Loughborough University

Institutional Repository

Normal force reduction in

electronic connectors
This item was submitted to Loughborough University's Institutional Repository

by the/an author.

Additional Information:

• A Doctoral Thesis. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University.

Metadata Record: https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/25593

Publisher:
c N.A. Stennett

Rights: This work is made available according to the conditions of the Cre-
ative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International

(CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) licence. Full details of this licence are available at:

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

Please cite the published version.

 BJvOS C. 1'\0:- ox 1'6/'1--~5-:l
LOUGHBOROUGH
UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
LIBRARY
AUTHOR/FILING TITLE
S'€..I..IH-r N. A, .. I.
---- ------ ----- ------}..------------ -- -------- -_.
.'

ACCESSION/COPY NO.

<l'-t OQ ~ Lf 'l. b3
----------------- ---- --- ---- --- ----- ---- -- - - -- - - --
VOL NO. CLASS MARK

.-- -------.,.- ..

. 11111
 NO~FORCEREDUCTION

IN
ELECTRONIC CONNECTORS

by

Neil Andrew StenneU B.Sc. (Hons.), DIS, MIEEE, MIEE, C.Eng

A DOCTORAL THESIS

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award Qf the Degree
of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University of Technology.

1st November 1991.

C by NAStennett, 1991.
Loughborough University
of Technolnqy library
Date ::!'G-- "11
Clas~

Ace .r. -::.:..

No. ~1.lY
 ':.... into the distance a ribbon of black,
stretched to the point of no turning back ..... ..

Pink FIoyd • A Momentary Lapse of Reason • 1987

When the road ahead is long and the route is difficult,

the way forward is simply the next step!
 ABSTRACT

An experimental and theoretical analysis has been carried out into normal
force reduction in electronic contact springs. This is a phenomenon whereby the
force produced by the contact spring reduces with time. A series of ten elevated
, temperature heat age tests were carried out for time periods of up to three
months. Over 6,500 normal force reduction measurements have been made.

Examination of the data revealed a high correlation for the normal force
to exhibit a logarithmic relationship with time. Theoretical analysis showed that
this could be explained by assuming that the phenomenon of normal force
reduction is thermally activated with an activation energy that is variable and
related to the amount of stored energy in the contact spring.

A theoretical model for the process has been proposed, and the values of
the parameters calculated for the ten temperatures for which data has been
collected. This model can be used to predict end of life normal forces for
electrical contacts, provided that the model parameters· are determined
experimentally at the required temperature. In addition, it is also possible to
obtain confidence levels as~ociated with these predictions.

(i)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I owe my thanks to all my fellow colleagues in the International Electronic

Reliability Institute at Loughborough both past and present who have helped
make my stay there both rewarding and enjoyable. In particular I must thank my
supervisor Professor David Campbell for his help, guidance and support, without
which this work would not have been possible. I would also like to mention the
efforts of Dr. Roy Faulkner for his help with the materials science aspects of the
research and those of Dr. Vince Dwyer for his attempts at trying to unravel the
mathematical monsters I passed his way. In addition I would like to thank
Christine and Susan for their time and patience in the compilation of this
manuscript and Jeff and Alan for their assistance with both the hardware and
software aspects of the computers that have been an integral part of this thesis.
Lastly I would like to pay particular thanks to Tim 'Von' Ireland with whom I
spent many long hours in the laboratory pondering over some problem or other.

The basic research of this thesis was sponsored by AMP Inc. of Great
Britain and I would like to thank all those people who made this possible,
especially Dr. Nigel Baker and Dr. Bob Mroczkowski. I am also indebted to Dr.
Brian Williarnson of Williamson Interface for knowledge which he imparted to
me in the field of contact and connectors and for his enthusiasm for the subject,
which affects all those around him.

In the course of my studies at Loughborough there have been many people

both in and out of work who have helped in some way. I would just like to take
this opportunity to thank them. In particular I would like to mention Rosemary
for the considerable time and effort spent on a non-technical proof read of the
manuscript.

(ii)
 Finally I would like to thank all my family for their continued support and
understanding. In particular I must thank my mother for her constant love and
encouragement throughout all my studies. I would like to dedicate this thesis to
her.

(iii)
 CONTENTS
Page No.

