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T H E i m p o r t a n c e of t h e properties of
agricultural p r o d u c t s a n d t h e n e e d
for s t u d y a n d research in this area w a s
y; Young's m o d u l u s , E, a n d t h e bulk
modulus, K
e m p h a s i z e d b y M o h s e n i n in 1 9 6 3 ( 6 ) *. K = tL [ 7 ]
Because of t h e increasing emphasis b e - 3(1 - 2y)
ing p l a c e d o n m e c h a n i z a t i o n of t h e
since only t w o of t h e m m a y b e inde-
h a r v e s t i n g a n d h a n d l i n g of fruits a n d
p e n d e n t l y specified for a h o m o g e n e o u s
vegetables, it is e v e n m o r e essential to
isotropic material.
d e t e r m i n e t h e e n g i n e e r i n g a n d physical
properties of these commodities if bruis- Irrespective of t h e m e c h a n i c a l p r o p -
erties of t h e material, t h e state of stress
ing a n d m e c h a n i c a l d a m a g e a r e to b e
in a n elastic b o d y m u s t satisfy, in addi-
minimized.
tion to t h e constitutive equations, t h e
T h e p u r p o s e of this p a p e r is to ( a ) equilibrium conditions:
review t h e t h e o r y of elasticity as it is
r e l a t e d t o elastic constants of solids, *ik,k + X{ = 0 [8]
( b ) describe a m e t h o d u s e d to evalu- FIG. 1 Apparatus for removing cylindri- assuming t h a t t h e c o m p o n e n t s of a c -
ate t h e elastic properties of potatoes, cal sections of tissue (note inset at upper celeration m a y b e n e g l e c t e d (quasi-
a n d ( c ) p r e s e n t values for t h e m o d u - left) from a potato tuber.
static loading) a n d w h e r e Xt represents
lus of elasticity a n d Poisson's ratio of t h e b o d y force c o m p o n e n t s . Similarly,
the potato tuber. (sometimes referred to as t h e constitu- t h e strain c o m p o n e n t s m u s t satisfy t h e
tive e q u a t i o n of elasticity) conditions of compatibility
=
THEORY ^ij Cijrs € r s . . . [2]
€ik,lm "•" e lm,ik = e
il,km ' ^km,il
A b o d y is perfectly elastic if t h e d e - w h e r e cry a n d e r s (i,j,r,s = 1, 2, 3 ) d e -
note t h e c o m p o n e n t s of t h e tensors of
[9]
formation or strain occurs i n s t a n t a n e - w h i c h represents six compatibility e q u -
ously w i t h t h e application of stress, stress a n d strain w i t h respect to a sys-
ations. T h e solution of a n y given p r o b -
a n d this deformation is completely a n d t e m of r e c t a n g u l a r axes, xx ( 1 1 ) . T h e
lem in elasticity requires t h e d e t e r m i n a -
instantaneously r e c o v e r e d w h e n t h e r e p e a t e d subscript is u s e d to indicate
tion of t h e stress c o m p o n e n t s , or dis-
stress is r e m o v e d . I t is generally as- t h e s u m m a t i o n c o n v e n t i o n , t h a t is,
p l a c e m e n t s , w h i c h satisfy t h e differen-
s u m e d in addition t h a t t h e r e is a one- w h e n e v e r t h e same letter subscript oc-
tial equations [ 6 ] , [ 8 ] , [ 9 ] along
to-one relationship b e t w e e n t h e state curs twice in a term, t h a t subscript is
w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e specified b o u n d a r y
of stress a n d t h e state of strain in a n to b e given all possible values a n d t h e
conditions. Special m a t h e m a t i c a l tech-
ideal linear elastic b o d y ; h e n c e , all results a d d e d together. If ut represents
n i q u e s h a v e b e e n u s e d to solve t h e
t i m e - d e p e n d e n t effects are excluded. t h e c o m p o n e n t s of t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t
above e q u a t i o n s for certain given b o u n -
vector, t h e n .
I n 1 6 7 6 R o b e r t H o o k e s h o w e d that, d a r y conditions a n d m a n y of these so-
for small strains, certain bodies u n d e r %(t/u + UU) [3] lutions h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t e d a n d dis-
uniaxial stress exhibited ideal elasticity w h e r e t h e index after t h e c o m m a d e - cussed b y T i m o s h e n k o a n d Goodier
a n d t h e stress a w a s directly propor- notes differentiation w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e ( 1 2 ) . Some of these solutions h a v e
tional t o strain e. T h e proportionality c o r r e s p o n d i n g x coordinate, i.e., u{j = b e e n useful in t h e interpretation a n d
constant h a s b e e n defined as Young's Siii/dXj. C i j r s a r e t h e elements of a evaluation of m e c h a n i c a l d a m a g e t o
m o d u l u s of e l a s t i c i t y , E. Hence, fourth order s y m m e t r i c coefficient m a t - potatoes (2, 3 ) .
