unit is out of operation.
Designer Operator ments captured in any The following points should be con-
P&ID should account for sidered when adding different items
A plant with comercially A plant with: full functionality of the to address any of the above four re-
established design • Ease of operation
procedures • Safe operation
plant in all stages of the quirements:
plant lifecycle, as outlined 1.Make sure that no added element
below: within one stage of the plant’s
FIGURE 3. CPI facilities require cooperation 1. All given elements — lifecycle will jeopardize another
among three parties. Each has its own responsibili- including equipment item’s function. For example, add-
ties but EHS requirements are common to all and piping items — ing bypass capabilities with a
must operate well and manual block valve for a safety-
P&ID provides more detailed ele- reliably during normal opera- related switching valve (for the
ments, capturing the real plant on tion, within the window of oper- purpose of making the plant op-
paper while ignoring the scale. ating conditions that is expected erational when the switching
Despite the simplified drawing at the plant. A basic process con- valve is out for maintenance, per
shown in Figure 2, P&ID develop- trol system (BPCS) should be Item 4 from the list above) could
ment goes beyond just expanding implemented to bring parameters jeopardize the operation of the
the PFD. There are some small items within normal conditions. The switching valve in an SIS; that is,
that are not shown but that need to five key parameters of chemical the bypass could be left open and
be developed by the designer for the process operations (temperature, therefore create a safety flaw).
P&ID. Still, the development of the pressure, flowrate, level and com- 2.Decide if added items can be
BFD and PFD requires exhaustive position) may need to be “adjusted” “merged” with each other or not.
studies and rigorous calculations continuously by the actions of the This basically involves check-
and simulations. Going through BPCS to ensure that they meet ing if a single shared item can
these “preliminary” efforts and not the requirements at the inlet and address multiple requirements
bypassing BFD and PFD develop- outlet of each component. within the plant lifecycle or not.
ment is essential, because every 2.The element operates well dur- Whenever possible, items should
single decision for main items on ing non-normal conditions, such be “merged” or “shared” to make
the PFD could have a big impact on as under reduced-capacity condi- the most of capital and opera-
the project. tions, and during process upsets, tional costs. In certain cases, this
startup and shutdown. Engineer- can be justified, especially when
The main goal of a facility ing provisions for working reliably an item needs to be added for the
The main goal of a process plant during low-capacity operating purpose of satisfying Item 3 or 4
is to produce desired quantities conditions, the use of safety-in- above. As these specific compo-
of various products while meet- strumented systems (SIS) to shut nents are not in use all the time,
ing stated quality goals. A sound down the system, and safety-relief a good process engineer will at-
plant design will take into consid- valves are examples of the types of tempt to “merge” them with other
eration the owner’s wishes for the items that can address this stage items so they can carry out mul-
plant (for instance, low capital and of plant lifecycle in P&ID develop- tiple functions.
operating expenses, the ability to ment activities. However, this last practice
build it quickly and so forth), the 3.There are enough provisions to cannot be carried out in all situ-
designer’s requirements (that the ensure ease of inspection and ations. From a redundancy point
design procedures can be trustwor- maintenance; these include in- of view, it is not always good to
thy and commercially established) situ inspection, ex-situ inspection, expect one item to carry out mul-
and the operator’s requirements workshop maintenance and more. tiple duties. Technically, one item
20_CHE_040114_EP_SAS.indd 63 3/18/14 2:58:50 PM

Engineering Practice
could be time-shared when it is Table 1. Options for equipment maintenance

meant to carry out different du- In-line Off-line
ties at different times (that is,
In-place By operators doing rounds
with no overlap in duty duration). By the mechanical group
When designing for shared duty, In workshop Not applicable
keep in mind that this setup may
end up creating confusion among
operators, may be more prone to Quick hardware
Accident
loss
cross-contamination, and may
Mechanical protection
enable a small failure to lead to
Long-term
a big shutdown. Meanwhile, de- Major upset
hardware loss
signing components to be dedi- High high
cated (not shared) will drive up Alarm Mild upset
Does not meet
process goal
costs (if items are expensive), High
but they will be easier to trouble-
shoot, should a failure occur. One Interlock
Control
Meets
system process
common example is the use of a (SIS)
system Normal
goal
manway pressure-relief valve (specific
(range)
(PRV) on one shared nozzle on points) Low
tanks. Alarm Mild upset Does not meet
process goal
Typically, the ability to install
Low low
shared items is most practical Long-term
in batch systems and in systems Major upset hardware loss
with only intermittent operation. Mechanical protection
In such operations, a given item Quick hardware
Accident
can be used for different duties loss
during different time spans.
The following discussion explains figure 5. A diagram depicting upset conditions, such as this, can be defined for
the activities that are reqruied for temperature, pressure, level, flowrate or composition of each component
P&ID development for each stage of
a plant lifecycle. following conditions (Each is dis- plant items (such as tanks) have an
1. Normal operation. For normal cussed below): inherently high TDR, while others
operation, each item on the P&ID a. During reduced-capacity opera- (such as equipment with internal
needs to be able to carry out the tion weirs or vessels with internal feed
duty it has been assigned. Since, b. During startup distributors) have a lower TDR. The
in the majority of cases, this is not c. During upset conditions duty of the process engineer is to
achievable through equipment de- Reduced-capacity operation. Oc- provide the required TDR (defined
sign alone, a control system should casionally, actual plant capacity by the client) for each equipment
be implemented on the equipment. should be reduced from the design component and for the entire plant.
The BPCS must ensure that the capacity for a variety of reasons. One method of providing TDR is
design of the equipment will force Such conditions may result from a to install multiple smaller compo-
the equipment to operate within a shortage of raw materials or an ex- nents in parallel, instead of one big
“window” of expected results, typi- cess of production, or from downtime piece of equipment. Another solu-
cally at its best operating point. of a critical equipment component tion is to implement a recirculation
In a broad sense, a control system or unit. The process engineer usu- loop around the equipment to com-
is supposed to bring the five main ally provides some turndown ratio pensate for the low flowrate.
process parameters — flowrate, (TDR) for the plant. TDR is a ratio Startup operations. Startup opera-
pressure, temperature, level and between the normal capacity of the tion could be assumed to be a severe
composition — into the required plant and the minimum running ca- capacity-reduction case. Be cause
range. “Composition” encompasses pacity that is possible without los- process parameters during startup
many relevant parameters, ranging ing the quality of the product. TDR are not necessarily within their
from viscosity, density and conduc- can be defined for the equipment, range, equipment and instrumenta-
tivity to octane number and Brix for a unit, or for the whole plant. tion are not expected to be working
number. All utility distribution and Some owners or operators ex- according to full operating expecta-
collection networks, and heat-con- pect the engineer to provide a TDR tions. However, startup specialists
servation insulation, must also be of around two for their plants (this are often onsite in this stage and
decided at this stage. means they want to be able to oper- can help to compensate for the tem-
2. Non-normal operation. Non- ate the plant at half capacity without porary lack of operability of equip-
normal operations occur under the losing any product quality). Some ment and instruments.
20_CHE_040114_EP_SAS.indd 64 3/18/14 3:01:49 PM