ABSTRACT (i)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (ii)

CONTENTS (iv)

ABBREVIATIONS (ix)

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Components and Connectors 1

1.2 Types of Contact 2
1.3 Definitions 4
1.4 Study Synopsis 5
1.5 Summary 7
1.6 References 8

2. BASIC CONTACT PHYSICS 11

2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Surfaces 12
2.3 Electrical Contact 17
2.3.1 Noble Metals 17
2.3.2 Soft Metals with Brittle Oxides 19
2.3.3 Electrical Breakdown of Surface Films 21
2.4 Constriction Resistance 23
2.4.1 Definition 23
2.4.2 Mathematical Derivation of Constriction Resistance 25
2.4.2.1 Approximate Method 25
2.4.2.2 Detailed Method 28
2.4.2.3 Complex Method 30
2.4.3 Plated Contacts 30
2.5 Temperature Effects 31
2.5.1 Rated Current and Bulk Temperature 31
2.5.2 Super Temperature 33

(iv)
 2.6 Spring Analysis 34
2.6.1 Ideal Stress/Strain Curves 35
2.6.1.1 Elastic Deformation 36
2.6.1.2 Plastic Deformation 37
2.6.2 Real Stress/Strain Curves 37
2.6.2.1 Lattice Imperfections 38
2.6.2.2 Non Uniform Stress Concentrations 38
2.6.3 Manufacture of Springs 40
2.6.4 Anelasticity 42
2.7 Summary 43
2.8 References 45

3. FAILURE MECHANISMS 53

3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Force Reduction 56
3.2.1 Effect of Normal Force Reduction on Contacts 56
3.2.2 Causes of Force Reduction in Springs 59
3.3 Particulate 61
3.4 Wear 63
3.4.1 Plating Wear Through 63
3.4.2 Wear Debris 64
3.4.3 Fretting Corrosion 64
3.5 Metallurgical 67
3.5.1 Diffusion 67
3.5.2 Intermetallics 68
3.6 Corrosion 69
3.6.1 Types of Corrosion 69
3.6.1.1 Dry Corrosion 69
3.6.1.2 Wet Corrosion 70
3.6.2 Corrosion Failure Mechanisms 70
3.6.2.1 Porosity 71
3.6.2.2 Surface Migration 73
3.6.2.3 Contamination 74
3.6.2.4 Surface Films 74
3.7 Summary 75
3.8 References 77

(v)
4. NORMAL FORCE ANALYSIS AND 91
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
4.1 Introduction and Analysis 91
4.2 Experimental Procedure 96
4.2.1 Introduction 96
4.2.2 Preliminary Studies 96
4.2.3 Temperature Observations 97
4.3 Equipment 100
43.1 Strain Gauges and Transducer 100
4.3.2 The Contacts 102
4.3.3 The Heat Age Oven 105
4.3.4 Computer and Software 105
4.4 Final Test Procedure 105
4.5 Summary 110
4.6 References 111

5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 115

5.1 Introduction 115

5.2 Heat Age Test Results 116
5.3 Permanent Set Photographs 122
5.4 Grain Structure Photographs 125
5.5 Effect of Insertion/Withdrawal Cycling 130
5.6 Influence of Stress on the Reduction Process 131
5.7 Summary 132
5.8 References 133

6. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS 135

6.1 Introduction 135

6.2 Heat Age Test Results 135
6.2.1 Normal Force Reduction Data 136
6.2.2 Permanent Set Photographs 138
6.2.3 Grain Structure Photographs 139
6.3 Other Tests 140
6.3.1 Insertion/Withdrawal Cycling Test 140
6.3.2 Influence of Stress on the Reduction Process 141
6.4 Derivation of Empirical Relations from the Heat Age Data 142
6.5 Summary 149
6.6 References 152

(vi)
7. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS 154

7.1 Introduction 154

7.2 Historical Perspective 155
7.2.1 Elasticity 155
7.2.2 Definition of Anelasticity 156
7.2.3 Anelasticity and Classical Theory 156
7.3 Physical Interpretation of Anelastic Behaviour 159
7.3.1 Atomic Diffusion 160
7.3.2 Grain Boundary Diffusion 162
7.3.3 Recrystallisation 163
7.3.4 Recovery 164
7.4 Variable Activation Energy Theory 168
7.5 Summary 179
7.6 References 181

8. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 185

8.1 Discussion 185

8.2 Future Work 191
8.3 Conclusions 191
8.4 References 193

APPENDICES

A Normal Force Reduction Data A-I

B Other Test Data B-1

1 Effect of Insertion/Withdrawal Cycling Data B-2

2 Effect of Stress on Normal Force Reduction Data B-3

(vii)
C Published Papers C-l

C-2
1 N.A Stennett, T.P. Ireland and D.S. Campbell, "Normal
Force Reduction in Electronic Contacts", IEEE Transactions
on Components, Hybrids and Manufacturing Technology,
vo!. 14, no. 1, pp. 45-49, March 1991.

C-7
2. N.A Stennett, T.P. Ireland and D.S. Campbell, "Powered
Testing of Electrical Contacts in Mixed Flowing Gases", IEEE
Transactions on Components, Hybrids and Manufacturing
Technology, vo!. 14, no. 1, pp. 50-55, March 1991.

