Module 08-02 Basic Aerodynamics

AeroGATES: PART-66 courseware 08 – Basic aerodynamics
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 02- Aerodynamics

Level  1  2  3
Module 08-02
Basic Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics
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Level  1  2  3
Table of contents
I. AIRFLOW AROUND A BODY ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4

1. WIND TUNNEL: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
2. OBSERVATIONS: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1. Airflow around an unspecified body: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.2. Airflow around a plate and a sphere: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
2.3. Airflow around a frayed profile: ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
3. VARIOUS TYPES OF FLOW: ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
4. THEORETICAL ASPECTS:..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
4.1. Recall: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
4.2. Speed of sound: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
4.3. Conservation of the energy, Bernoulli’s equation: .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
4.4. Relation between mach number, static pressure and dynamic pressure: ...................................................................................................................... 16
4.5. Tapping of pressure: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
4.6. Indications on the control panel: ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
II. BOUNDARY LAYER, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW, FREE STREAM FLOW, RELATIVE AIRFLOW, UPWASH AND DOWNWASH,
VORTICES STAGNATION .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
1. THE BOUNDARY LAYER: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
1.1. The stagnation point: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
1.2. The transition point: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
1.3. The separation point: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
1.4. Formation of the boundary layer: .................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
2. LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW: .................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
2.1. Laminar flow:................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
2.2. Turbulent flow: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
3. FREE STREAM FLOW: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
4. RELATIVE AIRFLOW: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
5. UPWASH AND DOWNWASH: ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
6. VORTICE STAGNATION: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
III. THE TERMS: CAMBER, CHORD, MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD, PROFILE (PARASITE) DRAG, INDUCED DRAG, CENTRE OF PRESSURE,
ANGLE OF ATTACK, WASH IN AND WASH OUT, FINELESS RATION, WING SHAPE AND ASPECT RATIO ................................................................... 31
1. AEROFOIL: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 31
2. VARIOUS TYPES OF AEROFOILS: ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
3. GEOMETRICAL CHARACTERISTICS: .................................................................................................................................................................................. 33
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4. VARIOUS PLANFORMS: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 37
5. AVERAGE THICKNESS (LM): ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 38
6. ASPECT RATIO (AR): ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 38
7. CENTRE OF PRESSURE (CP): .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 39
7.1. The lift (L) and the weight (W):....................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
7.2. The drag (D) and the thrust (T): ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
8. EFFICIENCY RATIOS: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 41
9. PROFILE (PARASITE) DRAG, INDUCED DRAG AND TOTAL DRAG: ............................................................................................................................... 42
10. WING TWIST, ANGLE OF TWIST, WASHING AND WASHOUT: ....................................................................................................................................... 44
IV. THRUST, WEIGHT, AERODYNAMIC RESULTANT ............................................................................................................................................................. 48
V. GENERATION OF LIFT AND DRAG: ANGLE OF ATTACK, DRAG COEFFICIENT, POLAR CURVE, STALL. .............................................................. 51
1. AERODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY (F): ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 51
2. STALL: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
3. THE POLAR CURVE: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 55
VI. AIRFOIL CONTAMINATION INCLUDING ICE, SNOW AND FROST. ................................................................................................................................ 57
1. INTRODUCTION: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
2. CONDITIONS FOR ICING: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
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I. AIRFLOW AROUND A BODY
Aerodynamics is the study of the phenomena accompanying any movement between a body and a gas (in general air) which surrounds it.
The phenomena generated by the displacement of a body through air (case of the plane in flight) will be observed by the study of the air flow around a
motionless body (exposure of a superstructure to the wind or model to a wind tunnel).
1. WIND TUNNEL:
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The phenomena generated by the displacement of a body through air (case of the plane in flight) will be observed by the study of the air flow around a
motionless body (exposure of a superstructure to the wind or model to a wind tunnel).
Aircraft testing in a wind tunnel
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C.E.A.T. in Toulouse
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2. OBSERVATIONS:
2.1. Airflow around an unspecified body:
Let us place a body of random shape in an air flow and observe the reactions of the air in various areas around this body. The observation shows that
the flow is disturbed during approach, during the passage and does not stabilize itself just after the body.
The detail of the various areas crossed by the flow shows:
 In area 1:
Upstream the airflow is steady. The presence of the body does not have any influence on the airflows.
 In area 2:
The body disturbs the airflow; the direction and the speed of the airflow are modified. The airflows close to the body remain unchanged.
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 In area 3:
The air does not flow regularly any more (swirling area) while in contact with the body. Far from the body the airflow is not disturbed.
 In area 4:
Far downstream the trajectories of the air remain strongly disturbed. The airflow is not constant, the vortices are amplified. The presence of
the body is still being felt. The flow is turbulent.
The observation makes it possible to say that a body in a flow generates disturbances.
Let us change the shape of this body and observe the modifications within the flow.
2.2. Airflow around a plate and a sphere:

 A plate:
The observation shows that the fluid is the cause of various disturbances (turbulences and vortices). The surface of contact and the edges
of the plate obstruct the flow.
 A sphere:
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Let us now place a sphere in the flow in order to eliminate the edges and decrease the surface opposing the air flow. The swirling area
decreases, but the flow remains strongly disturbed.
2.3. Airflow around a frayed profile:

Let us change this geometrical shape by fraying the sphere. The disturbances downstream noticeably decrease as tapering increases. The airflows
follow a streamline path around the shape of the body. On the way we can observe an area where weak turbulences are present.
 In area 1:
The air flow is at a constant speed and without disturbance.
 In area 2:
The shape of the body modifies the flow, speed changes. Frictional force close to the body, between the air and surface, intensifies. This
phenomenon is called viscosity, the flow is known as laminar. The speed varies within the layers of air flow. In this area the pressure
undergoes variations.
 At stagnation point "A" the fluid is stopped by the aerofoil, the speed of the flow is zero: the measured total pressure is maximum.
 At "B", speed varies the static pressure changes in the opposite direction. Pressure sensors located at points "A" and "B" will be able to
provide us with indications.
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 In area 3:
The layer of air loses contact with the body, the airflow is destabilized, we observe turbulence. Speed is irregular, the pressure changes
greatly. This flow is known as turbulent or swirling.
 In area 4:
The disturbances persist in the wake of the aerofoil.
Conclusion:
A frayed profile modifies the air flow without bringing major modification even though the dominating properties for the movement of the fluid change.
A body present in an air flow modifies the properties and the regularity of the flow. The more it deviates from the body, the less the flow is disturbed.
The area is thus defined as an aerodynamic field. A wind tunnel study makes it possible to know the variations of the properties which will be
generated by a flying aircraft.
3. VARIOUS TYPES OF FLOW:

In the aerodynamic field the fluid behaves differently according to its speed. In order to define the various types of flows, we must introduce a significant
figure that is the speed of sound.
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In aerodynamics, the speed of sound (symbol “a”) and the Mach number (symbol “M”) make it possible to classify the various types of flows. The Mach is
the ratio between the speed of a body (symbol v”) and the speed of sound at a given altitude.
v
M=
a
Speed of sound: it is the speed at which sound waves travel. This propagation can be compared with the circular ripples that occur when a stone is thrown
into water.
Note:
When the sound source is stationary (zero speed), the waves are propagated in a concentric way and their intensity decreases as the
distance from the source increases.
During the displacement of a body through air we can distinguish three cases:
 The speed of the plane is lower than the speed of sound: the flow is subsonic, M < 1.
 The speed of the plane is higher than the speed of sound: the flow is supersonic, M > 1.
 The speed of the plane is equal to the speed of sound: the flow is sonic M = 1.
4. THEORETICAL ASPECTS:
4.1. Recall:
 Viscosity and Reynolds number:
v× l× ρ
Re =
μ
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Where:
Re : Reynolds number,
v: Speed of airflow,
l: Length of the cord of reference,
: Density,
: Dynamic viscosity.
4.2. Speed of sound:
dP
a=  a= γ×r ×T
dρ
Where:
a: Speed of sound,
P: Pressure,
: Density,
: Constant
r: constant mass of ideal gas,
T: Temperature
For air  = 1.4 and r = 287 joules per Kelvin
a = 20,05 × T
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4.3. Conservation of the energy, Bernoulli’s equation:
 Conservation of mass flow (equation of continuity):

In a constant flow of fluid, the number of molecules crossing the inlet section (1) is identical to that crossing the outlet section (2).
ρ 1S 1 v 1 = ρ 2 S 2 v 2 .
ρSv  Const.
After differentiating, we obtain:
dρ dS dv
  0
ρ S v
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Note: If the fluid is not compressible,
dρ dS dv dS dv
= + = 0  =- , if the cross section increases, the speed decreases.
ρ S v S v
 Conservation of energy:
ΔET =  Forces
1 1
(mgh2 + mv 22 ) - (mgh1 + mv12 ) = P1V1-P2 V2
2 2
1 1
(P2 + ρ2v 22 + ρ2gh2 ) = (P1 + ρ1v 22 + ρ1gh1 )
2 2
1 2
P+ ρv + ρgh = Const. = PT = Total pressure
2
1 2
P+ ρv + ρgh = Const. = PT = Total pressure
2
P is the static pressure,
1 2
ρv is the kinetic (dynamic) pressure,
2
ρgh is the potential pressure.
After differentiating, we obtain:
dP
+ vdv + gdh = 0
ρ
 Huguenot’s theorem:
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dP
Bernoulli’s equation : + vdv + gdh = 0
ρ
dP dρ 1
Speed of sound equation : a2    2
dρ dP a
dρ dρ dρ dP
The term: can be written:  
ρ ρ dP ρ
dP
By substituting the term in Bernoulli’s equation
ρ
dρ dρ dP
We obtain  
ρ dP ρ
dρ dρ
   (  v  dv )
ρ dP
dρ 1
  2  (  v  dv )
ρ a
dρ
Now in the equation of continuity, if we substitute the term , we obtain:
ρ
dS dv 1 dS dv  v  dv  dS dv
  2  (  v  dv)  0   ( )   2
   ( ) (M2  1)
S v a S v  a  S v
We can thus explain the various types of flow: subsonic and supersonic.
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 Subsonic flow:
In a subsonic flow M < 1 the term (M2  1) is negative thus (dS) and (dv) have opposite signs as in an incompressible flow.
 Supersonic flow:
2
In a supersonic flow M > 1 the term (M  1) is negative thus (dS) and (dv) have same signs. It can be deduced that if the cross-section
area increases speed increases, and if the cross-section area decreases speed decreases.
4.4. Relation between mach number, static pressure and dynamic pressure:
1 2
Consider the dynamic pressure = Pd = ρv
2
where v 2  M2a2,and
P
a2 = γ × s
ρ
1 1 P 1
Then Pd = ρM2a 2  ρM2 (γ × s )  M2 (γ × Ps )
2 2 ρ 2
with  = 1.4
1 Dynamic Pressure
M2  
0.7 Static Pressure
We thus have a definition of speed relative to the pressures on the aerofoil and the type of flow.
4.5. Tapping of pressure:

In order to be precise, the tapping of pressure is carried out by using various sensors located on the aircraft in places where the flow of air is
undisturbed. These are the various types of sensors:
These sensors are located at various places on the aircraft in order to limit the effects of the disturbances, which would affect the accuracy of the
measured static pressure.
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These static pressure taps feed specific instruments. To visualize additional information concerning the parameters of the flight, tapping of static
pressure and total pressure are necessary.
 Pitot tubes :
The total and static pressures are tapped using these tubes. These parameters will be used as references by the instruments controlling the
flight of the aircraft.
Pitot tube
The Pitot tube is used on various aircrafts. It uses the total and static pressures to feed for example: an airspeed indicator.
The Pitot static tube or simple Pitot consists of a total pressure tap. Certain indicators will combine this information with that of a Pitot static
tube to indicate for example the speed of the aircraft on an airspeed indicator.
4.6. Indications on the control panel:

 The altimeter:
This indicator functions with a static pressure tap, and indicates to the pilot his altitude with respect to the standard pressure at sea level: it
indicates altitude, which is a critical element for the safety of the flight.
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Altimeter
 The airspeed indicator and the machmeter:
These two instruments function by tapping static and total pressure, they make it possible to give an indication on the speed of the plane
and on the instantaneous value of the Mach number.
When approaching the speed of sound, the airspeed indicator becomes too sensitive. That is why it is used only for low speeds. The
machmeter provides an instantaneous value of the Mach number and is used for high speeds.
 The vertical speed indicator
This indicator functions with a static pressure tap and provides an indication for the vertical speed. It indicates the rate of climb or descent of
the aircraft.
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II. BOUNDARY LAYER, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW, FREE STREAM FLOW, RELATIVE AIRFLOW, UPWASH
AND DOWNWASH, VORTICES STAGNATION
We studied the air when it is at rest and when it is moving. From the results, some assumptions were made in order to obtain measurements for the altitude
and speed. We will have a closer look at the behavior of the flow now.
1. THE BOUNDARY LAYER:

The friction of the air on the walls of a body around which it circulates slows down the flow within a thin layer adhering to the walls. This layer is known as
"boundary layer “.
The existence of the boundary layer is due to the viscosity of the air, which is not an ideal gas. During the flow, some molecules of air travel on the
upper surface and others on the lower surface of the body and the following paths are obtained delimited by:
 The stagnation point (S),
 The transition point (T),
 The separation point (D).
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1.1. The stagnation point:
The boundary layer exists as soon as there is a flow. It begins at the stagnation point "A" on the upper surface as well as on the lower surface and the
flow is initially laminar. In the stagnation point the total pressure is exerted. It is a high pressure area.
1.2. The transition point:

Then at a point “T” called the “transition point”, the flow becomes turbulent. The boundary layers from the upper and lower surface meet at the trailing
edge and form the wake.
1.3. The separation point:

As from the transition point T the flow undergoes changes; the airflows are not parallel any more, and flow in a disordered manner. This change
corresponds to a small increase in thickness of the boundary layer. Turbulent flow thus starts from the transition point to the separation point “D”.
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The existence of the boundary layer was discovered by noting that fine dust which was on the wings of a plane did not disappear in flight or rain drops
move slowly on the walls of the airframe.
1.4. Formation of the boundary layer:

The boundary layer starts from the stagnation point to the trailing edge with a variation in thickness of about a few millimetres to a few centimetres. In
this thin layer, very significant forces of viscosity are present as well as large speed variations when moving away perpendicularly from the skin.
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Conventionally the boundary layer thickness is defined by the distance on the wall from which the rate of flow is equal to v = 0.99 v0 (v0 being the
infinite speed at the normal of the skin).
2. LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW:

2.1. Laminar flow:
The initial flow of the boundary layer is laminar it is located between the stagnation point and the transition point. Within the boundary layer the airflows
are parallel and slide over one another.
If we look at the flight path vectors of a laminar layer we see that they go from a value equal to zero to a value close to the rate of flow. All these
vectors are parallel to one another.
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2.2. Turbulent flow:
As from the transition point T the flow undergoes changes; the airflows are not parallel any more, and flow in a disordered manner. This change
corresponds to a small increase in thickness of the boundary layer. Turbulent flow thus starts from the transition point to the separation point “D”.
At the separation point the boundary starts to detach, the particles close to the skin have their movement reversed thus causing the formation of
vortices (resulting in a significant increase in drag).
3. FREE STREAM FLOW:

A flow is considered to be steady if its properties in each point do not change with time.
Let us consider an ideal fluid:
If the molecules of the fluid do not exert any friction between them or the skin of the body, i.e there is a complete absence of friction and that the volume of
the fluid, independent of its size, is not affected in its movement, the flow is considered to be steady. Change in the flow with respect to time:
The pressure P and speed v at the same point vary continuously in a disorderly manner. The flow is "unsteady ".
These types of flow in aerodynamics will be avoided. They give rise to energy dissipations (vortices). Generally, a particle can have 3 types of movement:
rotation, translation and deformation
When there is no rotational movement of the particles, it is said that the flow is laminar. When there is rotation of the fluid particles, it is said that there is a
vortex.
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4. RELATIVE AIRFLOW:
Relative airflow is a term used to describe the direction of the airflow with respect to the wing.
In other texts, it is sometimes called relative wind. If a wing is moving forward and downward, the relative airflow is upward and backward. If the wing is
moving forward horizontally, the relative airflow moves backward horizontally.
The flight path and the relative airflow are, therefore, always parallel but travel in opposite directions.
Relative airflow is created by the motion of the airplane through the air.
It is also created by the motion of air past a stationary body or by a combination of both. Therefore, on a take-off roll, an airplane is subject to the relative
airflow created by its motion along the ground and also by the moving mass of air (wind).
In flight, however, only the motion of the airplane produces a relative airflow. The direction and speed of the wind have no effect on relative airflow.
5. UPWASH AND DOWNWASH:

Knowing the potential speeds, speed can be calculated in magnitude and direction, at all external points of the aerofoil. Vortices are formed when the
boundary layer separates from the aerofoil.
These vortices cause a change in speed in the flow known as designated speed " ".
Aerodynamic deflection at a point is the angle " " formed by the rate of the flow with infinite upstream speed.
 Wing tip vortices:

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Wingtip vortices are tubes of circulating air which are left behind by the wing as it generates lift. One wingtip vortex trails from the tip of
each wing. The cores of vortices spin at very high speed and they are regions of very low pressure. The cores of wingtip vortices are
sometimes visible due to condensation of water vapour in the very low pressure.
Wingtip vortices are associated with induced drag, an essentially unavoidable side-effect of the wing generating lift. Managing induced drag
and wingtip vortices by selecting the best wing planform for the mission is critically important in aerospace engineering.
Wingtip vortices form the major component of wake turbulence.
 Upwash and downwash:
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If an airfoil's vortex produces downwash, somewhere else the airframe must also produce a similar amount of upwash, in "stable flight" this
occurs approximately within the airframe surface envelope; it can also occur outside of the airframe envelope under special circumstances.
The term upwash is used to refer to regions around an aircraft or airfoil where the air is moving in the opposite direction to downwash.
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The wingtip vortices induce an upwash outside the wingspan of an aircraft or airfoil balancing downwash produced by upper wing surfaces.
Migratory birds make use of this upwash when they fly in a V formation.
Upwash is particularly important in the case of a canard aeroplane because the upwash from the canard increases the angle of attack on the
outboard ends of the wing, promoting wing tip stall. This must be avoided by suitable precautions in the design of the wing to ensure
separation of the flow over the wing commences close to the wing root, and the ailerons remain functional.
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As the air approaches the wing it is given an upward component of velocity and this is described as upwash, in contrast to downwash as
theair leaves the wing. This upwash and downwash can be considered a consequence of the bound vortex in the wing, causing lift.
6. VORTICE STAGNATION:
The vortex is a phenomenon due to hollow swirls. The appearance of vortices on a body generates drag. The vortices are disturbing demonstrations of the
flow, but are generated by the latter.
Factors affecting the creation of vortices are:
 The friction of the particles of fluid on the skin,
 the surface quality of the skin,
 the edges of the aerofoils.
Figure below represents the junction between the upper surface and the lower surface.
The difference in speed or in pressure between two airflows will cause disturbances; those will increase and vortices will be formed.
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As soon as the vortices appear, they intensify, creating a zone of disturbance after the profile, called a wake. The wake is delimited by the layers of
discontinuity resulting from a body in a flow.
In the boundary layer, after separation point " D " the particles close to the skin have their movement reversed resulting in the formation of swirls.
As the swirls are at the origin of the vortex the risks of appearances of this phenomenon are numerous on the aerofoil. The maintenance of a perfect surface
quality of the aerofoil avoids or delays the appearance of the vortex. The appearance of vortices can be used during the flight to allow certain manoeuvres or
for the stability of the aircraft.
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III. THE TERMS: CAMBER, CHORD, MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD, PROFILE (PARASITE) DRAG, INDUCED DRAG,
CENTRE OF PRESSURE, ANGLE OF ATTACK, WASH IN AND WASH OUT, FINELESS RATION, WING SHAPE AND
ASPECT RATIO
It is from a section of a wing that we will be able to define most of the terminology relating to the aerodynamic operation of an aircraft.
1. AEROFOIL:
From a detailed point of view, these various aerofoil sections can be imagined perfectly as being the various ribs which, once assembled, will constitute the
wing of the aircraft.
The four main areas of an aerofoil are:
 the forward part called leading edge,
 the rear part called trailing edge,
 the upper surface, and
 the lower surface.
To characterise an aerofoil, it will be necessary to define its chord line (CL) and its mean camber line (MC).
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 Chord line:
This is the line which joins the middle of the leading edge to the trailing edge.
 Mean aerodynamic chord (or camber line):
Located inside the aerofoil between the leading edge and the trailing edge, it passes through all the equidistant points between the upper
surface and the lower surface.
 Thickness:
This is the distance on the cross-section of an aerofoil perpendicular to the chord line, ranging between A and B.
The position of the mean camber line compared to the chord line characterises the shape of this aerofoil.
It is in terms of curvature that we will observe the principle types of aerofoil.
Curvature, which is also known as camber, defines the shape of an aerofoil. It will be of great importance to the aerodynamic performance of
the aircraft.
2. VARIOUS TYPES OF AEROFOILS:

 Symmetrical biconvex aerofoil:
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The convex lower surface and upper surface are symmetrical compared to their twist shape. The camber line and the chord line coincide.
 Asymmetrical biconvex aerofoil:
The curve of the upper surface is more accentuated than that of the lower surface.
 Hollow shape:
The upper surface is convex and the lower surface is concave.
 S-curve aerofoil:
Mean camber line cuts the chord line.
 Thin aerofoil:
Thin aerofoil, symmetrical biconvex, sharp leading edge.
3. GEOMETRICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Let us consider an asymmetrical biconvex aerofoil, and define the main geometrical characteristics.
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 The angle of attack (AOA):

It is the angle formed between the chord line and the direction of the relative wind denoted by V. It is indicated by the letter .
In Figure, the black lines represent the flow of the wind. The wing is shown end on. The angle α is the angle of attack.
Angle of attack, α, Greek letter alpha) is a term used in aerodynamics to describe the angle between the chord line of an airfoil and the
vector representing the relative motion between the airfoil and the air. It can be described as the angle between where the chord line of the
airfoil is pointing and where the airfoil is going.
Angle of attack is used to describe the angle between the chord line of the wing of a fixed-wing aircraft and the vector representing the
relative motion between the aircraft and the atmosphere.
The angle of attack is often confused with the pitch angle or body angle of an aircraft. Pitch angle and body angle are measured with respect
to the horizon; whereas the angle of attack is measured with respect to the relative motion between the wing and the atmosphere.
 The angle of incidence (angle of setting):

Denoted by , this is the angle formed by the chord line and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. It is generally about two to three degrees. It
can vary all along the wing if the wing is twisted during construction.
08 - 02- 34
Level  1  2  3
 Surface area (S):