TIPS FOR VENTS AND DRAIN VALVES
• Each drain can cover a portion of a system; Vents can cover
a bigger portion
• Drain or vent size should be manageable (Minimum size
should be ¾ in.; limit to 2 in., unless inside of dike)
• Multiple drains and vents should be implemented in a cov-
ered area to ensure draining or venting within a reasonable tp = 2 years tm = 1 year tp = 2 years Piping & instrume
diagram (P&
time
tm = time between
• When the system is small: drain = vent (usually for pipes <2 each maintenance, inspection or cleaning event
in.), and there is no need for dedicated vents or drains
tp = time between
• The drain or vent should be routed to a safe location (hard each plant overhaul or turnaround
piped, if required)
• For volume < 0.5 m3 (such as pump casings), use ¾-in. tp = 2 years tm = 3 years tp = 2 years
drains
• Vents can be one size smaller than the drain
• Drains for liquids with viscosity higher than 50 cP could be
one size bigger than guidelines stated above Figure 6. When planning for isolation valves, the engineering
team should evaluate data related to the anticipated time for sched-
uled maintenance and anticipated turnaround schedules
Table 2. options for isolating a portion of the process for normal operation for the pur-
from the plant pose of startup recirculation is so
Type Symbol Credibility strong that some process engineers
1 Block valve Not forget to think about the startup op-
(with or without lock) Process acceptable eration during the development of
2 Block valve the P&ID; they simply assume they
(with lock) and blind Process will find a way to accommodate
Safer isolation
3 Double block valve startup somehow without actually
(with lock) and bleed Process planning for it.
Upset conditions. Upset conditions
4 Block valve
can be defined as operation of the
(with lock) and blind Process plant when some of the process pa-
and removable spool rameters are beyond the normal
band. In Figure 5, this situation
is arbitrarily split into two differ-
Table 3. Different methods of removing material ent cases — mild upset and severe
from equipment for inspection or maintenance
upset — for any of the five key pa-
Type of Removal method P&ID rameters (flowrate, pressure, tem-
“dirt” perature, level, and composition). In
1 Solid/ • Manual • Nothing is needed on P&ID both cases, during upset conditions,
semi-solid: • Machine-as- • Do we need “clean-out” doors? the process goals have already been
removal sisted
lost so the immediate goal is to
2 Liquids: • Flushing: By For all the cases , three options are protect the equipment (hardware
Washing water available to show on the P&ID:
conservation) and the health and
• Steaming out: 1. Only washing valves
By utility steam 2. Washing valves that are hard piped safety of the personnel and neigh-
• Chemical 3. Hard piped washing system with boring communities.
cleaning: By switching valves for automatic To address point upset conditions,
chemical solu- washing the facility should be equipped with
tion or solvents
an alarm system and a SIS. The
3 Gases: •N eutral gas • If it is by inert gas, the same options alarm setpoints are usually on the
Purging purging for “washing” (above options) are
maximum (or minimum, in some
• Ventilation available here
• For ventilation (by natural draft of cases) value of a parameter, and the
air), imake sure there are at least 2 SIS action will be set to the high-
nozzles are available high (or low-low) level. However,
some additional alarm setpoints
For reversible systems (such as sively large circulation loops, so as or additional SIS setpoints can be
reactors that carry out equilibrium not to waste money for piping that added, too.
reactions), startup operation can be is supposed to be used only during The purpose of this SIS action is
supported by recirculation. If the startup. As much as possible, the to shut down a plant and bring it in
system is not reversible, the startup design should try to use the existing the lowest energy state (in terms of
operations can be more complicated pipe arrangement for the purpose lowest pressure, lowest temperature
and case-specific. Figure 4 shows of startup recirculation, especially and so on) Other than “event-based
the basics of this procedure. when high-bore pipe is needed to SIS” explained above, SIS action(s)
If recirculation is to be used dur- support startup efforts. can also be activated by the opera-
ing the startup procedure, efforts The tendency to use the piping ar- tor. This shutdown is named “opera-
should be made to avoid exces- rangement that was implemented tor activated SIS.”
20_CHE_040114_EP_SAS.indd 65 3/18/14 3:03:58 PM

Table 4. Examples of removable spools (RS)
Item Potential P&ID example
Engineering Practice location of RS
Centrifugal Suction and PG
PG
pump discharge side
The duty of the alarm is to warn

the operator that something has RS RS
gone wrong. If for whatever reason Progressive- Discharge side
the operator fails to respond in a cavity pump
timely manner, the SIS system will RS
initiate the action that the operator
has failed to, or tried without suc- Shell-and- Tube side
RS
tube
cess. This allocation of responsibili-
heat
ties between alarm system and SIS exchanger
is shown in Figure 5.
If, for whatever reason, the SIS Vessels and Lines out of
tanks flanged head RS
cannot mitigate the parameter that or blinded
has deviated from the normal point nozzles
and it has gone beyond high-high
(or low-low) level, then finally a me- Table 5. Options to deal with lost items in a plant
chanical item needs to be triggered
to “tame” the system and regain Option Schematic P&ID example
control. Even though a mechanical The exact
system (as the last line of defense) replica in
parallel
can be considered for each of the
five parameters mentioned earlier,
pressure safety valves (PSV) are a A similar item in
parallel
popular type of mechanical defense
against a wild parameter. Installing
PSVs, and routing their release to an
Bypassing the absent
appropriate destination, is an essen- item
tial task during P&ID development. Bypass
Winterization is another issue
that is resolved in this stage. Win- Redirecting the in-flow
terization involves implementing to a “reservoir” for later
specific features in a plant design to use
Reservoir
prevent any impact of cold weather Pond
during a plant shutdown. For in-
stance, winterization efforts typi- Upstream tank stores
cally start with provisions to enable this inlet flow and the
downstream tank pro-
“natural internal drainage” of the vides outlet flow for a Furnace
equipment and pipes more tolerant short period of time
items, such as tanks. Other activi-
The inlet flow is sent To flare
ties include heat tracing and insu-
permanently for ulti-
lation of pipes to prevent freezing mate disposal and the
or settling of non-drained (trapped) stream will be wasted Ultimate disposal
fluids, and installing fluid mov-
ers on emergency power sources The absence of an
to provide recirculation to prevent item doesn’t generate
freezing/setting in the case of power any upset in the rest of Steam
plant or whole plant generator
loss.
3. Inspection and maintenance. should be shut down
Equipment care can be categorized
into “in-workshop” and “in-place” pair or maintenance. Each requires • Sound: To sense vibration, cavita-
care, and the latter can be catego- different types of provisions for the tion, hammering, PSV release, ex-
rized further into “in-line” or “off- equipment on the P&ID. plosion and more by listening
line” operation. In-place care is Operators making rounds could • Touch: To detect vibration
usually done by operators making be equipped with portable sensors; • Smell: To detect fire, leakage, PSV
rounds, while in-workshop care is if not, then he or she must rely on release to atmosphere, and more
typically carried out in a workshop the use of the senses: To support the work of the operator
by a mechanical group (Table 1). • Sight: To observe, for instance, making rounds, specific items can
Inline care can be considered the leakage, vibration, overflow of be put on the P&ID. These may in-
inspection of operation equipment, tanks, fluid levels, flame color and clude sight glasses to check liquid
while off-line care is equipment re- shape levels, catalyst levels or filtering-
20_CHE_040114_EP_SAS.indd 66 3/18/14 3:06:39 PM