C-13
3. T.P. Ireland, N.A Stennett and D.S. Campbell, "Fretting
Corrosion of Tin Contacts", Transactions of the Institute of
Metal Finishing, no. 67, pp. 127-130, 1989.

C-17
4. T.P. Ireland, N.A Stennett and D.S. Campbell, 'The Effect
of Current and Voltage on the Performance of Tin Coated
Connectors During Life-Testing", Proceedings of CERT '90,
pp. 137-143, London, 1990.

C-24
5. T.P. Ireland and N.A Stennett, ''Basic Contact Physics - An
OvelView", Connector Industry News, vo!. 1., no. 3, pp. 16-19,
Nov 1989.

C-28
6. N.A Stennett and J.A Hayes, "Connector Reliability",
Proceedings of The Electric Contact in Automotive,
Aeronautical and Space Applications, pp. 145-150, Toulouse,
France, 1991.

(viii)
 ABBREVIATIONS
a Radius of an Asperity
a1 Material Constant
a2 Material Constant
'a' -spots Asperities
A Amps or Cross-Sectional Area (as defined)
A. Apparent Area of Contact
At, Mechanical (Load Bearing) Area of Contact
Ac Electrical (Real) Area of Contact
Ag Silver
AI Aluminium
Au Gold
Avg Average
A to-10
b Constant Relating Normal Force to Stored Spring Energy
b1 Material Constant
b2 Material Constant
Be Beryllium
c Temperature Dependent Parameter Representing the Zero
Intercept of a Straight Line
Cl Chlorine
CR Contact Resistance
Cu Copper
d Displacement, deformation or Diameter (as defined)
do Initial Displacement
dt Displacement After Time 't' Seconds
D Diameter of Macroconstriction
DTE Differential Thermal Expansion
e- Electron
E Young's Modulus
F Force
Fo Initial Force
Ft Force After Time 't' Seconds
FNF Final Normal Force
g Grammes or Force of Gravity (as defined)
gf Grammes Force
G A Constant for a Given Material
h Height
H Hardness
I Electric Current or Number of Insertions (as defined)
INF Initial Normal Force
kB Boltzmann's Constant
K Arhenius Constant
Kg Kilogramme
I Arc Length

(ix)
L Length
IJ Length
m Metres, Mass or Temperature Dependent Parameter Representing
the Slope of a Straight Line (as defined)
= Millimetres
M Modulus of Elasticity
Ml Position Minimum
M2 Position Minimum
M+ Metal Ion
Max Maximum
Min Minimum
n Number of Contact Spots
N Percentage Residual Normal Force
NI Predicted Percentage Residual Normal Force
Ni Nickel
o Oxygen
P Power
Pb Lead
Pd Palladium
Q Activation Energy
r Radius
R Radius or Rate of Process (as defined)
~ Bulk Resistance
Rc Constriction Resistance
Rc Film Resistance
Rm Microconstriction Resistance
RM Macroconstriction Resistance
R. Shell Resistance
Rec Record Number of Data Point in Appendix A
Ref Reference Number of Data Point in Appendix A
s Seconds
S Sulphur
S.D. Standard Deviation
SE Standard Error of Estimation
Sn Tin
SR Spring Rate
t Time
T Temperature
TEM Transmission Electron Microscopy
V Volts
Zn Zinc
ZIF Zero Insertion Force
a Material Constant
fJ Material Constant
00 Infinity
f Strain
p Resistivity
9 Angle

(x)
n Ohms
a Stress
1T 3.142
" Inches
·C Degrees Centigrade
·K Degrees Kelvin

Prefixes
c 10-2
m 10-3
I' 1O~
n 10-9

(xi)
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Components and Connectors

Any modem electronic system comprises of many different components

all of which have some part to play in the successful operation of that system.
When compared to the complex devices such as micro-processors one would
at first assume that the humble connector was a cheap and simple device that
required little thought. Yet if that simple device fails to function correctly the
whole system may be put out of action.

As electronic systems become more and more widespread, society relies

increasingly on them to perform all sorts of tasks. The result of these systems
failing to function correctly will depend on the specific equipment. A radio or
television not working properly may be classed as a minor inconvenience.
However an error in a navigation computer on an aircraft has the potential
for a crash or mid-air collision between two aircraft with subsequent heavy
loss of life. As a result, detailed knowledge of the reliability of electronic
systems is becoming of increasing importance.

