Postmodernism

Postmodernism is a broad movement that developed in the mid- to late-20th century across philosophy, the arts, architecture, and
criticism and that marked a departure from modernism.[1][2][3] The term has also more generally been applied to the historical era
following modernity and the tendencies of this era.[4]

While encompassing a wide variety of approaches, postmodernism is generally defined by an attitude of skepticism, irony, or
rejection toward the meta-narratives and ideologies of modernism, often calling into question various assumptions of Enlightenment
rationality.[5] Consequently, common targets of postmodern critique include universalist notions of objective reality, morality, truth,
human nature, reason, language, and social progress.[5] Postmodern thinkers frequently call attention to the contingent or socially-
conditioned nature of knowledge claims and value systems, situating them as products of particular political, historical, or cultural
discourses and hierarchies.[5] Accordingly, postmodern thought is broadly characterized by tendencies to self-referentiality,
epistemological and moral relativism, pluralism, subjectivism, and irreverence.[5]

Postmodern critical approaches gained purchase in the 1980s and 1990s, and have been adopted in a variety of academic and
theoretical disciplines, including cultural studies, philosophy of science, economics, linguistics, architecture, feminist theory, and
literary criticism, as well as art movements in fields such as literature and music. Postmodernism is often associated with schools of
thought such as deconstruction and post-structuralism, as well as philosophers such as Jean-François Lyotard, Jacques Derrida, and
Fredric Jameson, though many so-labeled thinkers have criticized the term.

Contents
History
Postmodernism and structuralism
Deconstruction
Post-postmodernism
Origins of term
Influential postmodern thinkers
Martin Heidegger
Jacques Derrida
Michel Foucault
Jean-François Lyotard
Richard Rorty
Jean Baudrillard
Fredric Jameson
Douglas Kellner
Influence on art
Architecture
Urban planning
Literature
Music
Graphic design
Criticisms
See also
References
Further reading
External links
History
Postmodernism arose after World War II as a reaction to the perceived failings of modernism, whose radical artistic projects had
come to be associated with totalitarianism[6] or had been assimilated into mainstream culture. The basic features of what we now call
postmodernism can be found as early as the 1940s, most notably in the work of artists such as Jorge Luis Borges.[7] However, most
scholars today would agree that postmodernism began to compete with modernism in the late 1950s and gained ascendancy over it in
the 1960s.[8] Since then, postmodernism has been a dominant, though not undisputed, force in art, literature, film, music, drama,
architecture, history, and continental philosophy.

Salient features of postmodernism are normally thought to include the ironic play with styles, citations and narrative levels,[9] a
metaphysical skepticism or nihilism towards a "grand narrative" of Western culture,[10] a preference for the virtual at the expense of
the Real (or more accurately, a fundamental questioning of what 'the real' constitutes)[11] and a "waning of affect"[12] on the part of
the subject, who is caught up in the free interplay of virtual, endlessly reproducible signs inducing a state of consciousness similar to
schizophrenia.[13]

Since the late 1990s there has been a small but growing feeling both in popular culture and in academia that postmodernism "has
gone out of fashion."[14]

Postmodernism and structuralism

Structuralism was a philosophical movement developed by French academics in the 1950s, partly in response to French
Existentialism. It has been seen variously as an expression of Modernism, High modernism, or postmodernism. "Post-structuralists"
were thinkers who moved away from the strict interpretations and applications of structuralist ideas. Many American academics
consider post-structuralism to be part of the broader, less well-defined postmodernist movement, even though many post-
structuralists insisted it was not. Thinkers who have been called structuralists include the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, the
linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, the Marxist philosopherLouis Althusser, and the semiotician Algirdas Greimas. The early writings of
the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan and the literary theorist Roland Barthes have also been called structuralist. Those who began as
structuralists but became post-structuralists include Michel Foucault, Roland Barthes, Jean Baudrillard, Gilles Deleuze. Other post-
structuralists include Jacques Derrida, Pierre Bourdieu, Jean-François Lyotard, Julia Kristeva, Hélène Cixous, and Luce Irigaray. The
American cultural theorists, critics and intellectuals whom they influenced include Judith Butler, John Fiske, Rosalind Krauss, Avital
Ronell, and Hayden White.

Post-structuralism is not defined by a set of shared axioms or methodologies, but by an emphasis on how various aspects of a
particular culture, from its most ordinary, everyday material details to its most abstract theories and beliefs, determine one another.
Post-structuralist thinkers reject Reductionism and Epiphenomenalism and the idea that cause-and-effect relationships are top-down
or bottom-up. Like structuralists, they start from the assumption that people's identities, values and economic conditions determine
each other rather than having intrinsic properties that can be understood in isolation.[15] Thus the French structuralists considered
themselves to be espousing Relativism and Constructionism. But they nevertheless tended to explore how the subjects of their study
might be described, reductively, as a set of essential relationships, schematics, or mathematical symbols. (An example is Claude
Lévi-Strauss's algebraic formulation of mythological transformation in "The Structural Study of Myth"[16] ). Post-structuralists
thinkers went further, questioning the existence of any distinction between the nature of a thing and
its relationship to other things.

Postmodernist ideas inphilosophy and the analysis of culture and society expanded the importance of critical theory and has been the
point of departure for works of literature, architecture, and design, as well as being visible in marketing/business and the
interpretation of history, law and culture, starting in the late 20th century. These developments—re-evaluationof the entire Western
value system (love, marriage, popular culture, shift from industrial to service economy) that took place since the 1950s and 1960s,
with a peak in the Social Revolution of 1968—are described with the term "postmodernity",[17] as opposed to Postmodernism, a term
referring to an opinion or movement. Postmodernism has also been used interchangeably with the term post-structuralism out of
which postmodernism grew; a proper understanding of postmodernism or doing justice to the postmodernist concept demands an
understanding of the post-structuralist movement and the ideas of its advocates. Post-structuralism resulted similarly to
postmodernism by following a time of structuralism. It is characterized by new ways of thinking through structuralism, contrary to
the original form.[18] "Postmodernist" describes part of a movement; "Postmodern" places it in the period of time since the 1950s,
making it a part of contemporary history.