Also called wing surface area and expressed in square metres, this is the surface projected on a horizontal plane of the two wings and part
of the fuselage ranging between these two wings.
It is this surface S which will form part of the flight equations of the aircraft.
 Span (B):
This is the length from the wing tip to the other wing tip. It is expressed in metres.
08 - 02- 35
Level  1  2  3
As we can observe, the surface area S defines a geometrical figure known as wing form or planform.
According to the type of aircraft, there are various planforms.
08 - 02- 36
Level  1  2  3
4. VARIOUS PLANFORMS:
08 - 02- 37
Level  1  2  3
5. AVERAGE THICKNESS (LM):
Since the thickness of an aerofoil is larger at the root than at the tip, we determine the average thickness of a wing by carrying out the ratio of its surface
area to its wing span.
2
lm(m) = S (m )
B (m)
6. ASPECT RATIO (AR):
This dimensionless ratio plays a significant role in the aerodynamic study of the wing. It is the ratio of the square of the wing span (S) to the surface area of
the wing.
(Span)2 S2 (m2 )
AR = =
Wing area A (m2 )
Aspect ratio and planform are powerful indicators of the general performance of a wing, although the aspect ratio as such is only a secondary indicator. The
interaction between undisturbed air outside the cylindrical tube of air, and the downward-moving cylindrical tube of air occurs at the wing's tips, and can be
seen as wingtip vortices.
There are several reasons why all aircraft do not have high aspect wings:
 Structural: A long wing has higher bending stress for a given load than a short one, which requires stronger structure to withstand.
Also, longer wings have greater deflection for a given load, and in some applications this deflection is undesirable (e.g. if the
deflected wing interferes with aileron movement).
 Maneuverability: a high aspect ratio wing will have a lower roll rate than one of low aspect ratio, because in a high aspect ratio
wing, an equal amount of wing movement due to aileron deflection (at the aileron) will result in less rolling action on the fuselage
due to the greater length between the aileron and the fuselage.
A higher aspect ratio wing will also have a higher moment of inertia to overcome. Due to the lower roll rates, high aspect ratio wings
are usually not used on fighter aircraft.
 Practicality: low aspect ratios have a greater useful internal volume, since the maximum thickness is greater, which can be used to
house the fuel tanks, retractable landing gear and other systems.
08 - 02- 38
Level  1  2  3
7. CENTRE OF PRESSURE (CP):
The centre of pressure is the point of application of weight of the aircraft, the thrust of engines and the aerodynamic resultant. Located on the chord line, the
position of the centre of pressure changes according to the variations of the angle of attack. This phenomenon plays a determining role in the stability of the
wing and the aircraft.
We know that on an aerofoil an aerodynamic load exists called resultant (R), which is able to raise an aircraft of a considerable mass. If we break up this
aerodynamic resultant from a reference mark having its origin as the center of pressure, we note that it characterises two essential forces called:
 Lift L, and
 Drag D.
08 - 02- 39
Level  1  2  3
7.1. The lift (L) and the weight (W):
Always perpendicular to the direction of the relative wind (V), the lift opposes the weight of the aircraft. The lift depends directly on the density of air
(Z), the speed of the aircraft (velocity of the relative wind) and of its surface area (S).
The lift depends on another parameter called coefficient of lift noted CL which characterises the angle of attack, the shape and the surface quality of
the wing.
Mathematically, lift (in N) is written:
1
L = CL . . ρZ . v 2 . S
2
At equilibrium (horizontal trajectory):
1
mg = L = CL . . ρZ . v 2 . S
2
08 - 02- 40
Level  1  2  3
7.2. The drag (D) and the thrust (T):

Always parallel to the relative wind (V), drag will oppose the pulling force of the propellers engines or the thrust of the turbine engines.
The drag will depend on the same parameters that we defined previously for lift except that only the last parameter evoked in the formula will bear
the name of coefficient of drag and will be denoted (CD).
Mathematically, the drag is written:
1
D= CD . ρZ . v 2 . S
2
At equilibrium (horizontal flight and constant velocity):
1
T=D= CD . ρZ . v 2 . S
2
8. EFFICIENCY RATIOS:
The characteristics of a wing of an aircraft is identified by its aspect ratio (λ) which influences the aerodynamic output of the aerofoil, represented by the
aerodynamic efficiency of the wing.
08 - 02- 41
Level  1  2  3
 Aerodynamic efficiency of wing (F):

It is the ratio of the lift to drag or by simplification the L/D ratio,
L
F=
D
The aerodynamic efficiency characterises the " aerodynamic output ".
It is maximum for a certain angle of attack called " optimal angle of attack ".
Based on a height of 1 km while planning, an aircraft with aerodynamic efficiency equal to 10 will travel 10 km.
The comparison between the aerodynamic efficiency of an ATR42 and that of a sailplane shows the difference in aerodynamic output.
B2
Considering the definition of aspect ratio λ =
S
It is confirmed that the properties of span and surface area are the main factors considered for the qualities of the aerodynamic efficiency of
the wing.
Maximum aerodynamic efficiency is obtained with an optimal angle of attack for maximum lift drag ratio.
The more the angle of attack increases, the more the aerodynamic output decreases. The performance of the aerofoil will decrease at an
angle of attack of about 17°.
From this critical value, a harmful phenomenon is observed on the wing of the aircraft and is known as stall.
9. PROFILE (PARASITE) DRAG, INDUCED DRAG AND TOTAL DRAG:

Drag is simply force that opposes the motion of an aircraft through the air. However it does have separate components that comprise it.
 Profile drag (also called parasite or form drag) is drag caused by moving a solid object through a fluid. Parasitic drag is made up of many
components, the most prominent being form drag. Skin friction and interference drag are also major components of profile drag.
Profile drag, arises because of the form of the object. The general size and shape of the body is the most important factor in form drag,
bodies with a larger apparent cross-section will have a higher drag than thinner bodies. Form drag follows the drag equation, meaning that it
rises with the square of speed, and thus becomes more important for high speed aircraft.
08 - 02- 42
Level  1  2  3
It depends on the longitudinal section of the body. A diligent choice of body profile is more than essential for low drag coefficient.
Streamlines should be continuous and separation of the boundary layer with its attendant vortices should be avoided.
 Induced drag is the drag incurred as a result of production of lift. Higher angles of attack which produce more lift also produce increased
induced drag. In rotary-wing aircraft, induced drag decreases with increased aircraft airspeed. The induced drag is the portion of the Total
Aerodynamic Force which is oriented in the direction opposing the movement of the airfoil.
Induced drag tends to be greater at lower speeds because a high angle of attack is required to maintain lift, creating more drag. However, as
speed increases the induced drag becomes much less, but parasitic drag increases because the fluid is flowing faster around protruding
objects increasing friction or drag.
 Total Drag produced by an aircraft is the sum of the profile drag and induced drag.
Total drag is primarily a function of airspeed. The airspeed that produces the lowest total drag normally determines the aircraft best-rate-of-
climb speed, minimum rate-of-descent speed for autorotation, and maximum endurance speed.
Remark: Induced drag can be minimized by the following means:
 Increase the wing span. The effect of the wingtip vortices is greatest near the wing tips. With increased wingspan a lesser portion
of the wing is in the most affected region. Increasing span with no other change would increase wing area. In practice, the wing area
is kept constant by increasing the aspect ratio rather than the span.
 Optimise the spanwise load distribution. If the lift is diminished towards the wingtips there is less pressure differential near the
wingtips to create wingtip vortices.
 Minimum induced drag is achieved when the spanwise lift distribution is elliptical. The parameter with greatest effect on lift
distribution is the wing planform. Thus, a wing with elliptical planform would have low induced drag. Few aircraft have this planform
because of manufacturing complications.
08 - 02- 43
Level  1  2  3
10. WING TWIST, ANGLE OF TWIST, WASHING AND WASHOUT:

Figures show a side view of the wing to illustrate the angle of twist.
 Washout:
Wings which are twisted so that the wing tip airfoil is at a lower angle of attack than the wing root airfoil are said to have washout.
08 - 02- 44
Level  1  2  3
Washout phenomena
The wing is designed so that lift is strongest at the wing roots and decreases across the span, becoming weakest at the wing tip. This is
usually to ensure that, at the stall, the wing root stalls before the wing tips, providing the aircraft with some resistance to spinning.
Washout may also be used to modify the spanwise lift distribution to reduce lift-induced drag.
Washout is commonly achieved by designing the wing with a slight twist, reducing the angle of incidence from root to tip, and therefore
causing a lower angle of attack at the tips than at the roots. This is sometimes referred to as structural washout, to distinguish it from
aerodynamic washout.
Wingtip stall is unlikely to occur symmetrically, especially if the aircraft is manoeuvring. As an aircraft turns, the wing tip on the inside of the
turn is moving more slowly and is most likely to stall. As an aircraft rolls, the down-going wing tip is at higher incidence and is most likely to
stall. When one wing tip stalls it leads to wing drop, a rapid rolling motion.
Also, roll control may be reduced if the airflow over the ailerons is disrupted by the stall, reducing their effectiveness. Thus, a pilot may be
unable to maintain control, perhaps leading to an unrecoverable spin.
08 - 02- 45
Level  1  2  3
On aircraft with swept wings, wing tip stall also produces an undesirable nose-up pitching moment which hampers recovery from the stall.
Washout may be accomplished by other means e.g. modified aerofoil section, vortex generators, leading edge wing fences, notches, or stall
strips. This is referred to as aerodynamic washout. Its purpose is to tailor the spanwise lift distribution or reduce the probability of wing tip
stall.
 Washin:
Wing twist in the opposite sense from washout is washin.
Wing twist of this sort is also called geometric twist. An effective twist of the wing can also be achieved by changing the airfoil shape along
the wing span.
If the airfoil at the wingtip has less camber than the airfoil at the root, this has much the same affect on the wing lift as if the airfoils were the
same but the wingtip airfoil was at a lower angle of attack than the root.
Changing airfoils along the wing span in this way is called aerodynamic twist.
08 - 02- 46
Level  1  2  3
Washin phenomena
08 - 02- 47
Level  1  2  3
IV. THRUST, WEIGHT, AERODYNAMIC RESULTANT
The terms which we have just defined help to observe the geometrical characteristics. From a purely aerodynamic point of view, the terminology which
follows reveals the various principle forces observed on an aerofoil.
If you are in a car with the windows pulled down you might put your arm outside and place your hand in the air flow. In a simple rotation of the wrist, your
hand is suddenly attracted upwards and backwards by a force.
 Drag and trust:

Always parallel to the relative wind (V), drag will oppose the pulling force of the propellers engines or the thrust of the turbine engines.
08 - 02- 48
Level  1  2  3
 Lift and weight:

Always perpendicular to the direction of the relative wind (V), the lift opposes the weight of the aircraft.
 Center of pressure:
This is the point of application of the aerodynamic resultant
 Aerodynamic resultant:
This force which we find on the aerofoil of an aircraft acts in the same way and is known as: aerodynamic resultant.
The aerodynamic resultant is the sum of the forces of low pressure and high pressure observed on an aerofoil in an air flow.
This resultant which pulls the body upwards acts from a point on the chord line, known as center of pressure (CP).
When the angle of attack increases, the drag increases and the centre of pressure moves to the leading edge of the wing.
08 - 02- 49
Level  1  2  3
There are several important problems to consider when determining the center of pressure for an airfoil.
As we change angle of attack, the pressure at every point on the airfoil changes.
And, therefore, the location of the center of pressure changes as well. The movement of the center of pressure caused a major problem for
early airfoil designers because the amount (and sometimes the direction) of the movement was different for different designs. In general, the
pressure variation around the airfoil also imparts a torque, or "twisting force", to the airfoil. If a flying airfoil is not restrained in some way it
will flip as it moves through the air.
08 - 02- 50
Level  1  2  3
V. GENERATION OF LIFT AND DRAG: ANGLE OF ATTACK, DRAG COEFFICIENT, POLAR CURVE, STALL.
1. AERODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY (F):