Table 6. An Example of P&ID development for a pump (four phases of operation)
Case P&ID
Normal operation
Putting the pump call-out with the required informa- Call-out should be put on P&ID
tion on top of P&ID sheet
Placing a reducer/expander to match suction and
discharge side of the pump, if needed (may need
a top-flat eccentric reducer at connection)
Adding a permanent strainer to prevent damage to

the pump
Making sure the suction pressure (and tempera- It needs some calculations. The impact on P&ID could be seen
ture) is enough. This reflects the sensitivity of on suitable in upstream container of pump
centrifugal pumps towards NPSH
Showing the pump’s BPCS for capacity control of FT FC
pump FE FV
FO
Adding pump driver control PM

S/S COMMAND
RUN STATUS
115 COMMON TROUBLE ALARM
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
MCC HS FT FC
FE FV
M
FO
Non-normal condition
Considering a temporary strainer (commissioning) A permanent strainer is already placed
Adding a non-returning valve in the case of reverse PM

S/S COMMAND
RUN STATUS
flow 115 COMMON TROUBLE ALARM
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
MCC HS FT FC
FE FV
M
FO
Using the minimum flow line on the discharge line FC
with a control valve to protect the pump from flows FV

that are lower than the minimum flow of the pump
FO S/S COMMAND
PM RUN STATUS
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
MCC HS FT FT FC
FE FE FV
M
FO
Showing the pump SIS and/or alarming system FC
to protect the pump from an abnormal condition FV
(one example is a monitoring system for seal leak- S/S COMMAND

age) FO PM RUN STATUS
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
I MCC HS FT FT FC
436
FE FE FV
M
FO
Continues on pg. 69
media levels, or peep holes to check these may include portable pres- may include, for example, a pres-
the color and shape of flames in a sure gages, temperature sensors sure tapping (PT) point, or temper-
furnace or boiler. and so on. The P&ID designer may ature point (TP), to be shown on the
In terms of the use of small, por- decide to provide some “test points” P&ID. An example of PT location
table measuring devices that can be instead of fixed gages, to save some could be the suction side of centrifu-
used by operators making rounds, money in non-critical points. This gal pumps. The decision must be
20_CHE_040114_EP_SAS.indd 67 3/19/14 11:02:02 AM

made to either use test points and viding isolation valves is not nections.” This means having provi-
fixed gages that transmit informa- essary for all the equipment in a sions that will allow all five key
tion to the control room, or to imple- plant. Isolation valves are required process parameters to be brought
ment a control loop that depends on to isolate the equipment from the into a safe range:
some parameters based on the criti- rest of the plant if the equipment • Ensuring safe temperatures:
cality of the parameter. is expected to need “off-line care” Options include allowing time
Meanwhile, in-place, off-line care at frequent intervals, in time du- lapses, or options for cooling down
may include chemical or solvent rations that are shorter than the (or warming up, in the case of
cleaning, steaming-out, pigging op- scheduled plant turnaround times). cryogenic services) streams. For
erations and so on. Depending on For instance, if (based on histori- some systems (for instance some
the operation-specific requirements, cal data), the unit expects to need batch operations) that require a
different items should be imple- off-line care every three years but more rapid cooling (or warming)
mented (such as chemical cleaning the entire facility for which you by cooling streams
of valves). are developing the P&ID will need • Making pressure safe: Venting is
For all off-line care a specific ar- planned turnaround work every widely used
rangement must be made to ensure two years, there is no need (at • Ensuring appropriate flowrates:
positive isolation of the system from least theoretically) to put isolation As long as equipment is isolated
the rest of the plant. This arrange- valves upstream and downstream from the rest of the plant, there is
ment typically comprises isolation of the unit. This concept is shown no flow going into it, and it is not
valves, drains, vent valves and so on. in Figure 6. a point of concern
The isolation system is discussed in In some cases, companies don’t • Making levels safe: Drainage op-
greater detail below. provide isolation systems for es- tions are needed for tanks, vessels,
For in-workshop care, the provi- sential equipment, such as heat pump casing and more. Some gen-
sions defined by in the P&ID are exchangers. The logic is that they eral rules for sizing and installing
items that will allow the equipment essentially cannot afford to put the drain and vents are in the Box (p.
to be removed from their founda- heat exchanger out of service, so 65)
tion easily and safely. However, adding isolation valves would be ir- • To ensure safe compositions, the
the characteristics to satisfy this relevant. body of the equipment (external
requirement are not always shown The answer to the second question and/or internal) must be safe in
on P&IDs (mainly to avoid clutter- is that the isolation system should terms of exposure. These provi-
ing of the P&ID). For example, if be added on all downstream or up- sions involve proper cleaning of
equipment needs to be hoisted for stream connecting pipes, as close as the equipment.
removal, this engineering detail is possible to the equipment. However, Table 5 shows options for mak-
often not shown in the P&ID. Items some companies challenge this and ing the composition safe for dif-
that must be shown on the P&ID in- question if there is real needed to ferent types of materials inside
clude the following: put isolation valves on, for example, of the equipment. Washing and
• Isolation valves that allow the a vent pipe to atmosphere or not. purging (through ventilation) are
equipment components to be de- To answer the third question, especially important for walk-in
tached from the rest of the plant it should be stated that there are equipment.
• Drains and vents different type of isolation systems. The last step as mentioned above
• Removable spools (RS) that would Table 3 summarizes these methods. is to provide removable spools (RS).
be used around the equipment to Decision needs to be made about Sometimes required RS are already
allow it to be “untangled” from the the type of isolation method. The present due to previous activities
system by removing the piping sys- isolation method depends on fac- on the P&ID. Table 4 provides some
tem interference; this allows for tors, such as the equipment envi- examples.
easy equipment transfer to ronment (for instance, for confined Allocating a utility station in dif-
the workshop spaces or non-confined spaces), ferent locations of the plant, and de-
When it comes to preparing for the fluid type (aggressive or toxic ciding about the required utilities
off-line care, with regard to de- or not), and the pressure and tem- for each utility station, is another
signing isolation systems, the fol- perature of the system. Usually the activity to address this stage of the
lowing three questions should be first type of isolation (Table 2) does plant lifecycle.
answered: not provide enough “positiveness.” 4. Operability of the plant in the
1. To which equipment should the Possibly the only application of this absence of one item. The designer
isolation elements be added? isolation method is for instruments. needs to decide the impact of equip-
2. Where do they need to be placed In such an application, the isolation ment loss on the rest of plant opera-
“around” the equipment? valve is called a root valve. tions and take engineering steps to
3. Which types of isolation systems The next step for making equip- minimize its impact. The wide range
or elements should be used? ment ready for periodic removal is of answers and decisions should in-
To answer the first question, pro- to bring it to “non-harmful condi- clude the following:
20_CHE_040114_EP_SAS.indd 68 3/18/14 3:09:51 PM