Deconstruction
One of the most well-known postmodernist concerns is "deconstruction," a theory for philosophy, literary criticism, and textual
analysis developed by Jacques Derrida. The notion of a "deconstructive" approach implies an analysis that questions the already
evident understanding of a text in terms of presuppositions, ideological underpinnings, hierarchical values, and frames of reference.
A deconstructive approach further depends on the techniques of close reading without reference to cultural, ideological, moral
opinions or information derived from an authority over the text such as the author
. At the same time Derrida famously writes: "Il n'y a
pas d'hors-texte (there is no such thing as outside-of-the-text)."[19] Derrida implies that the world follows the grammar of a text
undergoing its own deconstruction. Derrida's method frequently involves recognizing and spelling out the different, yet similar
interpretations of the meaning of a given text and the problematic implications of binary oppositions within the meaning of a text.
Derrida's philosophy inspired a postmodern movement called deconstructivism among architects, characterized by the intentional
fragmentation, distortion, and dislocation of architectural elements in designing a building. Derrida discontinued his involvement
with the movement after the publication of his collaborative project with architect Peter Eisenman in Chora L Works: Jacques
Derrida and Peter Eisenman.[20]

Post-postmodernism
The connection between postmodernism, posthumanism, and cybor
gism has led to a challenge of postmodernism, for which the terms
[21][22]
"postpostmodernism" and "postpoststructuralism" were first coined in 2003:

In some sense, we may regard postmodernism, posthumanism, poststructuralism, etc., as being of the 'cyborg age' of
mind over body. Deconference was an exploration in post-cyborgism (i.e. what comes after the postcorporeal era),
and thus explored issues of postpostmodernism, postpoststructuralism, and the like. To understand this transition from
'pomo' (cyborgism) to 'popo' (postcyborgism) we must first understand the cyborg era itself.[23]

More recently metamodernism, post-postmodernism and the "death of postmodernism" have been widely debated: in 2007 Andrew
Hoberek noted in his introduction to a special issue of the journal Twentieth Century Literature titled "After Postmodernism" that
"declarations of postmodernism's demise have become a critical commonplace". A small group of critics has put forth a range of
theories that aim to describe culture or society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism, most notably Raoul Eshelman
(performatism), Gilles Lipovetsky (hypermodernity), Nicolas Bourriaud (altermodern), and Alan Kirby (digimodernism, formerly
called pseudo-modernism). None of these new theories and labels have so far gained very widespread acceptance. Sociocultural
anthropologist Nina Müller-Schwarze offers neostructuralism as a possible direction. [24] The exhibition Postmodernism – Style and
Subversion 1970–1990 at the Victoria and Albert Museum (London, 24 September 2011 – 15 January 2012) was billed as the first
show to document postmodernism as a historical movement.

Origins of term
The term postmodern was first used around the 1880s. John Watkins Chapman suggested "a Postmodern style of painting" as a way
to depart from French Impressionism.[25] J. M. Thompson, in his 1914 article in The Hibbert Journal (a quarterly philosophical
review), used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion, writing: "The raison d'être of Post-Modernism
is to escape from the double-mindedness of Modernism by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as
[26]
theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition."
In 1921 and 1925, postmodernism had been used to describe new forms of art and music. In 1942 H. R. Hays described it as a new
literary form. However, as a general theory for a historical movement it was first used in 1939 by Arnold J. Toynbee: "Our own Post-
[27]
Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914–1918".

In 1949 the term was used to describe a dissatisfaction withmodern architecture, and
led to the postmodern architecture movement,[28] and a response to the modernist
architectural movement known as the International Style. Postmodernism in
architecture was initially marked by a re-emergence of surface ornament, reference
to surrounding buildings in urban settings, historical reference in decorative forms
(eclecticism), and non-orthogonal angles.

Peter Drucker suggested the transformation into a post-modern world happened

between 1937 and 1957 (when he was writing). He described an as yet "nameless
era" which he characterized as a shift to conceptual world based on pattern, purpose,
and process rather than mechanical cause, outlined by four new realities: the
emergence of Educated Society, the importance of international development, the
decline of the nation state, and the collapse of the viability of non-Western
cultures.[29]
Portland Building (1982), by architect
In 1971, in a lecture delivered at the Institute of Contemporary Art, London, Mel Michael Graves, an example of
Postmodern architecture
Bochner described "post-modernism" in art as having started with Jasper Johns,
"who first rejected sense-data and the singular point-of-view as the basis for his art,
and treated art as a critical investigation."[30]

In 1996, Walter Truett Anderson described postmodernism as belonging to one of four typological world views, which he identifies
as either (a) Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed, (b) Scientific-rational, in which truth is found through
methodical, disciplined inquiry, (c) Social-traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization, or
[31]
(d) Neo-Romantic, in which truth is found through attaining harmony with nature and/or spiritual exploration of the inner self.

Influential postmodern thinkers

Martin Heidegger
Martin Heidegger rejected the philosophical basis of the concepts of "subjectivity" and "objectivity" and asserted that similar
grounding oppositions in logic ultimately refer to one another. Instead of resisting the admission of this paradox in the search for
understanding, Heidegger requires that we embrace it through an active process of elucidation he called the "hermeneutic circle". He
stressed the historicity and cultural construction of concepts while simultaneously advocating the necessity of an atemporal and
immanent apprehension of them. In this vein, he asserted that it was the task of contemporary philosophy to recover the original
question of (or "openness to") Dasein (translated as Being or Being-there) present in the Presocratic philosophers but normalized,
neutered, and standardized since Plato. This was to be done, in part, by tracing the record of Dasein's sublimation or forgetfulness
through the history of philosophy which meant that we were to ask again what constituted the grounding conditions in ourselves and
in the World for the affinity between beings and between the many usages of the term "being" in philosophy. To do this, however, a
non-historical and, to a degree, self-referential engagement with whatever set of ideas, feelings or practices would permit (both the
non-fixed concept and reality of) such a continuity was required—a continuity permitting the possible experience, possible existence
indeed not only of beings but of all differences as they appeared and tended to develop.

Such a conclusion led Heidegger to depart from the phenomenology of his teacher Husserl and prompt instead an (ironically
anachronistic) return to the yet-unasked questions of Ontology, a return that in general did not acknowledge an intrinsic distinction
between phenomena and noumena or between things in themselves d( e re) and things as they appear (see qualia): Being-in-the-world,
or rather, the openness to the process of Dasein's becoming was to bridge the age-old gap between these two. In this latter premise,
Heidegger shares an affinity with the late Romantic philosopher, Friedrich Nietzsche, another principal forerunner of post-
structuralist and postmodernist thought. Influential to thinkers associated with Postmodernism are Heidegger's critique of the subject–
object or sense–knowledge division implicit in Rationalism, Empiricism, and methodological naturalism, his repudiation of the idea
that facts exist outside or separately from the process of thinking and speaking them (however, Heidegger is not specifically a
nominalist), his related admission that the possibilities of philosophical and scientific discourse are wrapped up in the practices and
expectations of a society and that concepts and fundamental constructs are the expression of a lived, historical exercise rather than
simple derivations of external, a priori conditions independent from historical mind and changing experience (see Johann Gottlieb
Fichte, Heinrich von Kleist, Weltanschauung, and social constructionism), and his instrumentalist and negativist notion that Being
(and, by extension, reality) is an action, method, tendency, possibility, and question rather than a discrete, positive, identifiable state,
answer, or entity (see also process philosophy, dynamism, Instrumentalism, Pragmatism, and Vitalism).

Jacques Derrida
Jacques Derrida re-examined the fundamentals of writing and its consequences on philosophy in general; sought to undermine the
language of "presence" ormetaphysics in an analytical technique which, beginning as a point of departure from Heidegger's notion of
Destruktion, came to be known asDeconstruction. Derrida used, like Heidegger, references to Greek philosophical notions associated
with the Skeptics and the Presocratics, such as Epoché and Aporia to articulate his notion of implicit circularity between premises
and conclusions, origins and manifestations, but—in a manner analogous in certain respects to Gilles Deleuze—presented a radical
re-reading of canonical philosophical figures such as Plato, Aristotle, and Descartes as themselves being informed by such
"destabilizing" notions.

Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault introduced concepts such as 'discursive regime', or re-invoked those of older philosophers like 'episteme' and
'genealogy' in order to explain the relationship between meaning, power, and social behavior within social orders (see The Order of
Things, The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and Punish, and The History of Sexuality). In direct contradiction to what have
been typified as modernist perspectives on epistemology, Foucault asserted that rational judgment, social practice, and what he called
"biopower" are not only inseparable but co-determinant. While Foucault himself was deeply involved in a number of progressive
political causes and maintained close personal ties with members of the far-left, he was also controversial with leftist thinkers of his
day, including those associated with various Marxist tendencies, proponents of left-libertarianism (such as Noam Chomsky), and
supporters of humanism (like Jürgen Habermas), for his rejection of what he deemed to be Enlightenment concepts of freedom,
liberation, self-determination, and human nature. Instead, Foucault focused on the ways in which such constructs can foster cultural
hegemony, violence, and exclusion.

In line with his rejection of such "positive" tenets of Enlightenment-era humanism, he was active—with Gilles Deleuze and Félix
Guattari—in the anti-psychiatry movement, considering much of institutionalized psychiatry and, in particular, Freud's concept of
repression central to Psychoanalysis (which was still very influential in France during the 1960s and 1970s), to be both harmful and
misplaced. Foucault was known for his controversial aphorisms, such as "language is oppression", meaning that language functions
in such a way as to render nonsensical, false, or silent tendencies that might otherwise threaten or undermine the distributions of
power backing a society's conventions—even when such distributions purport to celebrate liberation and expression or value minority
groups and perspectives. His writings have had a major influence on the lar
ger body of postmodern academic literature.

Jean-François Lyotard
Jean-François Lyotard identified in The Postmodern Conditiona crisis in the "discourses of the human sciences" latent in modernism
but catapulted to the fore by the advent of the "computerized" or "telematic" era (see information revolution). This crisis, insofar as it
pertains to academia, concerns both the motivations and justification procedures for making research claims: unstated givens or
values that have validated the basic efforts of academic research since the late 18th century might no longer be valid—particularly, in
social science and humanities research, though examples from mathematics are given by Lyotard as well. As formal conjecture about
real-world issues becomes inextricably linked to automated calculation, information storage, and retrieval, such knowledge becomes
increasingly "exteriorised" from its knowers in the form of information. Knowledge thus becomes materialized and made into a
commodity exchanged between producers and consumers; it ceases to be either an idealistic end-in-itself or a tool capable of bringing
about liberty or social benefit; it is stripped of its humanistic and spiritual associations, its connection with education, teaching, and
human development, being simply rendered as "data"—omnipresent, material, unending, and without any contexts or pre-
requisites.[32] Furthermore, the "diversity" of claims made by various disciplines begins to lack any unifying principle or intuition as
objects of study become more and more specialized due to the emphasis on specificity, precision, and uniformity of reference that
competitive, database-oriented research implies.

The value-premises upholding academic research have been maintained by what Lyotard considers to be quasi-mythological beliefs
about human purpose, human reason, and human progress—large, background constructs he calls "metanarratives". These
metanarratives still remain in Western society but are now being undermined by rapid Informatization and the commercialization of
the university and its functions. The shift of authority from the presence and intuition of knowers—from the good faith of reason to
seek diverse knowledge integrated for human benefit or truth fidelity—to the automated database and the market had, in Lyotard's
view, the power to unravel the very idea of "justification" or "legitimation" and, with it, the rationale for research altogether,
especially in disciplines pertaining to human life, society, and meaning. We are now controlled not by binding extra-linguistic value
paradigms defining notions of collective identity and ultimate purpose, but rather by our automatic responses to different species of
"language games" (a concept Lyotard imports from J. L. Austin's theory of speech acts). In his vision of a solution to this "vertigo",
Lyotard opposes the assumptions of universality, consensus, and generality that he identified within the thought of humanistic, Neo-
Kantian philosophers like Jürgen Habermas, and proposes a continuation of experimentation and diversity to be assessed
pragmatically in the context of language games rather than via appeal to a resurrected series of transcendentals and metaphysical
unities.

Richard Rorty
Richard Rorty argues in Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature that contemporary analytic philosophy mistakenly imitates scientific
methods. In addition, he denounces the traditional epistemological perspectives of representationalism and correspondence theory
that rely upon the independence of knowers and observers from phenomena and the passivity of natural phenomena in relation to
consciousness. As a proponent of anti-foundationalism and anti-essentialism within a pragmatist framework, he echoes the
postmodern strain of conventionalism and relativism, but opposes much of postmodern thinking with his commitment to social
liberalism.

Jean Baudrillard
Jean Baudrillard, in Simulacra and Simulation, introduced the concept that reality or the principle of "The Real" is short-circuited by
the interchangeability of signs in an era whose communicative and semantic acts are dominated by electronic media and digital
technologies. Baudrillard proposes the notion that, in such a state, where subjects are detached from the outcomes of events (political,
literary, artistic, personal, or otherwise), events no longer hold any particular sway on the subject nor have any identifiable context;
they therefore have the effect of producing widespread indifference, detachment, and passivity in industrialized populations. He
claimed that a constant stream of appearances and references without any direct consequences to viewers or readers could eventually
render the division between appearance and object indiscernible, resulting, ironically, in the "disappearance" of mankind in what is,
in effect, a virtual or holographic state, composed only of appearances. For Baudrillard, "simulation is no longer that of a territory, a
referential being or a substance. It is the generation by models of a real without origin or a reality:hyperreal.
a [33]

Fredric Jameson
Fredric Jameson set forth one of the first expansive theoretical treatments of postmodernism as a historical period, intellectual trend,
and social phenomenon in a series of lectures at the Whitney Museum, later expanded as Postmodernism, or The Cultural Logic of
Late Capitalism (1991). Eclectic in his methodology, Jameson has continued a sustained examination of the role that periodization
continues to play as a grounding assumption of critical methodologies in humanities disciplines. He has contributed extensive effort
to explicating the importance of concepts of Utopia and Utopianism as driving forces in the cultural and intellectual movements of
modernity, and outlining the political and existential uncertainties that may result from the decline or suspension of this trend in the
theorized state of postmodernity. Like Susan Sontag, Jameson served to introduce a wide audience of American readers to key figures
of the 20th century continental European intellectual left, particularly those associated with the Frankfurt School, structuralism, and
post-structuralism. Thus, his importance as a "translator" of their ideas to the common vocabularies of a variety of disciplines in the
Anglo-American academic complex is equally as important as his own critical engagement with them.

Douglas Kellner
In Analysis of the Journey, a journal birthed from postmodernism, Douglas Kellner insists that the "assumptions and procedures of
modern theory" must be forgotten. His terms defined in the depth of postmodernism are based on advancement, innovation, and
adaptation. Extensively, Kellner analyzes the terms of this theory in real-life experiences and examples. Kellner used science and
technology studies as a major part of his analysis; he urged that the theory is incomplete without it. The scale was larger than just
postmodernism alone; it must be interpreted through cultural studies where science and technology studies play a huge role. The
reality of the September 11 attacks on the United States of America is the catalyst for his explanation. This catalyst is used as a great
representation due to the mere fact of the planned ambush and destruction of "symbols of globalization", insinuating the World Trade
Center.