The characteristics of a wing of an aircraft are identified by its aspect ratio (λ) which influences the aerodynamic output of the aerofoil, represented by the
aerodynamic efficiency of the wing. This is the ratio of the lift to drag or simply the L/D ratio,
L
F=
D
The aerodynamic efficiency characterises the "aerodynamic output ". It is maximum for a certain angle of attack called "optimal angle of attack ".
Based on a height of 1 km while planning, an aircraft with aerodynamic efficiency equal to 10 will travel 10 km.
The comparison carried out on figure between the aerodynamic efficiency of an Sukkoi Jet 100 and that of a glider shows the difference in aerodynamic
output.
08 - 02- 51
Level  1  2  3
Considering the definition of aspect ratio:
B2
λ=
S
It is confirmed that the properties of span and surface area are the main factors
considered for the qualities of the aerodynamic efficiency of the wing.
Maximum aerodynamic efficiency is obtained with an optimal angle of attack for
maximum lift drag ratio. When the angle of attack increases, the aerodynamic
output decreases. The performance of the aerofoil will decrease at an angle of
attack of about 17°.
From this critical value, a harmful phenomenon is observed on the wing of the
aircraft and is known as stall.
2. STALL:
The general description of an aircraft subjected to stalling characterizes the
evolution of the aircraft towards the critical angle of attack, which results in a
reduction in lift.
In aerodynamics, stall begins inside the boundary layer where the recirculating
region is more commonly known as separation point.
It is noted that behind this recirculating region, the airflows do not have any
more energy to adhere to the skin of the aerofoil. The phenomenon is called
the separation of the boundary layers.
This phase of separation will take place on all the surface of the wing thus
causing the stall of the airflows. Therefore it is said that the wing stalls.
Aircraft have to be equipped with devices to detect this phenomenon and
therefore avoid stalling.
08 - 02- 52
Level  1  2  3
08 - 02- 53
Level  1  2  3
08 - 02- 54
Level  1  2  3
 Type of stalls:
Stalls can be practised both with and without power. Stalls should be practised to familiarize the student with the aircraft’s particular stall
characteristics without putting the aircraft into a potentially dangerous condition. A description of some different types of stalls follows:
 Departure stalls are practised to simulate takeoff and climb-out conditions and configuration. Many stall/spin accidents have occurred
during these phases of flight, particularly during overshoots. A causal factor in such accidents has been the pilot’s failure to maintain
positive pitch control due to a nose-high trim setting or premature flap retraction. Failure to maintain positive control during short field
takeoffs has also contributed towards accidents.
 Arrival stalls are practised to simulate normal approach-to-landing conditions and configuration. Simulations should also be practised
at reduced power settings consistent with the approach requirements of the particular training aircraft.
 Many stall/spin accidents have occurred in situations, such as crossed control turns from base leg to final approach (resulting in a
skidding or slipping turn); attempting to recover from a high sink rate on final approach by using only an increased pitch attitude; and
improper airspeed control on final approach or in other segments of the traffic pattern.
 Accelerated stalls can occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds due to abrupt and/or excessive control applications. These stalls may
occur in steep turns, pull-ups, or other abrupt changes in flight path. For these reasons, accelerated stalls usually are more severe
than un-accelerated stalls and are often unexpected.
3. THE POLAR CURVE:

Let us summarize the aerodynamic performances of a wing that will depend on the following characteristics:
 an optimal aerodynamic efficiency equivalent to a good aerodynamic output.
 the largest value of L since it is L which will increase.
 the smallest possible value of D, which characterises resistance to motion.
 the angle of attack, defined by the aerofoil of the wing subjected to the direction of the relative wind.
These four characteristics can be found on the polar curve.

The polar curve, which can show the state of the aircraft, is of great importance.
08 - 02- 55
Level  1  2  3
08 - 02- 56
Level  1  2  3
VI. AIRFOIL CONTAMINATION INCLUDING ICE, SNOW AND FROST.