Table 6. An Example of P&ID development for a pump (four phases of operation) (continued)
Case P&ID
Maintenance / Inspection
Adding a pressure gage on discharge and/or
FC
suction side
FV
FO S/S COMMAND
PM RUN STATUS
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
I MCC HS FT FT FC
436
PG FE FE FV
PG M
FO
Adding block valves in the suction and discharge FC

line (such as a gate valve) in order to isolate the FV
pump during maintenance
FO S/S COMMAND
PM RUN STATUS
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
I MCC HS FT FT FC
436
PG FE FE FV
PG M
FO
Consider vent and drain valves in the pump FC

suction and discharge sides and in the pump cas- FV
ing
FO S/S COMMAND
PM RUN STATUS
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
I MCC HS FT FT FC
436
PG FE FE FV
PG M
FO
Consider the use of a piping spool piece to facili- It is already created and exists
tate dismantling
Installing pump insulation for personal protection Service temperature is 40°C and there is no need for personnel
protection insulation
Production interruption
Define the pump sparing philosophy Based on RAM analysis, a second pump with the same arrange-
ment is added (to provide 2 x 100% capacity)
1. A parallel, exactly similar spare to the alternate component in- 5. The storage tanks upstream and
system can take care of flow that stead. Examples include having a downstream of the component
would result from the loss of a given manual throttling valve (such as should have enough residence
component. Examples include spare a globe valve) in the bypass line time to continue operations. This
pumps or spare heat exchangers of a control valve, or placing a by- way, if the component goes out
(in highly fouling services). The pass line for a PSV together with of service, the upstream string
installation of spare equipment a pressure gage (or pressure tap- of equipment can still feed the
is popular for fluid-moving equipping) and a globe valve. upstream tank and downstream
ment, since interruption of service 3. The feed to the equipment can be components can still be fed by
in pumps and compressors cannot simply bypassed temporarily with the downstream tank. This ar-
be handled through other below marginal impact on the operation rangement will prevent a surge
options. One important example is of the system. that could impact connected plant
having two fire pumps installed in 4. The feed to the equipment can components.
parallel, with two different types be redirected temporarily to an 6. The feed to the equipment is re-
of drives (for instance one with an “emergency reservoir” (such as a directed temporarily to a waste-
electromotor and the other using a tank or pond), and processed later receiving system or flare.
diesel drive pump). by returning it back to the system. 7. Whole plant or unit should shut
2. A parallel component can be used Usually this option is available for down: This option should be
and the flow can be redirected liquid streams. avoided, if possible. However,
20_CHE_040114_EP_SAS.indd 69 3/18/14 3:14:52 PM

Too few tools Too many tools

sometimes this is inevitable when pumps (that may need to
the equipment of interest is a key periodically function as
asset in the facility. spare pumps for all other
Table 5 summarizes these options pumps), the specific pip- Flexibility
for a P&ID. ing arrangements around Badly operating in operation
Confusion
the pumps will need to be plant
Spare pump options elaborated on the P&ID.
While the discussion below focuses Table 6 shows an exam-
Figure 7. A balance must be sought between
on pumps, the guidelines apply to ple of P&ID development “too much” and “too little” when developing the
any other types of spare equipment for a pump in one case. This engineering details for a P&ID
as well. A spare pump, depend- table only provides the re-
ing on the criticality of the service, quired thought process for
could be “an installed spare” or “a the development of a pump P&ID as CPI facilities should be brought
workshop spare.” A workshop spare an example. closer to the desired operating
pump is not installed but can be point through the use of a control
moved from the workshop and de- Additional important items system. Key parameters that must
ployed within a short period of time In addition to the last four stages be controlled include flowrate and
(say, 24 hours). of the lifecycle of a plant (discussed head for pumps, and heat duty for
Decisions related to any of the above), a few other items must be heat exchangers.
above two options (in terms of in- considered: 2. Check the required temperature
stalled spares or workshop spares) Future plans. If there is any plan and, pressure for each item (inlet
can be based on different param- for expansion, or any prediction for and outlet) and make sure these
eters, including the following: implementing new, under-review are matched with process needs.
• Mean time between failure innovations in future, this needs to If they are not matched, take ac-
(MTBF) of the equipment be addressed in the P&ID to facili- tion to address them.
• Mean time to repair (MTTR) of tate the implementation of the fu- 3. Check the required flowrate for
the equipment ture changes with minimum impact each item. What is the minimum
• Cost of maintenance on the operating plant. flowrate that can be handled
• Value of the “lost production” Insulation to safeguard personnel. without negative impact on the
For installed spares, if the ambient Equipment and pipes with skin process, and what is the mini-
temperature of the space around temperatures that are greater than mum flow that can be accommo-
the a pump is far from the operat- 60–75°C (especially for metallic dated before there is potential
ing temperature of the pump (for items), and those that are located harm to the equipment? If there
instance, differs by 100 to 150°C), in crowded areas within reach of is a chance of harm from low flow,
the pump should be “a hot standby workers, must be insulated. This in- then plan accordingly to protect
pump” (or “a cold standby pump” for sulation is called personnel protec- the equipment from it.
cryogenic service) to make sure it tion (PP) insulation on the P&ID. 4. Check the required composition of
will not experience thermal shock the streams going into the equip-
during the startup. Otherwise the Useful rules-of-thumb ment and note the special care
pump could be installed with no Whether the design engineer (in that should be taken. For exam-
specific “stand-by provisions.” the role of P&ID developer) is ple, a positive-displacement pump
If a spare pump is supposed to capturing general items (such as is prone to plugging if the liquid
“sit” beside more than one operat- containers, fluid movers, heat ex- contains large suspended solids.
ing pump, another feature that changers and so on) or more spe- In this case, a strainer should be
should be decided is whether the cialized items (such as liquid-ex- installed.
spare pump is a common spare traction towers, filter press and so 5. Be sure to account for the required
(to be available for several operat- on), these general rules-of-thumb utilities and their temperatures
ing pumps), or is intended for use can help: and pressures.
with just one dedicated pum; thus 1. Much of the equipment that we 6. What are the weak points of the
a spare should be installed for each buy for any given plant is not item and what requirements
operation pump. “custom built equipment,” so we should be taken when designing a
For spare pumps, the user might cannot expect the components to proper SIS system for the item?
expect that all pumps should be operate exactly according to the 7. Which parameters must be moni-
able to act as both an operating desired operating points. Even for tored by the operator making
pump and a spare pump for any the case of custom made items, we rounds? Think about the five key
of other pumps that may be out usually expect that the equipment parameters: Temperature, pres-
of service (where no specific spare will operate in a pre-determined sure, level, flowrate and composi-
pump has been designated). When “window” of operation. The result tion.
providing common (shared) spare is that almost all equipment in 8. Be sure to acknowledge which as-
20_CHE_040114_EP_SAS.indd 70 3/18/14 3:16:13 PM