In order to determine the reliability of a system many practitioners

believe that it is first necessary to assess the reliability of all the component
parts [1.1). However when considering the case of connector components one
immediately comes up against a kind of 'Black Art'. This is probably due to
the nature of the device. If a system fails and then during detailed
examination in the laboratory nothing can be found to be wrong with it, a
connector is often assumed to be at fault. To try and substantiate these claims

1
with evidence is virtually impossible since by definition all devices in the
equipment under test now seem to work perfectly normally. On the other hand
practical solutions to problems such as 'morning sickness' of advanced jet
fighters seem to suggest that connectors may be at fault. 'Morning sickness'
is the term used to describe aircraft electronic systems that do not work after
the aircraft has not been used for a period of time. The normal solution used
in practise (though not described in any of the manuals) is simply to
disconnect the cards from the rack and re-connect them.
, thought to be :
It has been stated that problems due to connectors are""mo~e numerous
than problems due to all other electronic components. This may at first seem
like a startling fact until it is realised that the number of contacts in use
probably outnumbers all other components combined. An electronic system
can be likened to a pyramid with the complex and expensive micro-processors
on the top but contacts forming the foundation stones at the base. Without
these foundations the pyramid would collapse.

1.2 Types of Contacts

As one might expect the field of electrical contacts has many different
types of devices. These may be classified into two distinct groups [1.2];
Permanent Contacts and Separable Contacts, see figure 1.1. Permanent
contacts are those contacts where the connection is only made once and the
two component parts are permanently fixed together. There are essentially two
types of these; fused and pressed. Fusion contacts are bonded together, usually
with another material, by the application of heat. When cooled they form a
permanent contact. An example of a fusion contact is a solder joint. Pressed
contacts are permanently deformed so that they form either cold welded joints
or springs which hold the interface together. An example of a pressed contact
is a crimp. Permanent contacts can only be separated by destroying the
interface.

2
 Electrical/Electronic
Contacts

Permanent Separable

Fused Pressed Switching Sliding Stationary

Figure 1.1
Categories of Electrical Contacts

Separable contacts as the name implies can be joined and separated

several times. This process is termed mating and unmating. There are
essentially three types of separable contacts [1.3]. switching, sliding and
stationary.

Switching and sliding contacts may be defined as those contacts that are
designed to be able to cope with relative motion between the two mating
halves whilst current is flowing through the interface. With switching contacts
this motion is usually perpendicular to the mating halves thus breaking the
flow of electrical current. Hence in addition to maintaining a low conduction
path when they are mated (turned on) they have to be able to deal with
electrical arcs and arc erosion at the interface during making and breaking.
Some switches have to endure a large number of mating cycles (ie. being
turned on and off). These facts make them different from most other forms
of contacts.

With sliding contacts the relative motion is parallel to the two mating
halves. An example of this type of contact is a brush and slip ring in an
electric motor. They have some properties similar to switching contacts in that

3
arcing at the edges of contact can cause problems. However their main
function is the making and maintaining of a low conduction path.

The final category of separable contacts is called stationary contacts.

This refers to all separable contacts that are not switching or sliding contacts.
It encompasses a wide variety of devices which may be electrical or electronic
in nature. Examples of stationary contacts may range from a simple plug and
socket found in nearly every household electrical appliance to large printed
circuit board connectors found in complex electronic equipment. It is this
category of contacts that will be considered in this thesis.

1.3 Definitions

A Stationary Contact is a component that allows the flow of electric

current between component parts of a system [l.4]. It has two modes of
operation, namely to complete the path or to break that path to allow the
component parts to be separated. As a consequence of this there can only be
two 'modes of failure' or 'Failure Modes'. It can fail to complete the
conduction path satisfactorily, or it cannot be separated.

For any particular failure mode there are numerous ways in which the
contact may fail. By isolating the individual processes responsible, the various
'Failure Mechanisms' may be defined.

With any type of production process the quality of the finished product
will vary from item to item. In today's world of production automation,
computer control of systems and improved quality assurance, this variation is
becoming less and less as companies strive for controlled reproducibility.
However all processes have human inputs and, in the real world mistakes are
occasionally made and it is possible for a sub-standard product to go into
service. An even larger source of failure is caused through the incorrect use
of a product. This can be alleviated to a certain extent by improved product
design (particularly housings - where applicable) and better education.

4
 These two sources of failures will produce a wide variety of failure
mechanisms. They may be termed as 'Extrinsic' failure mechanisms since
they are not inherent in the design. Although study of these will reduce their
occurrence, there is little to be gained that will improve the overall
fundamental knowledge of separable contacts. Therefore these types of
failures will not be considered here.

The types of failure mechanisms that will be examined are those which
occur when all external factors are correct. i.e. the contact is the right type, it
is made correctly out of the right materials, it is installed properly in the right
system - then in 'X' number of years hence, it fails. These may be termed as
'Intrinsic' failure mechanisms since they belong to the basic nature of the
device.