Hooke's l a w h a s t a k e n t h e following rix w h i c h for a n isotropic, h o m o g e n e o u s
form material takes t h e following simplified EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
= form I n t h e p r e c e d i n g section, it w a s
a Ee (uniaxial stress) . . . . [ 1 ]
Cijrs = ^Sij SY8 + ft stated t h a t w h e n e v e r t w o of t h e elastic
a n d a b o d y w h i c h obeys this e q u a t i o n [ 8 i r 8js + 8is 8 j r ] . . . . . . . . [4] constants of a h o m o g e n e o u s isotropic
is sometimes referred to as a " H o o k e a n " m a t e r i a l w e r e k n o w n , t h e n other elastic
body. w h e r e X a n d fju a r e arbitrary scalars,
constants could b e calculated directly
a n d 8 m n is t h e Kronecker delta. F o r a n
E q u a t i o n [ 1 ] is a special case of t h e from k n o w n algebraic relations. I n -
isotropic, h o m o g e n e o u s material, t h e r e -
m o r e generalized form of Hooke's law strumentation was developed, there-
fore, Hooke's l a w takes t h e general form
fore, for m e a s u r i n g Young's m o d u l u s ,
Paper prepared for publication in the TRANS- "JJ = Ae kk Sij + 2/xe.i . . . . [ 5 ] E, a n d t h e bulk m o d u l u s , K. Young's
ACTIONS of the ASAE. Approved as journal
article No. 3776 of the Michigan Agricultural Ex- or m o d u l u s w a s m e a s u r e d t h r o u g h uni-
periment Station. This paper is based on research
conducted by the senior author while serving as o-y = Xe0 By + 2fL&l} . . . . . [ 6 ] axial compression tests using cylindrical
a graduate research assistant at Michigan State sections of tissue r e m o v e d from t h e
University. v/here e0 = e k k = e 1 3 + e22 + e33
The authors—E. E. FINNEY, JR. and C. W. t u b e r a n d t h e bulk m o d u l u s , K, w a s
HALL—are respectively, agricultural engineer, d e t e r m i n e d t h r o u g h three-dimensional
Instrumentation Research Laboratory, MQRD, T h e p a r a m e t e r s X a n d ju, ( L a m e ' s con-
ARS, USD A, Beitsviiie, Md.; and head of agri- stants) are t w o elastic constants w h i c h compression of t h e w h o l e p o t a t o t u b e r
cultural engineering, Michigan State University. u n d e r hydrostatic pressure.
* Numbers in parentheses refer to the ap- completely d e t e r m i n e t h e elastic p r o p -
pended references. erties of t h e material, a n d algebraic T h e testing m a c h i n e u s e d for t h e
Acknowledgement: The authors acknowledge relations m a y b e d e r i v e d a m o n g t h e
the assistance of Dr. Norman Thompson, crop uniaxial compression tests h a s b e e n d e -
science department, and Dr. George Mase and m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d elastic constants scribed previously ( 2 , 3 ) a n d is simi-
Dr. L. E. Malvern, mechanics department, of
Michigan State University. A, JUL; shear m o d u l u s , G; Poisson's ratio, lar t o t h e device described b y Mohsenin
4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASAE • 1967
(7). The machine used for these tests RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
was calibrated to provide a rate of de- Modulus of Elasticity
formation of one inch per minute (ipm)
within ± 1 0 percent up to a maximum Modulus of elasticity was defined
load of 200 lb. A 50-lb-capacity load earlier as the proportionality constant
cell with an accuracy of ± 0.25 per- relating stress to strain within an elastic
cent and a maximum nonlinearity of material. Strain is defined as the change
± 0.10 percent was used for force in length of a uniaxial specimen divided
measurements. Displacements could be by its current length, or in differential
determined within 1 percent accuracy. notation
For the uniaxial tests, a specimen of
tissue was removed from the potato de = — [10]
tuber using a cork-boring machine and L
cylindrically shaped cutting tools (Fig. where de is the differential element of
1) whose cutting edge was chamfered strain due to the change in length dL
to a 20-deg included angle. This cylin- of a specimen having a current length
drical specimen was then cut to a L. Integrating this expression,
length of 1 in. and loaded between d = In (L) + C [11]
parallel compression plates. The plates
were coated with a thin film of lubri- where C is an arbitrary constant de-
cating oil to reduce the effects of shear pending on the boundary conditions.