pects of each component need in- or will it be captured in other docu- capacity of the system, and ambi-
spection or monitoring. ments?” The P&ID is supposed to ent temperatures and pressures
9. Review any history of item fail- be a common document that can be will most likely differ for each new
ures (in terms of frequency and used by quite a few different disci- project. When developing P&IDs, a
time for maintenance) and act ac- plines. Incompleteness is an inher- previously effective method may be
cordingly to address them. ent feature of it. Furthermore, the entirely ineffective in the current
10. Consider the impact of an item P&ID is supposed to be kept in the project, while a method that has
going out of service. What steps plant, for easy use by operators. If proven useless in the past may work
can be taken to minimize the it is too cluttered, its usefulness is perfectly well this time around. ■
impact of this on the rest of the diminished. Edited by Suzanne Shelley
plant? Is it possible to have a sim- Generally speaking, all process
ilar system as a spare? equipment should be shown in Author
P&IDs. Sometimes, non-process Mohammad Toghraei is
currently an independent
Common challenges related P&IDs (such as gearboxes consultant and is the instruc-
During the development of a and lubrication systems) should tor of several P&ID-related
courses offered through
P&ID, the need to choose between also be shown on the main P&ID or Progress Seminars Inc. (Web-
competing options is a common on auxiliary P&IDs. Meanwhile, if site www.engedu.ca; Email:
moe.toghraei@engedu.ca).
challenge. Here are several common they are not shown on P&IDs, their Toghraei has more than 20
years of experience in pro-
scenarios: details can be found in vendor doc- cess engineering. For the
“Should I show a given detail on the uments. past seven years, he has
held different technical and leadership roles
main body of P&ID by a schematic, All pipes and pipe appurtenances related to oil removal and water treatment for
or can I capture it in the note area?” except bends and elbows are shown steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) proj-
ects. Toghraei holds a B.Sc. in chemical engi-
The P&ID is a pictorial diagram. As on P&IDs. Flanges should be de- neering from Isfahan University of Technology,
much as possible, the P&ID should picted, if there is a specific reason and an M.Sc. in environmental engineering from
the University of Tehran, and is a member of
capture relevant schematic shapes. for them. Specific piping items that APEGA. He is a certified professional engineer
in Alberta, Canada.
“Should I add the item or not?” Items are not shown on the P&ID can be
should be added to give required found on piping models.
flexibly to the operator. A plant with When it comes to instrumenta-
Please visit REMBE®, INC. at PTXi Conference & Exhibition, Rosemont, May 6-8, 2014, booth 1228
insufficient “facility resources” is dif- tion and control system, things
ficult to operate.However, from the become more debatable. The three
other side, this is also the case for a
plant with more than enough pipe
main items of integrated control
and safety system (ICSS) elements
PREMIUM
circuits, control valves, alarms and are: Regulatory control system EXPLOSION
SIS actions. For example, a plant
with too many alarms can “overload”
(BPCS), the alarm system and the
SIS. Almost everyone agrees about
PROTECTION
www.rembe.com
Indoor / Outdoor Venting

the operator and result in a loss of basic process control items should With Flame Absorber
www.rembe.us
urgency from the operator when an be shown on the P&IDs. They are and Dust Retainer
alarm does activate (Figure 7). mainly the elements of the control Q-Box
“Adding more doesn’t hurt.” This is loops. For alarming systems, the
a popular statement when P&ID same clarity exists. The main de-
developers try to “bypass” conduct- bate is usually on SIS systems, in Q-Rohr-3
ing a rigorous evaluation for the terms of the question of “down to
necessity of an item on the system, which level of detail the safety in-
and thus place it with no real ne- terlock loops should be shown on
cessity. However, designers should
remember that in some cases, add-
the P&IDs?”
Different companies follow differ-
BULK FLOW
ing an item might not necessar- ent directions. CONTROL
ily increase the capital cost of the “Based on my past experience...” The
© REMBE - QRQBCL2-4C-RSCRIN
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project — if the item is small and inherent creativity required in cre- Granulate,
Grain, Flour
relatively inexpensive — but may ating P&IDs may become hindered, and Dust
All rights reserved
still increase the operating cost be- if for every single case one refers
cause of required inspection, main- to “past experience.” As unlikely as
tenance, related utility and chemi- it may seem, the “this is what has
cal usage and more. In addition been done before” mentality is not
to that, any new item added to the the most efficient way of developing ✸✸✸ WE DO IT BETTER ✸✸✸
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“Should I add it here on the P&ID terials, required quality of products, Circle 24 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/50975-24
20_CHE_040114_EP_SAS.indd 71 3/18/14 3:17:53 PM