It is recognised that certain authors are currently disputing the

existence of intrinsic failure mechanisms [1.5, 1.6). However processes such as
diffusion [1.7) and normal force reduction [1.8) are known and recorded
phenomena which will affect the contact interface over a period of time.
Therefore these views are not accepted by this author [1.9).

1.4 Study Synopsis

The title of this thesis is 'Failure Mechanisms in Electronic

Connectors'. The aim of the research is to analyse the failure mechanisms in
electronic connectors with reference to the relationship between accelerated
and real life testing. There are a large number of ways in which a contact or
connector might fail. It would not be practical to study all of them. It was I

therefore decided that the work would focus on one particular type of failure
mechanism. The failure mechanism chosen for this research was Normal Force
Reduction. The aims are to thoroughly investigate the phenomena, to
understand how it occurs in real life and to develop accelerated tests for it.

5
 The work has been broken down into eight sections and a brief
description of each follows:-

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCfION
Shows how contacts and connectors are an integral part of all
electronic and electrical systems. Defines commonly used terms.
Categorises the field of contacts and highlights the relevant areas.
Outlines the scope of the study. Gives a brief synopsis of the work.

CHAPTER 2 - BASIC CONTACf PHYSICS

Deals with the fundamentals of the subject: how electrical contact is
made; what type of materials can be used; what are the properties of
a good electrical contact; how does the passage of an electric current
through the interface effect it; and why springs are used in contacts and
what are their properties.

CHAPTER 3 - FAILURE MECHANISMS

Details the various failure mechanisms that affect electronic
connectors. The failure mechanisms are arranged in a pyramidal
hierarchy to illustrate their properties.

CHAPTER 4 -NORMALFORCEANALYSISANDEXPERIMENTAL
STUDY
Explains why normal force reduction was chosen as the emphasis of the
work. Describes how the actual experimental results were obtained.
Gives results of evaluation tests used in deciding test format.

CHAPTER 5 - EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Shows the experimental results produced during the research into
normal force reduction in electrical contacts.

CHAPTER 6 - ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

Analyses the results given in chapter 5. An empirical relationship is
derived based on these results. Its uses and limitations are described.

6
 CHAPTER 7 • THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
Describes how anelastic behaviour has been incorporated into the
modem theory of elasticity. Examines theoretical processes that may
account for normal force reduction in contact springs. Details the
variable activation energy theory that has been developed to explain
the phenomenon. Produces a physical model based on this theory.

CHAPTER 8 • DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Discusses the results of the research. Draws conclusions from the
complete study. Future research is outlined.

1.5 Summary

This Introduction begins with an overview of how connectors fit into

the field of electrical and electronic components and systems. Some commonly
used terms and phrases are defined. Different types of contacts are specified.
Those relevant to this thesis are described, namely separable stationary
contacts and connectors. A brief synopsis of the study is given. The individual
chapters are outlined with a brief explanation of their contents.

7
1.6 References

1.1 C.T. Leonard and M. Pecht, "How Failure Prediction Methodology

Affects Electronic Equipment Design", Quality and Reliability
Engineering International, vol. 6, No. 4, p. 243·249, 1990.

1.2 I.H. Whitley, "How to Choose the Right Electrical Contact", Product
Engineering, McGraw Hill, 7th Dec, 1959.

1.3 R. Holm, "Electric Contacts", Springer-Verlag, New York, 1967.

1.4 R. Holm, "Electric Contacts", p. 1, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1967.

1.5 I.A McUnn, "Constant Failure Rate • A Paradigm in Transition?",

Quality and Reliability Engineering International, vol. 6, No. 4, p. 237-
241, 1990.

1.6 K.L Wong, 'Two Sides of the Reliability Inertia Coin", Quality and
Reliability Engineering International, vol. 6, No. 4, p. 236, 1990.

1.7 G. Kovacs, "Failure Analysis of Contaminated Gold-Plated Connector

Contacts from Operating Communications Equipment", IEEE
Transactions on Components, Hybrids and Manufacturing Technology,
vol. CHMT-5, no. 1, p. 95-101, March, 1982.

1.8 B. Wiltshire, ''Stress Relaxation Measurements ofAluminium Conductors

in Insulation Displacement Connectors (IDC) and Related Effects on
Contact Resistance", IEEE Transactions on Components Hybrids and
Manufacturing Technology, vol. CHMT-7, no. I, p. 11-19, 1984.

8
1.9 D.S. Campbell, JA Jones and A Schwarzenberger, "Reliability
Behaviour of Electronic Components as a Function of Time", To be
presented at the 5th International Conference on Quality in Electronic
Components Failure Prevention, Detection and Analysis, 7-11th Oct.,
1991.