One of the numerous yet appropriate definitions of postmodernism and the qualm aspect aids this attribute to seem perfectly
accurate. In response, Kellner continues to examine the repercussions of understanding the effects of the September 11 attacks. He
questions if the attacks are only able to be understood in a limited form of postmodern theory due to the level of irony.[34] In further
studies, he enhances the idea of semiotics in alignment with the theory. Similar to the act of September 11 and the symbols that were
interpreted through this postmodern ideal, he continues to even describe this as "semiotic systems" that people use to make sense of
their lives and the events that occur in them. Kellner's adamancy that signs are necessary to understand one's culture is what he
analyzes from the evidence that most cultures have used signs in place of existence. Finally, he recognizes that many theorists of
postmodernism are trapped by their own cogitations. He finds strength in theorist Baudrillard and his idea of Marxism. Kellner
acknowledges Marxism's end and lack of importance to his theory
.

The conclusion he depicts is simple: postmodernism, as most use it today, will decide what experiences and signs in one's reality will
be one's reality as they know it.[35]

Influence on art

Architecture
The idea of Postmodernism in architecture began as a response to the perceived
blandness and failed Utopianism of the Modern movement. Modern Architecture, as
established and developed by Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier, was focused on the
pursuit of a perceived ideal perfection, and attempted harmony of form and
function,[36] and dismissal of "frivolous ornament,"[37][38] as well as arguing for an
architecture that represented the spirit of the age as depicted in cutting-edge
technology, be it airplanes, cars, ocean liners or even supposedly artless grain
silos.[39] Critics of modernism argued that the attributes of perfection and
minimalism themselves were subjective, and pointed out anachronisms in modern Neue Staatsgalerie (1977-84),
thought and questioned the benefits of its philosophy.[40] Definitive postmodern Stuttgart, Germany, by James
architecture such as the work of Michael Graves and Robert Venturi rejects the Stirling and Michael Wilford, showing
notion of a 'pure' form or 'perfect' architectonic detail, instead conspicuously the eclectic mix of classical
drawing from all methods, materials, forms and colors available to architects. architecture and colourful ironic
detailing.
Modernist Ludwig Mies van der Roheis associated with the phrase "less is more"; in
response Venturi famously said, "Less is a bore."
The intellectual scholarship regarding postmodernism and architecture is closely linked with the writings of critic-turned-architect
Charles Jencks, beginning with lectures in the early 1970s and his essay "The rise of post-modern architecture" from 1975.[41] His
magnum opus, however, is the book The Language of Post-Modern Architecture, first published in 1977, and since running to seven
editions. Jencks makes the point that Post-Modernism (like Modernism) varies for each field of art, and that for architecture it is not
just a reaction to Modernism but what he terms double coding: "Double Coding: the combination of Modern techniques with
something else (usually traditional building) in order for architecture to communicate with the public and a concerned minority,
usually other architects."[42] Furthermore, Post-Modern architects would for economic reasons be compelled to make use of
contemporary technology, hence distinguishing such architects from mere revivalists. Among the Post-Modern architects championed
by Jencks were Robert Venturi, Robert Stern, Charles Moore, Michael Graves, Leon Krier, and James Stirling.

Urban planning
Postmodernism is a rejection of 'totality', of the notion that planning could be 'comprehensive', widely applied regardless of context,
and rational. In this sense, Postmodernism is a rejection of its predecessor: Modernism. From the 1920s onwards, the Modern
movement sought to design and plan cities which followed the logic of the new model of industrial mass production; reverting to
large-scale solutions, aesthetic standardisation and prefabricated design solutions (Goodchild 1990). Postmodernism also brought a
break from the notion that planning and architecture could result in social reform, which was an integral dimension of the plans of
Modernism (Simonsen 1990). Furthermore, Modernism eroded urban living by its failure to recognise differences and aim towards
homogenous landscapes (Simonsen 1990, 57). Within Modernism, urban planning represented a 20th-century move towards
establishing something stable, structured, and rationalised within what had become a world of chaos, flux and change (Irving 1993,
475). The role of planners predating Postmodernism was one of the 'qualified professional' who believed they could find and
implement one single 'right way' of planning new urban establishments (Irving 1993). In fact, after 1945, urban planning became one
of the methods through which capitalism could be managed and the interests of developers and corporations could be administered
(Irving 1993, 479).

Considering Modernism inclined urban planning to treat buildings and developments as isolated, unrelated parts of the overall urban
ecosystems created fragmented, isolated, and homogeneous urban landscapes (Goodchild, 1990). One of the greater problems with
Modernist-style of planning was the disregard of resident or public opinion, which resulted in planning being forced upon the
majority by a minority consisting of affluent professionals with little to no knowledge of real 'urban' problems characteristic of post-
Second World War urban environments: slums, overcrowding, deterioratedinfrastructure, pollution and disease, among others (Irving
1993). These were precisely the 'urban ills' Modernism was meant to 'solve', but more often than not, the types of 'comprehensive',
'one size fits all' approaches to planning made things worse., and residents began to show interest in becoming involved in decisions
which had once been solely entrusted to professionals of the built environment. Advocacy planning and participatory models of
planning emerged in the 1960s to counter these traditional elitist and technocratic approaches to urban planning (Irving 1993; Hatuka
& D'Hooghe 2007). Furthermore, an assessment of the 'ills' of Modernism among planners during the 1960s, fuelled development of
a participatory model that aimed to expand the range of participants in urban interventions (Hatuka & D'Hooghe 2007, 21).

Jane Jacobs' 1961 book The Death and Life of Great American Cities was a sustained critique of urban planning as it had developed
within Modernism and marked a transition from modernity to postmodernity in thinking about urban planning (Irving 1993, 479).
However, the transition from Modernism to Postmodernism is often said to have happened at 3:32pm on 15 July in 1972, when Pruitt
Igoe; a housing development for low-income people in St. Louis designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki, which had been a prize-
winning version of Le Corbusier's 'machine for modern living' was deemed uninhabitable and was torn down (Irving 1993, 480).
Since then, Postmodernism has involved theories that embrace and aim to create diversity, and it exalts uncertainty, flexibility and
change (Hatuka & D'Hooghe 2007). Postmodern planning aims to accept pluralism and heighten awareness of social differences in
order to accept and bring to light the claims of minority and disadvantaged groups (Goodchild 1990). It is important to note that
urban planning discourse within Modernity and Postmodernity has developed in different contexts, even though they both grew
within a capitalist culture. Modernity was shaped by a capitalist ethic of Fordist-Keynesian paradigm of mass, standardized
production and consumption, while postmodernity was created out of a more flexible form of capital accumulation,
labor markets and
organisations (Irving 1993, 60). Also, there is a distinction between a postmodernism of 'reaction' and one of 'resistance'. A
postmodernism of 'reaction' rejects Modernism and seeks to return to the lost traditions and history in order to create a new cultural
synthesis, while Postmodernity of 'resistance' seeks to deconstruct Modernism and is a critique of the origins without necessarily
returning to them (Irving 1993, 60). As a result of Postmodernism, planners are much less inclined to lay a firm or steady claim to
there being one single 'right way' of engaging in urban planning and are more open to different styles and ideas of 'how to plan'
(Irving 474).[43][44][45][46]