stresses due to contact between the When the specimen is in the unstrained
load plates and the flat ends of the state, for example, the strain is zero
specimen. Force-deformation (nominal and the length is the original length of
stress-strain) curves were plotted di- the specimen L 0 . Thus C is evaluated to
rectly, as reproduced in Fig. 3, using be — In (L 0 ) and the strain as ex-
an X-Y recorder. FIG. 2 Hydrostatic pressure device for pressed in equation [11] becomes
bulk modulus tests.
A second elastic property of the po- € l = ln(L/L0) [12]
tato tuber, the elastic bulk modulus, K, was very large and Poisson's ratio ap- The length L at any time is equal to
was determined by means of hydro- proached 0.50. On this basis, there- the original length L 0 plus the change
static pressure tests. The objective was fore, the bulk modulus apparatus was in the original length AL. Hence equa-
to measure the change in volume of the redesigned to operate with increased tion [12] may be given as
tuber (or volumetric strain) as a func- sensitivity within the pressure range
~L„ + AL"
tion of the applied hydrostatic stress from 0 to 60 psi. In In 1 +
(or volumetric stress). Hence, analo- The low-pressure, bulk-modulus ap-
gous to the uniaxial stress-strain curve, paratus is shown in Fig. 2. The potato AL
[13]
one obtains a three-dimensional or vol- tuber in this case was immersed in a
umetric stress-strain curve. cylinder of water. Extreme care was
The original volume of the tuber was exercised to drain air from pockets in Expanding equation [13] in terms of
measured to within 1 percent by weigh- the assembly through an air drain plug the appropriate series, it becomes
ing the water displaced by the sub- in the top of the cylinder and at the pAL" pA^I •2
+%
merged tuber. For preliminary studies top of the glass gage assembly. Pressure €l = — Vi
of the behavior of the potato tuber un- was applied to the liquid from a 60-psi 3
AJ _!•» J
der hydrostatic stresses w i t h i n the air line through a filter, pressure regu-
-AL- [14]
range from 15 to 500 lb per square lating valve, and gage indicator. Pres-
inch (psi), the tuber was submerged sures above 10 psi could be regulated Assuming that the change in the orig-
in a steel cylinder containing 20-weight within ± 1 psi of the pressure-gage in- inal length of the specimen is small
oil. The cylinder was then closed, dication. The glass tube was used to compared to the original length, the
sealed, and a dead weight tester, de- measure changes in volume of the po- first term on the right hand side of
signed to calibrate pressure gages, was tato tuber under pressure. By measur- equation [14]
then connected to the cylinder con- ing the rise and fall of the liquid level
taining the tuber. Air was forced from in the glass tube, it was possible to de- « = ~ [15]
the system through an air-drain plug. tect volume changes of ± 0.048 cu L0
As weights, calibrated to give 50 psi cm. becomes a first-order approximation of
pressure increments, were added to the Potatoes used for these tests were the strain defined by equation [ 1 2 ] .
weight tester platform, the volume of grown in a sandy loam soil at the Mich- The strain defined by equation [12] is
the tuber changed by an amount equal igan Lake City Experiment Station. The usually referred to as logarithmic strain
to the volume of the fluid displaced by potatoes were planted May 22, 1962, and that in equation [15] is called
the piston of the weight platform minus harvested on September 25, placed in engineering or c o n v e n t i o n a l strain.
the expansion of the cylinder contain- a 55-60 F curing room until October Throughout this paper the term "strain"
ing the stressed-fluid. The effect of 19, after which they were removed to refers to conventional or engineering
cylinder expansion was first evaluated a 40 F storage room. Tubers were strain. For the case of uniaxial com-
by means of tests conducted without stored in bushel containers to avoid the pression, it can be shown that logarith-
the potato in the cylinder ( 2 ) . prestressing effects experienced under mic strain is related to conventional
Results of preliminary tests indicated bulk storage conditions. At least 24 strain by the expression
pressures within the 0 to 100 psi range hr prior to any tests, the tubers were 1
were of the greatest significance from removed from the 40 F storage room = In [16]
the standpoint of volume changes un- and placed in a neutral atmosphere at .l-e_
der hydrostatic stress. As stresses ap- a room temperature between 68 to where e± refers to logarithmic strain
proached 500 psi, the tuber became in- 78 F. All tests were conducted at room and e refers to conventional strain and
compressible; i.e., the bulk modulus temperature. both are positive in compression. Note
1967 • TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASAE 5
that as the length of the specimen ap- RUSSET RURAL POTATO TABLE 2. HYSTERESIS LOSS IN POTATO
(10/17/ 62) TISSUE LOADED AND UNLOADED BELOW
proaches zero under compression, log- Rate of deformation: I in./min THE RUPTURE POINT
arithmic strain approaches infinity and Variety, Russet Rural; test date: October 17, 1962
conventional strain approaches unity.