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Fractionation
EnvironmentalColumn
Manager
A better look into kettle reboilers
I
n my October 2011 column (A boiler duty) was surprisingly weak. Mike Resetarits is the technical direc-
tor at Fractionation Research, Inc. (FRI;
window into kettle reboiler se- Cai also developed a maximum, Stillwater, Okla.; www.fri.org), a distilla-
crets, Chem. Eng. p. 28) I briefly horizontal vapor-velocity correla- tion research consortium. Each month,
described FRI’s early work using tion. Both of those correlations were Mike shares his first-hand experience
two windows on its industrial-size applied to a literature kettle flood with CE readers
kettle reboiler. Subsequent to that, point (Kister, H.Z. and Chavez, M.A.,
FRI had performed appreciable Kettle Troubleshooting, Chem. Eng., mode of operation was performed
heat-transfer work. All of that work February 2010, pp. 26–33). Cai’s cor- with three different binary systems
was reported to FRI’s members at relations successfully predicted that across a broad range of pressures.
all-day kettle-reboiler symposia, industrial experience. The column proved to be easily con-
which were held in Galveston, Tex. On four separate occasions, FRI trollable. Windows farther up on the
on October 2 and in Tokyo on No- attempted to run its kettle in “semi- column were used to assure that the
vember 20 (both 2013). All of the thermosiphon mode.” Specifically, liquid level in the bottom of the col-
feedback that was received during the liquid level in the bottom of the umn was not so high as to reach the
those meetings was documented column was raised until the vapor packings that were located farther
and considered. Another sympo- return nozzle (from the kettle) was up in the column.
sium will be held in Ludwigshafen, completely flooded with liquid. FRI engineers will present a
Germany, on September 25, 2014. FRI’s column has windows placed paper regarding this work on April
Professors Ken Bell and Rob White- exactly opposite the kettle vapor- 2 at the AIChE Spring Meeting
ley of Oklahoma State University, return nozzle. Video footage of (New Orleans, La.; www.aiche.org).
who were mentioned in the October that liquid-submerged nozzle was Video footage will be shown. ■
2011 column, continue to consult for “amazing.” This semi-thermosiphon Mike Resetarits
FRI regarding heat transfer work.
During the last two years, one of
FRI’s focus areas was the entrain-
ment of liquid droplets out of the
vapor product nozzle. FRI added
two new windows to the kettle, at
the steam-header end of the heat
exchanger. Entrainment is now vis-
ible from four different windows.
Tracerco (Pasadena, Tex.; www. Content Licensing for
tracerco.com) personnel have col-
lected gamma-scan data from the Every Marketing Strategy
vertical and horizontal sections of
the vapor-product piping. Those Marketing solutions fit for:
data were easily converted to liquid • Outdoor
entrainment data [liquid(L)/vapor • Direct Mail
(V) basis]. Pressure drop data were • Print Advertising
collected across that same pip- • Tradeshow/POP Displays
ing and were compared against • Social Media
theoretical calculations. When the • Radio & Television
kettle was entrainment-flooded,
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SEALS/GUARDS 2C AD-07 8/15/07 8:59 AM Page 1
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New Product Information April 2014
JustFAXit! or go to www.che.com/adlinks
Fill out the form and circle or write in the number(s) Go on the Web and fill out the
✁
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Name Title
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FREE PRODUCT INFO 14 Engineering, Design & Construc- 29 10 to 49 Employees 47 Pollution Control Equipment

(please answer all the questions) tion Firms 30 50 to 99 Employees & Systems
15 Engineering/Environmental Ser- 31 100 to 249 Employees 48 Pumps
YOUR INDUSTRY
vices 32 250 to 499 Employees 49 Safety Equipment & Services
01 Food & Beverages
16 Equipment Manufacturer 33 500 to 999 Employees 50 Size Reduction & Agglomeration
02 Wood, Pulp & Paper
17 Energy incl. Co-generation 34 1,000 or more Employees Equipment
03 Inorganic Chemicals
18 Other———————————— YOU RECOMMEND, 51 Solids Handling Equipment
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JOB FUNCTION SPECIFY, PURCHASE 52 Tanks, Vessels, Reactors
05 Drugs & Cosmetics (please circle all that apply)
20 Corporate Management 53 Valves
06 Soaps & Detergents 40 Drying Equipment
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07 Paints & Allied Products 41 Filtration/Separation Equipment
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08 Organic Chemicals 42 Heat Transfer/Energy Conserva-
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23 Research & Development & Equipment
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12 Stone, Clay, Glass, Ceramics EMPLOYEE SIZE 45 Motors, Motor Controls 58 Materials of Construction
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1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136 151 166 181 196 211 226 241 256 271 286 301 316 331 346 361 376 391 406 421 436 451 466 481 496 511 526 541 556 571 586
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12 27 42 57 72 87 102 117 132 147 162 177 192 207 222 237 252 267 282 297 312 327 342 357 372 387 402 417 432 447 462 477 492 507 522 537 552 567 582 597
13 28 43 58 73 88 103 118 133 148 163 178 193 208 223 238 253 268 283 298 313 328 343 358 373 388 403 418 433 448 463 478 493 508 523 538 553 568 583 598
14 29 44 59 74 89 104 119 134 149 164 179 194 209 224 239 254 269 284 299 314 329 344 359 374 389 404 419 434 449 464 479 494 509 524 539 554 569 584 599
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23_CHE_040114_AD_IND_RS.indd 76 3/19/14 7:27:18 AM

Advertisers’ Index
✁
Advertiser Page number Advertiser Page number Advertiser Page number

Phone number Reader Service # Phone number Reader Service # Phone number Reader Service #
3P Prinz 31 Metso Automation 7 RedGuard 16

adlinks.che.com/50975-01 adlinks.che.com/50975-16 1-855-REDGUARD
Abbe, Paul O. 6 Müller GmbH 6
1-800-524-2188 49 (0) 7623/969-0 Rembe GmbH 71
adlinks.che.com/50975-03 adlinks.che.com/50975-17 49 (0) 29 61-7405-0
AFPM - American Fuel & Otek Corporation 31
1-520-748-7900 Ross, Charles & Son Company 10
Petrochemical Manufacturers 61 adlinks.che.com/50975-18 49 (0) 29 61-74050
Paharpur Cooling Towers Ltd. 4
AUMA Riester 91-33-4013 3000 Sandvik Process Systems 55
GmbH & Co. KG 25 adlinks.che.com/50975-19 49 711 5105-0
Pentair Separation Systems 60
Berndorf Band GmbH 9 1-888-896-6300 Sturtevant Inc. 17
39 0331/864841 adlinks.che.com/50975-20 1-800-992-0209
* Plast-O-Matic Valves, Inc. 19-I
Buss-SMS-Canzler GmbH 59 1-973-256-3000 ThyssenKrupp
49 60 33-85-0 adlinks.che.com/50975-21 Industrial Solutions AG 29
PNC Financial Services Group 32a
1-855-762-2361 United Rentals SECOND COVER
Chemstations 14 adlinks.che.com/50975-22 adlinks.che.com/50975-29
PTXi 2014 20 YS Inc. 8
Dow Water & Process adlinks.che.com/50975-23 adlinks.che.com/50975-30
Solutions 13
Ekato Process Classified Index April 2014

Technologies GmbH 26
49 7622 69070 Advertiser Page number
adlinks.che.com/50975-10 Phone number Reader Service # Advertiser's Product
Amandus Kahl Hamburg 74 Showcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Endress + Hauser FOURTH
adlinks.che.com/50975-201 Computer Software. . . . . . . . . . . 74 Advertis
COVER
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Applied e-Simulators Software 74
adlinks.che.com/50975-11 adlinks.che.com/50975-241 Equipm
Flexicon 3 Elcan Industries 75 Advertiser Page number
1-888-FLEXICON 1-914-381-7500 Phone number Reader Service #
Topog-E Gasket Corp. 75
GIG Karasek GmbH 27 Indeck Power Equipment Co. 75 1-800-587-7123
43 2662 42780 1-847-541-8300 adlinks.che.com/50975-246
Vesconite Bearings 75
Plast-O-Matic Valves, Inc. 74
Load Controls 18 1-973-256-3000
27 11 616 11 11
1-888-600-3247 adlinks.che.com/50975-247
Powder-Solutions, Inc. 75 Wabash Power Equipment Co. 75
Magnetrol 15 1-877-236-3539 1-800-704-2002
1-800-624-8765 adlinks.che.com/50975-244 adlinks.che.com/50975-248
Ross, Charles & Son Company 74 Xchanger, Inc. 74
1-800-243-ROSS 1-952-933-2559
* International Edition adlinks.che.com/50975-245 adlinks.che.com/50975-249
See bottom of opposite page