Literature
Literary postmodernism was officially inaugurated in the United States with the first
issue of boundary 2, subtitled "Journal of Postmodern Literature and Culture",
which appeared in 1972. David Antin, Charles Olson, John Cage, and the Black
Mountain College school of poetry and the arts were integral figures in the
intellectual and artistic exposition of postmodernism at the time.[47] boundary 2
.[48]
remains an influential journal in postmodernist circles today

Jorge Luis Borges' (1939) short story Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote, is often
considered as predicting postmodernism[49] and conceiving the ideal of the ultimate
parody.[50] Samuel Beckett is sometimes seen as an important precursor and Orhan Pamuk, winner of the 2006
influence. Novelists who are commonly connected with postmodern literature Nobel Prize in Literature.
include Vladimir Nabokov, William Gaddis, Umberto Eco, John Hawkes, William
S. Burroughs, Giannina Braschi, Kurt Vonnegut, John Barth, Jean Rhys, Donald
Barthelme, E.L. Doctorow, Richard Kalich, Jerzy Kosinski, Don DeLillo, Thomas Pynchon[51] (Pynchon's work has also been
described as "high modern"[52] ), Ishmael Reed, Kathy Acker, Ana Lydia Vega, Jachym Topol and Paul Auster.

In 1971, the Arab-American scholar Ihab Hassan published The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature, an
early work of literary criticism from a postmodern perspective, in which the author traces the development of what he calls "literature
of silence" through Marquis de Sade, Franz Kafka, Ernest Hemingway, Beckett, and many others, including developments such as
the Theatre of the Absurd and the nouveau roman. In 'Postmodernist Fiction' (1987), Brian McHale details the shift from modernism
to postmodernism, arguing that the former is characterized by an epistemological dominant, and that postmodern works have
developed out of modernism and are primarily concerned with questions of ontology.[53] In Constructing Postmodernism (1992),
McHale's second book, he provides readings of postmodern fiction and of some of the contemporary writers who go under the label
of cyberpunk. McHale's "What Was Postmodernism?" (2007),[54] follows Raymond Federman's lead in now using the past tense
when discussing postmodernism.

Music
Postmodern music is either music of the postmodern era, or music that follows aesthetic and philosophical trends of postmodernism.
As the name suggests, the postmodernist movement formed partly in reaction to the ideals of the modernist. Because of this,
postmodern music is mostly defined in opposition to modernist music, and a work can either be modernist, or postmodern, but not
both. Jonathan Kramer posits the idea (following Umberto Eco and Jean-François Lyotard) that postmodernism (including musical
postmodernism) is less a surface style or historical period (i.e., condition) than an
attitude.

The postmodern impulse in classical music arose in the 1960s with the advent of musical minimalism. Composers such as Terry
Riley, Henryk Górecki, Bradley Joseph, John Adams, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Michael Nyman, and Lou Harrison reacted to the
perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively
consonant harmonies, whilst others, most notably John Cage challenged the prevailing narratives of beauty and objectivity common
to Modernism. Some composers have been openly influenced by popular music and world ethnic musical traditions.

Postmodern classical music as well is not a musical style, but rather refers to music of the postmodern era. It bears the same
relationship to postmodernist music that postmodernity bears to postmodernism. Postmodern music, on the other hand, shares
characteristics with postmodernist art—that is, art that comesafter and reacts against modernism.
Though representing a general return to certain notions of music-making that are
often considered to be classical or romantic, not all postmodern composers have
eschewed the experimentalist or academic tenets of modernism. The works of Dutch
composer Louis Andriessen, for example, exhibit experimentalist preoccupation that
is decidedly anti-romantic. Eclecticism and freedom of expression, in reaction to the
rigidity and aesthetic limitations of modernism, are the hallmarks of the postmodern
influence in musical composition.

Author on postmodernism, Dominic Strinati, has noted, it is also important "to

include in this category the so-called 'art rock' musical innovations and mixing of
styles associated with groups like Talking Heads, and performers like Laurie
Anderson, together with the self-conscious 'reinvention of disco' by the Pet Shop
Boys".[55]

Graphic design
Graphic design in the postmodern age brought forth ideas that challenged the orderly Composer Henryk Górecki.
feel of modernism. Graphic designers created works beginning in the 1970s without
any set adherence to rational order and formal organization. Designers began
experimenting with how shapes, forms and typography could react with one another
effectively and interestingly in a less rigid way even if the design was rendered
illegible. Some graphic design styles that emerged in the postmodernist era were
New Wave Typography, retro and vernacular design, playful design inspired by the
Italian Memphis Group, punk rock styles and explorative digital design from the late
1980's. Another characteristic of postmodern graphic design is that "retro, techno,
punk, grunge, beach, parody, and pastiche were all conspicuous trends. Each had its
own sites and venues, detractors and advocates".[56] April Greiman

Yet, while postmodern design did not consist of one unified graphic style, the
movement was an expressive and playful time for designers who searched for more and more ways to go against the system.
Postmodernism did not seek rules but only creative solutions and innovative ideas. The clean orderly grid-based designs of
International Typographic Style were interrupted for more exploration and innovation in color, composition, visual communication,
and typography. Key influential postmodern graphic designers include Wolfgang Weingart, April Greiman, Jayme Odgers, Tibor
Kalman, Dan Friedman, Paula Scher, Neville Brody, Michael Vanderbyl and Jamie Reid.

Criticisms
Criticisms of postmodernism are intellectually diverse, including the assertions that postmodernism is meaningless and promotes
obscurantism. For example, Noam Chomsky has argued that postmodernism is meaningless because it adds nothing to analytical or
empirical knowledge. He asks why postmodernist intellectuals do not respond like people in other fields when asked, "what are the
principles of their theories, on what evidence are they based, what do they explain that wasn't already obvious, etc.?...If [these
[57]
requests] can't be met, then I'd suggest recourse to Hume's advice in similar circumstances: 'to the flames'."

Christian philosopher William Lane Craig has noted "The idea that we live in a postmodern culture is a myth. In fact, a postmodern
culture is an impossibility; it would be utterly unliveable. People are not relativistic when it comes to matters of science, engineering,
and technology; rather, they are relativistic and pluralistic in matters of religion and ethics. But, of course, that's not postmodernism;
that's modernism!"[58]

Formal, academic critiques of postmodernism can also be found in works such as

Beyond the Hoax and Fashionable Nonsense.
However, as for continental philosophy, American academics have tended to label it "postmodernist", especially practitioners of
"French Theory". Such a trend might derive from U.S. departments of Comparative Literature.[59] It is interesting to note that Félix
Guattari, often considered a "postmodernist", rejected its theoretical assumptions by arguing that the structuralist and postmodernist
visions of the world were not flexible enough to seek explanations in psychological, social and environmental domains at the same
time.[60]

Analytic philosopher Daniel Dennett declared, "Postmodernism, the school of 'thought' that proclaimed 'There are no truths, only
interpretations' has largely played itself out in absurdity, but it has left behind a generation of academics in the humanities disabled by
their distrust of the very idea of truth and their disrespect for evidence, settling for 'conversations' in which nobody is wrong and
."[61]
nothing can be confirmed, only asserted with whatever style you can muster