1. INTRODUCTION:
In terms of deterioration of the surface, it is necessary to imagine the disastrous consequences which can occur during flight, with the formation of white frost
on the wing of an aircraft.
On January 13, 1982 at around 16h00 local time, a Florida Airlines Boeing 737 took off from Washington and crashed in the Potomac river after thirty
seconds of flight. The plane was entirely destroyed and 79 people were killed.
Many crashes are similar to this one, the most recent was that of the ATR 42 where the defrosting equipment was responsible. Let us observe how the
formation of white frost, snow or ice affects the aerodynamic performance of the aircraft.
08 - 02- 57
Level  1  2  3
Subjected to all types of weather conditions, icing is the one which causes the formation of a more or less opaque or transparent ice on the aircraft. Icing is
a critical phenomenon in flight; it increases the weight of the aircraft and becomes particularly dangerous in the phases of take-off by modifying the
aerodynamic shape of the aerofoil, thus deteriorating the airflow.
Thus, the formation of white frost has a direct effect on the safety of flights.
Crash of an Iran Air jet carrying 104 passengers due to a heavy snow and fog
08 - 02- 58
Level  1  2  3
2. CONDITIONS FOR ICING:
The conditions for icing are met when the temperature of the air is equal to or lower than 0° Celsius and that water in the liquid state or a solid state is
present in the atmosphere (water, ice crystals, snow).
This environment is described as being the various zones monitored by meteorological observatories. These zones contain clouds and can cover distances
of over 200 km.
 Super fusion:
Depending on the stability of the clouds encountered, from nimbostratus to the cumulonimbus, these cloudy areas contain a high percentage
of humidity. The size of droplets tells us how much water is retained in these clouds.
It can vary from 0.8 to 3 grams per cubic metre. These clouds have the characteristic of containing water droplets maintained in the liquid
state and this in spite of temperatures lower than 0° C.
Accumulation of white frost on the aerofoil.
08 - 02- 59
Level  1  2  3
This pseudo balance is called state of super fusion. Super fusion can be observed between 0 and -20° Celsius. When in contact with the
plane, water in a state of super fusion freezes instantaneously by effect of shock.
An aircraft generally meets freezing conditions at altitudes ranging between 900 and 2700 meters. This means that while large planes meet
them only in the phases of climb and descent, regional transport or helicopters can meet these freezing conditions during the entire flight.
The leading edge and the upper surface of the aerofoils are very sensitive to the formation of white frost. Snow will also modify the
streamline flow on the surface of the aerofoil.
 Degradation of performances:
Figure below shows the effect of ice contamination on the leading edge. Not only is the maximum lift coefficient decreased, but the AOA for
stall is also decreased. The loss in lift coefficient and stall AOA is dependent on the depth, shape and texture of the ice accretion in relation
to the aerofoil section.
Considering the airplane as a whole, the adverse aerodynamic effects of ice accretion on its aerofoil surfaces can be summarized as follows:
 Due to ice accretion on the wing leading edge, the maximum lift coefficient is decreased and the AOA for stall is decreased. The
consequence of a loss in maximum lift coefficient is an increase in stall speed. Because stall AOA is decreased, stall warning and
stall protection systems that activate at fixed preset values applicable to the clean wing, will not function correctly with ice accretion.
 Due to ice accretion on the horizontal stabilizer leading edge, the maximum downward balancing force is reduced and the AOA for
stall is reduced. The consequence is the potential for a stall of the horizontal stabilizer, commonly known as tailplane stall.
 Due to ice accretion on wing, horizontal and vertical stabilizer leading edges, the drag of the airplane is increased. The drag is also
increased due to ice accretion on other forward-facing surfaces, such as the radome, engine pylons, landing gear struts, etc. The
consequence is a loss of climb capability, loss of the ability to maintain level speed, or loss of the ability to make a controlled
descent and landing.
 Due to ice accretion on the leading edges of wing and stabilizer aerofoils that support trailing edge control surfaces, control hinge
moment discontinuities at these surfaces can occur. For fully-powered flight controls, the pilot’s control force is dependent on the
artificial feel system characteristics. For unpowered controls, the pilot’s control force is proportional to the hinge moment of the
surface. Hinge moment anomalies at the surface can result in pulsing of the pilot’s control, and in the extreme, a reversal in the
direction of the pilot’s force can occur. That is, the control will automatically deflect to an extreme position, and pilot effort will be
required to return the control to a neutral position, which is known as control overbalance.
 Ice accretion on the aerofoil surfaces and other surfaces adds weight to the airplane, thus increasing the stall speed and the drag for
a specified airspeed.
 Ice accretion on propeller blades will increase the drag and may decrease the lift of the blades. Increased power will be required to
maintain propeller speed. Eventually, thrust will be decreased because of reaching power limits and/or loss of lift on the blades.
08 - 02- 60
Level  1  2  3
 Various types of accumulation:
08 - 02- 61
Level  1  2  3
 White frost :
It occurs:
 on the ground, this deposit occurs very often in winter nights on parked aircrafts,
 in flight, the water vapour changes directly into a solid state when in contact with the walls of a plane whose temperature is
in the negative region.
 Opaque white frost:

This type of frost rather frequently occurs in clouds in the form of fine droplets containing very little water. Freezing takes place at
negative temperatures close to minus five degrees Celsius.
The crystals of ice formed contain air making it very sticky, but since it is friable it can be easily removed.
08 - 02- 62
Level  1  2  3
 Transparent white frost :

It is formed by the crushing of large water drops and then streaming on the wings constituting a tough crust of ice. The de-icers are
often ineffective against it.
This type of icing is very dangerous.
 Black ice:
08 - 02- 63
Level  1  2  3
Similar to the transparent white frost, it is hard, homogeneous and brittle. Successive layers of smooth ice make up a layer of black
ice. Black ice mostly attacks the upper surfaces of the plane. It forms very quickly; it is the result of supercooled rain.
This type of icing is difficult to fight and is very dangerous.
08 - 02- 64

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AeroGATES: PART-66 courseware 08 – Basic aerodynamics

Category  A  B1  B2  B3 02- Aerodynamics

I. AIRFLOW AROUND A BODY ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4

I. AIRFLOW AROUND A BODY

Aircraft testing in a wind tunnel

2.2. Airflow around a plate and a sphere:

2.3. Airflow around a frayed profile:

3. VARIOUS TYPES OF FLOW:

 Viscosity and Reynolds number:

4.2. Speed of sound:

For air  = 1.4 and r = 287 joules per Kelvin

 Conservation of mass flow (equation of continuity):

After differentiating, we obtain:

4.5. Tapping of pressure:

4.6. Indications on the control panel:

1. THE BOUNDARY LAYER:

1.2. The transition point:

1.3. The separation point:

1.4. Formation of the boundary layer:

2. LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW:

3. FREE STREAM FLOW:

5. UPWASH AND DOWNWASH:

 Wing tip vortices:

2. VARIOUS TYPES OF AEROFOILS:

 The angle of attack (AOA):

 The angle of incidence (angle of setting):

 Surface area (S):

7.2. The drag (D) and the thrust (T):

 Aerodynamic efficiency of wing (F):

9. PROFILE (PARASITE) DRAG, INDUCED DRAG AND TOTAL DRAG:

Remark: Induced drag can be minimized by the following means:

10. WING TWIST, ANGLE OF TWIST, WASHING AND WASHOUT:

IV. THRUST, WEIGHT, AERODYNAMIC RESULTANT

 Drag and trust:

 Lift and weight:

1. AERODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY (F):

3. THE POLAR CURVE:

These four characteristics can be found on the polar curve.

VI. AIRFOIL CONTAMINATION INCLUDING ICE, SNOW AND FROST.

Accumulation of white frost on the aerofoil.

 Various types of accumulation:

 Opaque white frost:

 Transparent white frost :

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