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23_CHE_040114_AD_IND_RS.indd 77 3/19/14 10:18:49 AM

People
April Who's Who
Ill Travers Wang Buscher Thuerig
Bühler Aeroglide (Cary, N.C.), a Pump Solutions Group (PSG; Bal Seal Engineering (Foothill
manufacturer of engineered thermal- Oakbridge Terrace, Ill.), makes the Ranch, Calif.), a designer of custom
process systems, names Hans-Jörg Ill following appointments: David Wang sealing, connecting, conducting and
president and CEO. becomes president of PSG Asia, Karl EMI-shielding components, appoints
Buscher becomes president of PSG Sarah Smith global market manager
Detlev Rose becomes chief sales Americas; Ueli Thuerig becomes for analytical products.
officer at Beumer Group GmbH & president of PSG Europe, Middle East,
Co. KG (Beckum, Germany) a manu- Africa (EMEA); and Carrie Halle be- ValvTechnologies, Inc. (Houston)
facturer of packaging, sorting, loading comes director of marketing, Americas. promotes David Bowden to manag-
and conveying systems. ing director of its wholly owned
Scott Corbin is named regional subsidiary MCE Group plc, a master
CRP Industries (Cranbury, N.J.), manager, compliance, for Integrated valve distribution, modification and
a maker of high-pressure specialty Project Services (IPS; Blue Bell, service facility based in Stockton-on-
hoses, belts and motors, names Caitlin Pa.), an engineering, construction Tees, U.K. ■
Travers senior applications engineer. and commissioning firm. Suzanne Shelley
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24_CHE_040114_WW.indd 78 3/18/14 12:48:11 PM

Economic Indicators
Business News
Jinshan Second Industry Zone in Shanghai. Kemira acquires BASF AKD
Plant Watch
The $20-million plant is Huntsman’s first TPU emulsion business
ExxonMobil to construct butyl rubber and production facility in the Asia-Pacific region. February 27, 2014 — Kemira Oyj (Helsinki,
hydrocarbon resin plants in Singapore Finland; www.kemira.com) and BASF have
March 6, 2014 — ExxonMobil Chemical Co. Styron increases latex production announced that Kemira will acquire BASF’s
(Houston; www.exxonmobilchemical.com) capacity with new reactor in China global alkyl ketene dimer (AKD) emulsion
plans to build facilities to manufacture February 26, 2014 — Styron Europe GmbH business.The transaction is expected to
halobutyl rubber and hydrogenated hydro- (Horgen, Switzerland; www.styron.com) close in the first half of 2014.
carbon resin at its petrochemical complex has announced plans to expand its latex
in Singapore. Engineering and procurement capacity with a new reactor at its Zhangji- Vitol to purchase Shell’s Australian
activities have begun, with construction ex- agang, China production facility.The new downstream businesses for $2.6 billion
pected to begin in the second half of 2014. reactor, expected to begin production in February 21, 2014 — Royal Dutch Shell plc
Completion is anticipated in 2017 for the the second quarter of 2015, will be Styron’s (The Hague, the Netherlands; www.shell.
project, which will add production capacity fourth unit of its kind at Zhangjiagang. com) has agreed to sell its Australia down-
of 140,000 metric tons per year (m.t./yr) of
stream businesses (excluding Aviation) to
halobutyl rubber and 90,000 m.t./yr of hy- Kaneka to build manufacturing plant for The Vitol Group (Rotterdam, the Nether-
drogenated hydrocarbon resin. acrylic fibers in Malaysia lands; www.vitol.com) for around $2.6 bil-
February 18, 2014 — Kaneka Corp. (Osaka, lion.The sale covers Shell’s Geelong Refinery
BASF breaks ground on new resin and Japan; www.kaneka.com) will establish a and retail business, along with its bulk fuels,
coating facility in Shanghai new manufacturing facility for acrylic fibers bitumen, chemicals and part of its lubri-
March 6, 2014 — BASF SE (Ludwigshafen, at Kaneka’s existing site in Pahang State, Ma- cants businesses in Australia.
Germany; www.basf.com) broke ground laysia. With a production capacity of 12,000
on a new resin and electrocoat plant at m.t./yr, the facility’s capital investment was
the Shanghai Chemical Industry Park. With Toray and Abunayyan launch water-
approximately $88 million. Operations are
its operation scheduled to commence in treatment JV in Saudi Arabia
expected to begin in October 2015.
the second half of 2015, this new resin and February 21, 2014 — Toray Industries Inc.
electrocoat plant will be located adjacent (Tokyo, Japan; www.toray.com) and Abu-
Ineos expands capacity for ethylidene
to another new BASF automotive coatings nayyan Holding (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia)
norbornene at Antwerp site
plant, which will start operation in 2014. have launched a joint venture (JV) for
February 14, 2014 — Ineos Technologies
water- and wastewater-treatment technolo-
(Rolle, Switzerland; www.ineos.com) has
AkzoNobel doubles capacity for gies.The JV will be called Toray Membrane
expanded its ethylidene norbornene (ENB)
industrial coatings in China Middle East LLC (TMME).The projected in-
plant at its Antwerp facility, increasing its
March 5, 2014 — Akzo Nobel N.V. (Amster- vestment for the JV is $80 million.
capacity to 28,000 m.t./yr, and making it the
dam, the Netherlands; www.akzonobel. largest ENB plant in the world, according to
com) has completed the expansion of its Ineos and Sinopec form JV for
the company.
Industrial Coatings site in Songjiang, China, new phenol acetone plant in China
doubling its annual production capacity. February 20, 2014 — Ineos Technologies and
Work started in 2012, when around €14 mil- Mergers and acquisitions Sinopec YPC have agreed to form a 50/50
lion was invested in the facility. FMC announces separation into two JV called INEOS YPC Phenol (Nanjing) Com-
independent companies pany Ltd. The JV will build a phenol acetone
WorleyParsons awarded Canadian March 10, 2014 — FMC Corp. (Philadelphia, plant in China, due to be completed at the
bitumen-refinery project Pa.; www.fmc.com) has announced plans end of 2016, with a total investment of ap-
March 5, 2014 — WorleyParsons Ltd. (North to separate into two independent public proximately $500 million.The production
Sydney, Australia; www.worleyparsons.com) companies,“New FMC,” which will be com- capacity of the new plant will be at least
will provide detailed engineering and pro- prised of FMC’s Agricultural Solutions and 400,000 m.t./yr of phenol and 250,000
curement services for the tankfarm, Health and Nutrition segments and “FMC m.t./yr of acetone. It will also include
piperack and flare units of Phase 1 of the Minerals,” which will be comprised of FMC’s 550,000 m.t./yr of cumene capacity.
North West Redwater Partnership’s green- current Minerals segment. FMC Corp. ex-
field bitumen-refinery project, located in pects to complete the separation in early 2015. AMEC acquires Foster Wheeler
Sturgeon County, in Alberta’s Industrial for $3.3 billion
Heartland area. Commercial operations are Evonik acquires Michigan-based silane February 13, 2014 — Foster Wheeler AG (Zug,
targeted for September 2017. producer Silbond Switzerland; www.fwc.com) has announced
March 4, 2014 — Evonik Industries AG (Essen, that it has entered into a definitive agreement
Huntsman opens new thermoplastic Germany; www.evonik.com) has acquired with AMEC plc (London, U.K.; www.amec.
polyurethanes production facility Silbond Corp. (Weston, Mich.; www.silbond. com) in which AMEC will acquire all shares
February 27, 2014 — Huntsman Corp. (The com), a supplier of silicic acid esters, a spe- of Foster Wheeler, for a total value of approxi-
Woodlands,Tex.; www.huntsman.com) has cial group of functional silanes used in a mately $3.3 billion.The transaction is expect-
officially opened its new thermoplastic poly- wide variety of applications, including coat- ed to close in the second half of 2014. ■
urethanes (TPU) production facility at the ings and electronics. Mary Page Bailey
For additional news as it develops, please visit www.che.com