9
10
 CHAPTER 2

BASIC CONTACf PHYSICS

2.1 Introduction

This section outlines the basic theory of how stationary electrical

contacts function (though much of the theory is common to other forms of
contacts, particularly pressed permanent contacts). The subject encompasses
a large number of disciplines. Normally considered to be electrical or
electronic devices, understanding how they function requires knowledge of
physics, chemistry, materials science, mechanical engineering, chemical
engineering and mathematics. The purpose of this chapter is to bring all these
disciplines together to provide a coherent understanding of the subject to the
reader. Ideas and concepts will be explained with frequent use of everyday
analogies and examples using typical values. Since the subject is so wide and
diverse in its' background, it is not possible to cover any particular area in
great detail. However the references used are extensive, and can be used to
gain a much fuller understanding of the evolution of the subject.

The chapter begins with a look at real surfaces and what happens when
they come into contact. This introduces concepts such as mechanical contact
and electrical contact which are explained in more detail. The phenomenon
of contact resistance is dealt with next and some mathematical models for
resistance calculation are defined. Temperature effects are then considered
and the chapter finishes by discussing the properties of the springs used within
contacts.

The focus of the study is normal force reduction in separable stationary

contacts and this subject will be covered at much greater length in a
subsequent chapter.

11
2.2 Surfaces

At the heart of an electronic connector, two metal surfaces are brought

together to allow electrons to pass from one metal to the other. The rest of
the connector is peripheral hardware to protect and maintain the interface. (A
small minority of connectors have housings modelled for cosmetic reasons).
Since the surface region is where 'the action is' in a connector it would seem
reasonable to begin by looking at this in greater detail.

Although many surfaces appear smooth on a macroscopic scale, they

are quite different when viewed on a microscopic scale [2.1]. A typical
example might be a shot blasted Aluminium Bus Bar. When examined with
a microscope the surface appears rough with hills and valleys. In fact a
reasonable analogy of the shape of the metal surface would be a range of hills
or mountains, such as the Lake District [2.2]. (The scaling involved with this
analogy is something like 1:109). Like the hills in the Lake District, typical
slopes would have a gradient of about 5%. For the Bus Bar, a typical value
of the 'hill to valley height' might reach 2.5 !-Im. For an electronic connector
this distance reduces to 0.5-1.0 !-Im. (For the surface of a ball bearing in a
gyroscope it can become as low as 2.5 nm).

Now that we have a more realistic picture of the surface of a typical

connector, the next aspect that needs examining is what happens when two of
these surfaces come together. To visualise this imagine that we take the Lake
District, turn it upside down, and hold it above the Snowdonia Mountain
Range in North Wales. By bringing the two mountain ranges together we are
now simulating the two halves of a contact being mated for the first time.

When the surfaces first meet they will do so at one point only. What
happens next depends on the hardness of the material at the surfaces. If they
were made from an 'ideal' material that was infinitely hard, then nothing

12
more would happen. Some lateral movement would probably occur resulting
in more point contacts, but there would normally only ever be a maximum of •
three.

An infinitely hard material is only a theoretical concept. All real

surfaces have a finite hardness. Since the initial point of contact will be
infinitely small, the local pressure at that point will be immense and some
form of deformation will take place [2.3]. The type of deformation that takes
place will depend upon the forces bringing the surfaces together and the
elasticity of the material involved [2.4]. With very small forces and a highly
elastic material it is possible that only elastic deformation would take place.
Here the area at the points of contact would increase until there was a
sufficient number to support the load pressing the surfaces together. When the
surfaces are pulled apart they would return to their original shape. i.e.
elastically.

Figure 2.1
Real Surfaces in Contact

13
 With the materials used in electronic connectors, the pressure exerted
at the initial points of contact is usually so great that the elastic limit of the
material is exceeded and plastic deformation occurs. There will of course still
be elastic deformation but the action of mating and unmating the connector
will cause some permanent deformation, see fig 2.1.

Having described the process that occurs when a connector is mated,

it is worthwhile considering for a moment and visualising what this actually
means. Electronic connectors tend to be relatively small devices. Typically the
area of the mating surfaces will be in the order of a few square millimetres.
However even this surface, though it would appear so at first glance, doesn't
represent the true area of mechanical contact. In fact only a very small
fraction of these areas actually touch each other. This is further compounded
by the fact that due to surface films and foreign objects (eg. dust particles) the
area of metal to metal contact may be even less [2.5]. It is through this very
small area of metal to metal contact that all the current passing through the
connector is constrained to flow.