E
S n g d Dissipated Hysteresis,
In addition to using the conventional energy, in -lb ener
Sy- l n ' " l b percent
strain definition, modulus of elasticity
5.80 4.20 72
values were computed based on nomi- 11.45 9.42 82
nal stress observations. That is, the 14.35 10.90 76
18.42 15.68 85
stress was based on the original cross- 8.35 7.05 84
sectional area A 0 of the compression 5.12 3.80 74
7.12 6.35 89
specimen. The increase in cross-sec- 7.35 6.65 90
tional area due to lateral expansion un- Mean.. 81.5
Coefficient of variation.. 8.4 percent
der axial compression was neglected 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
The use of both conventional strain FIG. 3 Conventional stress-strain curves where a is the generalized equivalent
and nominal stress approximations is for potato tissue loaded both below (A, B) stress and dev is the generalized plas-
satisfactory for small strains such as and beyond (C) the point of rupture. tic strain-increment. Again, however,
those encountered for these modulus it would be necessary to limit the use
TABLE 1. DEGREE OF ELASTICITY OF
of elasticity investigations. POTATO TISSUE UNDER UNIAXIAL of the strain-hardening coefficient Hf
COMPRESSION BELOW RUPTURE POINT to the initial loading condition with no
The stress-strain curve for cylindri- Variety, Russet Rural; test date, 10/17/62
cal sections of tissue removed from unloading; and, if no unloading is con-
Total strain, Recovered Degree of sidered, the distinction between linear
potato tubers gave an approximately € strain, c elasticity,
linear relationship such as that shown (in./in.) (in./in.) (ee/e) strain-hardening plasticity with no elas-
in Fig. 3. The potato, however, falls tic range and linear elasticity is not
0.10 0.06 0.60
short of meeting the other criteria of 0.12 0.06 0.50 very meaningful.
0.21 0.10 0.48
an elastic material. For example, as 0.23 0.09 0.39 The stress-strain behavior of potato
0.25 0.12 0.48 tissue was further influenced by its
shown in Fig. 3, during the unloading 0.25 0.10 0.40
cycle of the stress-strain curve, the re- 0.28 0.09 0.32 previous loading history (Fig. 4 ) . Tis-
0.28 0.13 0.46
lationship between stress and strain was sue which was loaded, unloaded, and
Mean. 0.46
noticeably nonlinear and deviated con- Coefficient oJ variation. 16.5 percent then reloaded, displayed a noticeable
siderably from the loading stress-strain change in the slope of the subsequent
relationship. In addition, the unre- loading coincide and there is no hys- loading stress-strain curve. This indi-
covered deformation and loading en- teresis loop. For steel, the loop is cated that the modulus of elasticity
ergy were by no means negligible in small; for high polymers, the hysteresis (ratio of stress to strain) was influ-
comparison with the total deformation effect is much more pronounced. The enced by previous loading of the tissue.