Daniel A. Farber and Suzanna Sherry criticised Postmodernism for reducing the complexity of the modern world to an expression of
power and for undermining truth and reason: "If the modern era begins with the European Enlightenment, the postmodern era that
captivates the radical multiculturalists begins with its rejection. According to the new radicals, the Enlightenment-inspired ideas that
have previously structured our world, especially the legal and academic parts of it, are a fraud perpetrated and perpetuated by white
males to consolidate their own power. Those who disagree are not only blind but bigoted. The Enlightenment's goal of an objective
and reasoned basis for knowledge, merit, truth, justice, and the like is an impossibility: "objectivity," in the sense of standards of
judgment that transcend individual perspectives, does not exist. Reason is just another code word for the views of the privileged. The
Enlightenment itself merely replaced one socially constructed view of reality with another, mistaking power for knowledge. There is
naught but power."[62]

H. Sidky pointed out what he sees as several "inherent flaws" of a postmodern antiscience perspective, including the confusion of the
authority of science (evidence) with the scientist conveying the knowledge; its self-contradictory claim that all truths are relative; and
its strategic ambiguity. He sees 21st-century anti-scientific and pseudo-scientific approaches to knowledge, particularly in the United
States, as rooted in a postmodernist "decades-long academic assault on science:" "Many of those indoctrinated in postmodern anti-
science went on to become conservative political and religious leaders, policymakers, journalists, journal editors, judges, lawyers,
and members of city councils and school boards. Sadly [63]
, they forgot the lofty ideals of their teachers, except that science is bogus."

[64]
Jordan Peterson, a Canadian clinical psychologist and public intellectual, is also an outspoken critic of Postmodernism.