D Aa

o Ab

III Ac

Figure 2.2
Cross Section of an Asperity

14
 It is relatively easy to calculate the area of mechanical contact for a
given system. This is detailed in the next paragraph. However before
proceeding it is worth mentioning some commonly used expressions that are
involved in this part of the subject [2.6). The area that would at first glance
seem to be the area of contact is caJJedthe Apparent Area or Contact (A,.).
The area that is in mechanical contact is referred to as the Load Bearing Area
(At,). The area of metal to metal contact is known as the Real Area or Contact
(A,,). These are illustrated in fig 2.2. (In a system which comprises of two
clean metal cylinders, whose diameter is a few millimetres, and where a large
enough load is supplied, it is possible that A,. = At, = A,,). The points in a
system where actual metal to metal contact occurs are known as Asperities or
'a'.spots [2.7).

The hardness (H) of a material is a measure of how much the material

will deform due to a given load. There are several different scales available
for determining the hardness of a given material [2.8). These are all
empirically based and essentially rely on impacting a test specimen with a
known shape at a known force into the material under test. The resulting area
of deformation gives a measure of the hardness. If the hardness of the surface
region of a connector is known, then the area of mechanical contact for
various normal force loads (F • the force pressing the surfaces together) can
be determined using the following equation [2.9):-

F=A,JI (2.1)

where: F is the normal force

~ is the area of mechanical contact
H is the hardness of the material

While this equation suggests a linear relationship between force and

mechanical area of contact, there are two points which are worth bearing in
mind. At very light loads the value of the hardness may be significantly
affected by any films or contamination present on the surface. At very heavy

15
loads it is not possible to obtain 100% contact of previously rough surfaces,
in the apparent area of contact. A phenomenon known as asperity persistence
occurs, see references [2.3, 2.4] for further details.

One of the scales of hardness is called the Vickers' or Knoop's

Hardness Number. Here the hardness is expressed in Kg/mm2• To illustrate
this concept there follows an example in which the numbers are typical values
found in a typical electronic connector system.

Example:

A pin of diameter 0.1" fits into a socket with an insertion stroke of 0.25" and
an insertion force of SOg. The spring holding the two members together has
a spring rate of 10g/0.OOI" and is displaced 0.010". If the hardness of the metal
is Knoop 31.4 Kg/mm2, what is the area of mechanical contact?

The spring rate (SR) = IOg/O.OOI", the deflected (d) = 0.010", therefore
Normal Force (F) is given by:-

F = SR.d = 100g

Using equation (2.1)

Ab = -F = O.OO318Smm 1
H

If this whole area was located on one circular spot it's radius (r) would be:-

1
Ab '2
r = ( -;- ) = O.032mm

For a real contact this area would be the sum of all the individual smaller
'a'-spots, this example gives some idea of how small the area of mechanical
contact typically is!

16
2.3 Electrical Contact

As mentioned earlier, the load bearing area of contact, A." of a

connector does not always equal the real area of contact, Ac- The reason for
this arises because the surfaces of most real metals rapidly become covered
with oxides and other contaminating films when they are exposed to air. Since
most of these films are electrically insulating, they can be potentially
disastrous to a connector. There are essentially three ways to overcome this
problem:-

i) Use a metal that does not react with the atmosphere to form
oxides or contaminating films. i.e. a 'noble' metal.

ii) Use a metal whose films can easily be broken down

mechanically.

iii) Use a metal whose films can easily be broken down electrically.

These phenomena are detailed next.

2.3.1 Noble Metals

Certain metals referred to as the 'Noble' or 'Precious' metals are

chemically very stable and do not readily tarnish when exposed to the
atmosphere. This is one of the reasons why they are used extensively in
jewellery. This property would at first sight make them ideal for use for the
interface of a connector. However there are a few drawbacks which must be
considered [2.10].

The service life of a connector can quite often exceed 10 years.

Although noble metals don't readily tarnish, over this length of time

17
contamination will grow on many of them [2.11, 2.12]. The one notable
exception to this process is gold. Apart from a thin adsorbed layer - which all
material have when exposed to the atmosphere - gold will remain
contamination free in all realistic environments [2.13]. (The adsorbed layer
mentioned is typically only a few molecules thick and does not present a
problem to the flow of electrons across the interface [2.14].

The second drawback is that as their name implies, precious metals are
often scarce and as a consequence expensive [2.15]. In most cases it would be
financially impractical to manufacture connectors solely out of precious metals.
However there are instances where 'money is no object' and this approach
can be used. An example of this was the connectors for the Lunar Rover used
on the Apollo missions to the moon. Here items such as connectors were very
cheap compared to other components of the project, and so there were no
budget constraints placed on them. As a consequence of this, the connectors
were made almost entirely out of gold.

Having determined that precious metals or more specifically gold,

possess properties ideal for use in connectors, how can the problems of cost
be alleviated? The obvious solution is to only use gold in the surface region
of the connector where the specific properties are required. This can be
achieved by various means such as plating or rolling thin gold inlays onto the
surface. In fact this is what actually happens with high quality connectors used
today.