and the total energy expended during hysteresis loss for potato tissue is also For example, during the initial loading
the loading process. There are two very pronounced (Fig. 3 ) . As shown along O-A (Fig. 4 ) , the elastic modu-
terms which are very useful in explain- in Table 2, the energy dissipated within lus was approximately 500 psi. Sub-
ing this anelastic behavior of materials, potato tissue varied from 72 to 90 per- sequent loading from zero stress to 100
namely, "degree of elasticity" and "elas- cent of the total energy expended dur- psi resulted in modulus of elasticity
tic hysteresis." ing the loading process. Therefore, po- values which varied from approximately
Frey-Wyssling (4) defined degree of tato tissue exhibited a very satisfactory 100 to 1,000 p s i . U p o n r e a c h i n g
elasticity as being the ratio of elastic stress-strain relationship during load- point "B" during the subsequent load-
(recovered) deformation to total de- ing, but had a pronounced anelastic ing, the stress-strain curve reassumed
formation when a material is loaded to behavior during the unloading phase. the slope exhibited during the maiden
a certain stress and then unloaded to The stress-strain relationship in Fig. loading cycle with an apparently un-
zero stress. A perfectly elastic material 3 also approximates the behavior of a changed elastic modulus for stresses
has a degree of elasticity of unity, and linear strain-hardening incompressible above that attained during the initial
a viscous or perfectly plastic material plastic material having a negligible ini- loading. On the basis of the preced-
has a degree of elasticity of zero. Table tial elastic range. Under uniaxial load- ing discussion, therefore, the values
1 shows some values for the degree of ing the slope of the stress-strain curve, reported for modulus of elasticity as-
elasticity of mature potato tissue under instead of representing the elastic mod- sume that the tissue taken from the
uniaxial compression. On the average, ulus E, is related to the strain-harden- central p o r t i o n of the potato tuber
only 46 percent of the total deforma- ing coefficient H' as defined by Hill had no previous loading history. In
tion of the product was recovered dur- (5) in the expression addition, the reported modulus of elas-
ing the unloading cycle. Hence, potato ticity values do not account for the
tissue is considerably anelastic during - ^ - = H> [17] changes in the ratio of stress to strain
the unloading of stressed tissue. during the unloading process.
The elastic hysteresis of a material
is defined as the amount of energy dis- TABLE 3. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY FOR CYLINDRICAL SECTIONS OF POTATO TISSUE
HAVING VARIOUS CROSS-SECTIONAL AREAS AND A LENGTH OF ONE INCH
sipated internally within the specimen Variety, Russet Rural; test date, October 17, 1962; rate of! deformation, 1 ipm
during a cycle of loading and unload-
Replication Cross-sectional area, square inches
ing. This was measured by recording number Q.20 0.50 1.00 2.00
the stress-strain curve through a cycle Pounds per square inch
of loading and unloading as shown in 1 467 570 550 500
Fig. 3. The larger the area enclosed 2 450 510 550 480
by the stress-strain loading and unload- 3 560 620 540 560
ing loop, the greater the energy dissi- 4 490 650 590 510
5 560 620 530 550
pated internally within the loaded ma- Mean 505 594 552 520
terial. For an ideally elastic body, the Grand mean — ..543 psi
paths followed during loading and un- Coefficient of variation 9.7 percent
SUMMER-FALLOW 4 Under the conditions studied, fall balance. ASAE Paper No, 66-230, ASAE, St.
Joseph, Mich., 1966.
tillage with chisels resulted in loss of 3 Fox, W. R., Deason, D. L. and Wang, L.
TILLAGE METHODS soil moisture during the winter months. Tillage energy application. ASAE Paper No.
65-657, ASAE, St. Joseph, Mich., 1965.
(Continued from page 3) 5 When precipitation was near nor- 4 Mathews, O. R. Place of summer fallow in
mal, moisture conservation for method the agriculture of the western states. USDA Cir-
3 The use of atrazine for chemical cular No. 886, 1951.
SMFT was lower that for the other
fallowing resulted in stand reduction 5 McCalla, T. M. and Army, T. J. Stubble
methods of summer fallowing studied. mulch farming. Advances in Agronomy 13:125-
due to the toxicity of the chemical. The 6 Crop yields were not significantly 196. Academic Press Inc., N.Y.. 1961.
tillage-energy requirement for the two 6 Promersberger, W. J. and Pratt, G. L.
different among the four methods stud- Power requirements of tillage implements. North
tillage operations used with this method ied in either year, 1964 (relatively dry) Dakota Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. No. 415, 1958.
(CFFT) was nearly equal to the en- 7 Richey, C. B. (Ed.) Agricultural Engineers'
or 1965 (near normal precipitation). Handbook. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., N.Y.,
ergy requirement for methods BF and 1961.
SM. However, during seasons with rel- References 8 United States Bureau of the Census. U.S.
Census of Agriculture: 1959. Vol. II. General
atively low precipitation, this method 1 Agricultural Engineers Yearbook. American Report—Statistics by Subjects—Chapter 1. U.S.
Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,
was more effective, based on soil-mois- Mich., 1965. 1962.
ture conservation, than the other meth- 2 Ferguson, James, Dowding, Edwin, Becker, 9 Zingg, A. W. and Whitfield, C. J. Stubble-
C. F. and Burman, R. D. The effect of summer mulch farming in the western states. USDA
ods studied. fallow tillage methods on the vertical energy Tech. Bui. No. 1166, 1957.