April 2014; VOL. 121; NO. 4
Chemical Engineering copyright @ 2014 (ISSN 0009-2460) is published monthly by Access Intelligence, LLC, 4 Choke Cherry Road, 2nd Floor, Rockville, MD, 20850. Chemical
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For more Economic Indicators, See Next Page Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014 79
25_CHE_040114_EI.indd 79 3/18/14 3:53:54 PM

Economic Indicators 2012 2013 2014
DOWNLOAD THE CEPCI TWO WEEKS SOONER AT WWW.CHE.COM/PCI

650
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT COST INDEX (CEPCI)
Annual
(1957–59 = 100)
Jan. ’14 Dec. ’13 Jan. ’13 Index: 600
Prelim. Final Final
2006 = 499.6
CE Index 572.6 567.5 571.2
Equipment 695.6 687.9 692.8 2007 = 525.4
550
Heat exchangers & tanks 632.6 621.6 630.1 2008 = 575.4
Process machinery 657.4 656.0 657.6
Pipes, valves & fittings 883.5 875.7 890.4 2009 = 521.9
500
Process instruments 412.8 412.5 416.5 2010 = 550.8
Pumps & compressors 928.7 925.8 913.9
2011 = 585.7
Electrical equipment 515.4 513.8 513.3 450
Structural supports & misc 762.3 746.9 741.6 2012 = 584.6
Construction labor 317.7 318.7 319.2
2013 = 567.3
Buildings 537.6 532.8 530.9 400
Engineering & supervision 321.9 322.0 326.8 J F M A M J J A S O N D
CURRENT BUSINESS INDICATORS* LATEST PREVIOUS YEAR AGO
CPI output index (2007 = 100) Feb. '14 = 88.8 Jan. '14 = 88.4 Dec. '13 = 89.2 Feb.'13 = 88.0
CPI value of output, $ billions Jan. '14 = 2,161.8 Dec. '13 = 2,176.6 Nov. '13 = 2,149.0 Jan.'13 = 2,173.3
CPI operating rate, % Feb. '14 = 74.8 Jan. '14 = 74.5 Dec. '13 = 75.2 Feb.'13 = 74.7
Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100) Feb. '14 = 299.6 Jan. '14 = 294.0 Dec. '13 = 294.2 Feb.'13 = 315.8
Industrial Production in Manufacturing (2007 = 100) Feb. '14 = 97.2 Jan. '14 = 96.4 Dec. '13 = 97.2 Feb.'13 = 95.7
Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100) Feb. '14 = 156.7 Jan. '14 = 157.6 Dec. '13 = 158.3 Feb.'13 = 155.0
Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100) Feb. '14 = 107.7 Jan. '14 = 106.6 Dec. '13 = 108.1 Feb.'13 = 103.8
CPI OUTPUT INDEX (2007 = 100) CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ BILLIONS) CPI OPERATING RATE (%)
120 2500 85
110 2200 80
100 1900 75
90 1600 70
80 1300 65
70 1000 60
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
*Current Business Indicators provided by IHS Global Insight, Inc., Lexington, Mass.
HIGHLIGHTS FROM RECENT ACC WEEKLY REPORTS CURRENT TRENDS
I n its recent Weekly Economic and Chemistry reports, the American Chemistry Council (ACC; Wash-
ington, D.C.; www.americanchemistry.com) discussed data from the JPMorgan Global Manufactur-
ing PMI (purchasing manager’s index), among a host of other items. The Global PMI rose 0.3 points
T he annual 2013 CE Plant Cost
Index (CEPCI; top) is available,
and stands at 3.0% lower than
to 53.3 in February, a 34-month high. The global PMI has signaled expansion in each of the last 15 the 2012 annual average value.
months, and has maintained a generally upward trend since April. However, says the report, dispari- However, the initial numbers for
ties remain between the developed nations and emerging markets. 2014 (January 2014 preliminary)
“Growth continues to be stronger in the United States and the Euro Area, and the upturns in Japan generally increased from the final
and the United Kingdom remain robust,” the ACC said, but continued, “In contrast, the PMIs for December index values from
China, South Korea and Russia signal contraction, while rates of growth in Brazil and India were 2013. Compared to a year ago,
below the global average.” the PCI index for January 2014 is
Other economic data in the ACC reports suggested that wholesale trade in chemicals grew 1.4% 0.24% higher — marking the first
in the U.S. in January, to $10.8 billion, while inventories fell 1.3% to $12.6 billion. time in nearly two years where the
And in January, U.S. specialty chemicals market volumes fell 0.7%. The decline in January follows more recent number was higher
a 1.1% gain in December and a 0.5% gain in November. The severe winter weather experienced by than the corresponding year-
much of North America in January is clearly having an effect on markets, ACC said. earlier index value. Meanwhile,
Of the 28 specialty chemical segments in the U.S. monitored regularly by ACC, only 4 expanded updated values for the Current
in January. By contrast, 25 and 23 segments expanded in December and November of last year, Business Indicators (CBI) from
respectively. IHS Global Insight (middle) saw
Meanwhile, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD; Paris; www. the CPI output index edge higher
oecd.org) released its composite leading indicator (CLI) for January, and the data indicate that the compared to the previous month,
CLI for the OECD+6 (OECD member countries plus six major non-member economies) held steady while the CPI value of output index
in January. ❑ decreased slightly. ❑
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