See also
Theory Politics

Critical theory Post-realism

Integral theory
Philosophy
Hyperreality
Transmodernism Epistemological nihilism
Culture and politics Religion
Defamiliarization Postmodern religion
Disenchantment
Sokal affair Opposed by
Syncretism
Altermodern
Remodernism
Remodernist film
Stuckism
References
1. "postmodernism: definition of postmodernism in Oxford dictionary (American English) (US)"
(http://www.oxforddiction
aries.com/us/definition/american_english/postmodernism). oxforddictionaries.com.
2. Ruth Reichl, Cook's November 1989;American Heritage Dictionary's definition of "postmodern"(http://www.bartleby.
com/61/26/P0472600.html)Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081209075319/http://www .bartleby.com/61/26/P
0472600.html) 9 December 2008 at theWayback Machine.
3. Mura, Andrea (2012). "The Symbolic Function of Transmodernity" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151008211951/htt
p://www.language-and-psychoanalysis.com/Mura%202012.pdf) (PDF). Language and Psychoanalysis. 1 (1): 68–87.
doi:10.7565/landp.2012.0005(https://doi.org/10.7565%2Flandp.2012.0005) . Archived from the original (https://www.l
anguage-and-psychoanalysis.com/Mura%202012.pdf)(PDF) on 8 October 2015.
4. Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 2004
5. Duignan, Brian. "Postmodernism" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/postmodernism-philosophy). Britannica.
Retrieved 24 April 2016.
6. Cf. Groys, Boris: The Total Art of Stalinism, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.
7. See Barth, John: “The Literature of Exhaustion.” The Atlantic Monthly, August 1967, pp. 29-34.
8. Cf., for example, Huyssen, Andreas:After the Great Divide. Modernism, Mass Culture, Postmodernism
.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986, p. 188.
9. See Hutcheon, Linda: A Poetics of Postmodernism. History, Theory, Fiction. New York: Routledge, 1988, pp. 3-21;
McHale, Brian: Postmodern Fiction, London: Methuen, 1987.
10. See Lyotard, Jean-François,The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge
, Minneapolis: University of
Minneapolis Press 1984
11. See Baudrillard, Jean: “Simulacra and Simulations.” In: Jean Baudrillard. Selected Writings. Stanford: Stanford
University Press 1988, pp. 166-184.
12. Jameson, Fredric: Postmodernism or, The Cultural Logic of LateCapitalism. Durham: Duke University Press 1991,
p. 16
13. Jameson, Fredric: Postmodernism or, The Cultural Logic of LateCapitalism. Durham: Duke University Press 1991,
pp. 26-27.
14. Potter, Garry and Lopez, Jose (eds.):After Postmodernism: An Introduction to Critical Realism
. London: The Athlone
Press 2001, p. 4.
15. Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1963). Structural Anthropology(I ed.). USA: New York: Basic Books. p. 324.
ISBN 046509516X.
Lévi-Strauss, quoting D'Arcy Westworth Thompson states: "To those who question the possibility of defining the
interrelations between entities whose nature is not completely understood, I shall reply with the following comment
by a great naturalist: In a very large part of morphology
, our essential task lies in the comparison of related forms
rather than in the precise definition of each; and the deformation of a complicated figure may be a phenomenon easy
of comprehension, though the figure itself has to be left unanalyzed and undefined."
16. Lévi-Strauss, Claude. Anthropologie Structurale. Paris: Éditions Plon, 1958.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude. Structural Anthropology. Trans. Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf (New York:
Basic Books, 1963), 228 (https://books.google.com/books?id=RmeUknlauJAC&lpg=PP1&ots=NJWcwczLL V&dq=Str
uctural%20Anthropology%20Basic%20Books&pg=P A228#v=onepage&q=Structural%20Anthropology%20Basic%20
Books&f=false).
17. "TRANS Nr. 11: Paul Michael Lützeler (St. Louis): From Postmodernism to Postcolonialism"(http://www.inst.at/trans/
11Nr/luetzeler11.htm). inst.at.
18. Yilmaz, K (2010). "Postmodernism and its Challenge to the Discipline of History: Implications for History Education".
Educational Philosophy & Theory. 42 (7): 779–795. doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.2009.00525.x(https://doi.org/10.1111%
2Fj.1469-5812.2009.00525.x).
19. Derrida (1967), Of Grammatology, Part II, Introduction to the "Age of Rousseau," section 2 "...That Dangerous
Supplement...", title, The Exorbitant Question of Method, pp. 158–59, 163.
20. Benoît Peeters, Derrida: A Biography, pp. 377–8, translated by Andrew Brown,Polity Press, 2013,
ISBN 9780745656151
21. " "Deconstructing Decontamination", LEONARDO, V
ol. 36, No. 4, pp. 285–290, 2003"(http://wearcam.org/decon2/de
con_leonardo_leon_36_4_285_0.pdf)(PDF).
22. "Postcyborg Ethics: A New Way to Speak of Technology", Heidi A. Campbell, in Campbell, Heidi A. "Postcyborg
Ethics: A New Way to Speak of Technology." Explorations in Media Ecology 5, no. 4, Hampton Press, Inc., 2006,
pp279-296
23. " "PanopDecon: deconstructing, decontaminating, and decontextualizing panopticism in the postcyborg era",
Surveillance & Society 1(3), pp375-398, 2003"(http://queens.scholarsportal.info/ojs/index.php/surveillance-and-soci
ety/article/viewFile/3346/3308).
24. Müller Schwarze, Nina 2015 The Blood of Victoriano Lorenzo: An Ethnography of the Cholos of Northern Coclé
Province. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Press.
25. Hassan, Ihab, The Postmodern Turn, Essays in PostmodernTheory and Culture, Ohio University Press, 1987. p.
12ff.
26. Thompson, J. M. "Post-Modernism,"The Hibbert Journal. Vol XII No. 4, July 1914. p. 733
27. Arnold J. Toynbee, A study of History, Volume 5 (https://books.google.com/books?id=QGQ9AQAAIAAJ&q=)
, Oxford
University Press, 1961 [1939], p. 43.
28. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2004
29. Drucker, Peter F. (1957). Landmarks of Tomorrow (http://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/30294/XX
_CNE-LIPSOR_1197.pdf.txt?sequence=3). New York: Harper Brothers. Retrieved 2 August 2015.
30. Bochner, Mel (2008). Solar System & Rest Rooms: Writings and Interviews 1965--2007
. USA: The MIT Press. p. 91.
ISBN 9780262026314.
31. Walter Truett Anderson (1996).The Fontana Postmodernism Reader.
32. Lyotard, Jean-François. The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Les Éditions de Minuit, 1979. English
Translation by Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi. Manchester University Press, 19 84. See Chapter 1, The
Field: Knowledge in Computerised Societies.(http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/lyotard.
htm)//
33. Luke, T. W. (1991). Power and politics in hyperreality: The critical project of Jean Baudrilla
rd. Social Science Journal,
28(3), 347.
34. Lule, Jack (2001). "The Postmodern Adventure (Book)".Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly. 78 (4): 865–
866.
35. Danto, AC (1990). "The Hyper-Intellectual".New Republic. 203 (11/12): 44–48.
36. Sullivan, Louis. "The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered," published Lippincott's Magazine (March 1896).
37. Loos, Adolf. "Ornament and Crime," published 1908.
38. Tafuri, Manfredo, 'Architecture and Utopia: Design and Capitalist Development', Cambridge: MIT Press, 1976.
39. Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture. Dover Publications, 1985/1921.
40. Venturi, et al.
41. Jencks, Charles, "The rise of Post-Modern architecture",Architecture Association Quarterly, No.4, 1975.
42. Jencks, Charles. "The Language of Post-Modern Architecture", Academy Editions, London 1974.
43. Goodchild, B 1990, 'Planning and the Modern'Postmodern Debate', in Theown
T Planning Review, vol. 61, no. 2,
pp. 119–137.
44. Hatuka, T & D'Hooghe, A 2007, 'After Postmodernism: readdressing the Role of Utopia in Urban Design and
Planning', in Places: Forum of Design for the Public Realm, vol. 19, Issue 2, pp. 20–27/
45. Irving, A 1993, 'The Modern/Postmodern Divide and Urban Planning', in The University oforonto
T Quareterly, vol.
62, no. 4, pp. 474–487.
46. Simonsen, K 1990, 'Planning on 'Postmodern' Conditions', in Acta Sociologica, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 51–62.
47. Anderson, The origins of postmodernity, London: Verso, 1998, Ch.2: "Crystallization".
48. boundary 2, Duke University Press,Boundary2.dukejournals.org(http://boundary2.dukejournals.org/)
49. Elizabeth Bellalouna, Michael L. LaBlanc, Ira Mark Milne (2000)Literature of Developing Nations for Students: L-Z(h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=CecJAQAAMAAJ)p.50
50. Stavans (1997) p.31 (https://books.google.com/books?id=Ro6a1EyaS2AC&pg=P
A31)
51. "7 – Pynchon's postmodernism Cambridge Companions Online – Cambridge University Press"
(http://universitypubli
shingonline.org/cambridge/companions/chapter .jsf?bid=CBO9781139019866&cid=CBO9781139019866A016) .
Universitypublishingonline.org. Retrieved 2013-04-04.
52. "Mail, Events, Screenings, News: 32"(http://people.bu.edu/rcarney/aboutrc/letters32.shtml)
. People.bu.edu.
Retrieved 2013-04-04.
53. McHale, B., Postmodernist Fiction (https://books.google.com/books?id=ec2HAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false)(Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge, 2003).
54. "What Was Postmodernism?" (http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/fictionspresent/tense). Electronic Book
Review. 2007-12-20. Retrieved 2013-04-04.
55. Strinati, Dominic (1995).An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture
. London: Routledge. p. 234.
56. Drucker, Johanna and Emily McVarish (2008). Graphic Design History. Pearson. pp. 305–306.ISBN 978-
0132410755.
57. "Noam Chomsky on Post-Modernism"(http://www.bactra.org/chomsky-on-postmodernism.html). bactra.org.
58. Craig, William Lane (July 3, 2008). "God is Not Dead Yet" (http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2008/july/13.22.html).
Christianity Today. Retrieved 30 April 2014.
59. "Italian Theory" (http://www.uninomade.org/italian-theory-english). UniNomade. 3 March 2013.
60. Guattari, Felix (1989). "The three ecologies" (http://www.amielandmelburn.org.uk/collections/newformations/08_131.
pdf) (PDF). New formations (8): 134.
61. DENNETT ON WIESELTIER V. PINKER IN THE NEW REPUBLIChttp://edge.org/conversation/dennett-on-
wieseltier-v-pinker-in-the-new-republic
62. Daniel Farber and Suzanne Sherry, Beyond All Reason The Radical Assault on Truth in American Law, New York
Times, https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/f/farber-reason.html
63. Sidky, H. (2018). "The War on Science, Anti-Intellectualism, and 'Alternative Ways of Knowing' in 21st-Century
America" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180606170145/https://www .csicop.org/si/show/e_war_on_science_anti-inte
llectualism_and_alternative_ways_of_knowing_in_21) . Skeptical Inquirer. 42 (2): 38–43. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
64. Jordan Peterson on an interview with Cathy Newman on Channel 4 News
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=aMcjxSThD54

Further reading
Alexie, Sherman (2000). "The Toughest Indian in the World" (ISBN 0-8021-3800-4)
Anderson, Walter Truett. The Truth about the Truth (New Consciousness Reader). New York: Tarcher. (1995)
(ISBN 0-87477-801-8)
Anderson, Perry. The origins of postmodernity. London: Verso, 1998.
Arena, Leonardo Vittorio (2015) On Nudity. An Introduction to Nonsense, Mimesis International.
Ashley, Richard and Walker, R. B. J. (1990) "Speaking the Language of Exile."International Studies Quarterlyv 34,
no 3 259-68.
Bauman, Zygmunt (2000) Liquid Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Beck, Ulrich (1986) Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity.
Benhabib, Seyla (1995) 'Feminism and Postmodernism' in (ed. Nicholson)
Feminism Contentions: A Philosophical
Exchange. New York: Routledge.
Berman, Marshall (1982)All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: The Experience of Modernity(ISBN 0-14-010962-5).
Bertens, Hans (1995) The Idea of the Postmodern: A History. London: Routledge. (ISBN 978-0-415-06012-7).
Best, Steven Best and Douglas Kellner. Postmodern Theory (1991) excerpt and text search
Best, Steven Best and Douglas Kellner. The Postmodern Turn (1997) excerpt and text search
Bielskis, Andrius (2005)Towards a Postmodern Understanding of thePolitical: From Genealogy to Hermeneutics
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
Braschi, Giannina (1994), Empire of Dreams, introduction by Alicia Ostriker
, Yale University Press, New Haven,
London.
Brass, Tom, Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism(London: Cass, 2000).
Butler, Judith (1995) 'Contingent Foundations' in (ed. Nicholson)Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange
.
New Yotk: Routledge.
Callinicos, Alex, Against Postmodernism: A Marxist Critique(Cambridge: Polity, 1999).
Drabble, M. The Oxford Companion to English Literature, 6 ed., article "Postmodernism".
Farrell, John. "Paranoia and Postmodernism," the epilogue toParanoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau
(Cornell UP, 2006), 309-327.
Featherstone, M. (1991) Consumer culture and postmodernism, London; Newbury Park, Calif., Sage Publications.
Giddens, Anthony (1991) Modernity and Self Identity, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Gosselin, Paul (2012) Flight From the Absolute: Cynical Observations on the Postmodern eWst. volume I. Samizdat
[1] (ISBN 978-2-9807774-3-1)
Goulimari, Pelagia (ed.) (2007) Postmodernism. What Moment? Manchester: Manchester University Press
(ISBN 978-0-7190-7308-3)
Grebowicz, Margaret (ed.),Gender After Lyotard. NY: Suny Press, 2007. (ISBN 978-0-7914-6956-9)
Greer, Robert C. Mapping Postmodernism. IL: Intervarsity Press, 2003. (ISBN 0-8308-2733-1)
Groothuis, Douglas. Truth Decay. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2000.
Harvey, David (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change
(ISBN 0-631-
16294-1)
Honderich, T., The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, article "Postmodernism".
Hutcheon, Linda. The Politics of Postmodernism.(2002) online edition
Jameson, Fredric (1991)Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of LateCapitalism (ISBN 0-8223-1090-2)
Mr. Keedy (1998). "Graphic Design in the Postmodern Era". Emigre (47).
Kimball, Roger (2000).Experiments against Reality: the Fate of Culture in the Postmodern Age
. Chicago: I.R. Dee.
viii, 359 p. (ISBN 1-56663-335-4)
Kirby, Alan (2009) Digimodernism. New York: Continuum.
Lash, S. (1990) The sociology of postmodernismLondon, Routledge.
Lucy, Niall. (2016) A dictionary of Postmodernism(ISBN 9781405150774)
Lyotard, Jean-François (1984)The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge(ISBN 0-8166-1173-4)
--- (1988). The Postmodern Explained: Correspondence 1982–1985
. Ed. Julian Pefanis and Morgan Thomas.
(ISBN 0-8166-2211-6)
--- (1993), "Scriptures: Diffracted Traces." In: Theory, Culture and Society, Vol. 21(1), 2004.
--- (1995), "Anamnesis: Of the Visible." In: Theory, Culture and Society, Vol. 21(1), 2004.
McHale, Brian, (1987)Postmodernist Fiction. London: Routledge.
--- (1992), Constructing Postmodernism. NY & London: Routledge.
--- (2008), "1966 Nervous Breakdown, or
, When Did Postmodernism Begin?"Modern Language Quarterly69, 3:391-
413.
--- (2007), "What Was Postmodernism?" electronic book review, [2]
MacIntyre, Alasdair, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (University of Notre Dame Press, 1984, 2nd edn.).
Magliola, Robert, Derrida on the Mend (Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 1984; 1986; pbk. 2000, ISBN I-55753-
205-2).
---, On Deconstructing Life-Worlds: Buddhism, Christianity
, Culture (Atlanta: Scholars Press of American Academy of
Religion, 1997; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000;ISBN 0-7885-0295-6, cloth, ISBN 0-7885-0296-4, pbk).
Manuel, Peter. "Music as Symbol, Music as Simulacrum: Pre-Modern, Modern, and Postmodern Aesthetics in
Subcultural Musics," Popular Music 1/2, 1995, pp. 227–239.
Philip B. Meggs; Alston W. Purvis (2011). "22". Meggs' History of Graphic Design(5 ed.). John Wiley & Sons,
Incorporated. ISBN 9780470168738.
Mura, Andrea (2012). "The Symbolic Function of Transmodernity" (PDF). Language and Psychoanalysis. 1 (1): 68–
87. doi:10.7565/landp.2012.0005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2015.
Murphy, Nancey, Anglo-American Postmodernity: Philosophical Perspectives on Science, Religion, and Ethics
(Westview Press, 1997).
Natoli, Joseph (1997) A Primer to Postmodernity(ISBN 1-57718-061-5)
Norris, Christopher (1990)What's Wrong with Postmodernism: Critical Theory and the Ends of Philosophy
(ISBN 0-
8018-4137-2)
 Pangle, Thomas L., The Ennobling of Democracy: The Challenge of the Postmodern Age
, Baltimore, The Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1991ISBN 0-8018-4635-8
Park, Jin Y., ed., Buddhisms and DeconstructionsLanham: Rowland & Littlefield, 2006,ISBN 978-0-7425-3418-6;
ISBN 0-7425-3418-9.
Pérez, Rolando. Ed. Agorapoetics: Poetics after Postmodernism. Aurora: The Davies Group, Publishers. 2017.
ISBN 978-1-934542-38-5.
Powell, Jim (1998). "Postmodernism For Beginners"ISBN
( 978-1-934389-09-6)
Sim, Stuart. (1999). "The Routledge critical dictionary of postmodern thought"ISBN
( 0415923530)
Sokal, Alan and Jean Bricmont (1998)Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Science(ISBN 0-
312-20407-8)
Vattimo, Gianni (1989). The Transparent Society (ISBN 0-8018-4528-9)
Veith Jr., Gene Edward (1994) Postmodern Times: A Christian Guide to Contemporary Thought and Culture
(ISBN 0-89107-768-5)
Windschuttle, Keith (1996) The Killing of History: How Literary Critics and Social Theorists are Murdering our Past.
New York: The Free Press.
Woods, Tim, Beginning Postmodernism,Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999,(Reprinted 2002)(
ISBN 0-
7190-5210-6 Hardback,ISBN 0-7190-5211-4 Paperback) .

External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on postmodernism
Discourses of Postmodernism. Multilingual Bibliography by Janusz Przychodzen (PDF file)
Modernity, postmodernism and the tradition of dissent, by Lloyd Spencer (1998)
Dueling Paradigms: Modernist v. Postmodernist Thought * Characterizing a Fogbank: What Is Postmodernism, and
Why Do I Take Such a Dim View of it?
Postmodernism and truthby philosopher Daniel Dennett
Postmodernism is the new black: How the shape of modern retailing was both predicted and influenced by some
unlikely seers (The Economist 19 December 2006)
permanent dead link] Gaining clarity: after postmodernism,permanent dead link] Eretz Acheret magazine

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Postmodernism&oldid=844717890

"

This page was last edited on 6 June 2018, at 17:34.

Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of theWikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.