Since the gold is the most expensive material used in a connector the
temptation is to use as little as possible. However problems do arise if not
enough is used [2.16]. As thinner platings are used, a point will be reached
where it no longer completely covers the surface [2.17]. The surface cover is
incomplete and tiny holes remain called pores. These allow the atmosphere
to attack the material underneath and the resulting corrosion products can
affect the integrity of the junction [2.18]. This process is called 'Pore
Corrosion' [2.19].

18
 A further risk of using thin gold plating is that atoms from underneath
the metal can diffuse through the plating. Once at the surface they corrode
leaving contamination products which can be detrimental to the connector.
The process is referred to as 'Diffusion' [2.20).

Gold consumption can be further reduced by only plating the contact

in the region of the interface. This process is called selective plating [2.21).
The major drawback is that corrosion products formed on the non plated
areas of the connector can move over the plated gold surface. This
phenomenon is known as 'Surface Migration' [2.22, 2.23, 2.24).

Pore corrosion, diffusion and surface migration are all possible failure
mechanisms that may befall a badly designed connector. They all arise out of
the need to reduce costs and provide cheaper connectors. Chapter 3 deals with
these phenomena in more detail and examines ways to control their
detrimental effects. At this stage though it is worth noting that with
connectors, like so many things in life, you quite often 'get what you pay for'!

2.3.2 Soft Metals with Brittle Oxides

Certain metals such as Tin and Aluminium have the property that their
oxides are brittle compared to the metal itself. This results in an interesting
phenomenon occurring when two such surfaces are brought together. As the
peaks of the asperities on the surface deform, the redistribution of the metal
causes the oxide film on the surface to be stretched, see fig 2.3. Because the
oxide is brittle, compared to the metal underneath, it cracks. The softer metal
from beneath is then squeezed through the gaps. Where crack lines happen
to coincide on the mating faces metal to metal contact results [2.2, 2.25, 2.26).
It is this contact situation that is required in practise with the resultant metal
to metal interface being kept free from further oxidation by this intimate
nature of the contact.

19
 It may seem difficult at first to imagine a metal being squeezed through
such tiny cracks. However it must be remembered that as the asperity is being
deformed the region of metal directly under it must be at its' yield pressure.
Hence the zone is very highly stressed and the metal can flow comparatively
easily.

The process is aided by surface roughness. The 'sharper' the peak the
more the oxide will be stretched as the peak deforms. Hence the larger the
gaps in the oxide for metal to be pushed through. Conversely if the two
surfaces are very smooth the 'peaks of the hills' would become so shallow
that the oxide would not crack producing high contact resistances.

ID TIN OXIDE ~TIN

BEFORE AFTER

Figure 2.3
DeCormation oC an Asperity at a Tin-Tin Interface

20
 While on the subject of surface roughness it is worth discussing the
advantages and disadvantages. As was discussed above, one of the advantages
is that it assists in forining a stable interface between certain connector
systems. Another advantage that rougher surfaces have is that they can mask
the effects of dust or particulate contamination in the apparent area of
contact. If the particles are smaller in size than the 'height of the valleys' on
the surface then they can lodge in the valleys and therefore the actual contact
wne is unaffected [2.5]. This topic will be discussed in more detail in chapter
3.

The major drawback with very rough surfaces is that the wear rate in
the contact region increases for a given number of mating and unmating cycles
[2.27]. With systems which require a high number of mating and unmating
cycles this can result in plating wear through and loss of integrity of the
interface [2.28].

As a footnote, it should be noted that a popular method of repairing

tin contacts that have stopped working is to rub them with a wire brush to
'remove the oxide'. However the initial oxide growth on tin in an air
atmosphere is very rapid and this would not appear to be effective. The action
of the wire brush doesn't actual clean the contact surfaces of oxide but
roughens them up. This makes the peaks on the surface 'sharper' and
ensures that the deformation that takes place when the surfaces are brought
together is sufficient to crack the oxides and form good metal to metal
contact.

2.3.3 Electrical Breakdown of Surface Films

The last method by which oxides and insulating films may be overcome
is by electrical breakdown. Since these films are comparatively thin a suitable
voltage placed across the connector should be capable of blowing holes
through them. In high powered connectors this is what in fact occurs. An

21
interesting point has been made concerning this effect. It has been stated that
the main reason why long distance power lines function so well for such a long
time is because of the occasional lightning strikes which hit them. These may
only occur every 20 years or so, but the huge voltage pulses that are produced
have the effect of destroying the build up of insulating films at the contact
area.

Realising that this phenomenon occurs with high powered contacts,

what about low powered contacts where the voltages involved may not be
sufficient to break through the films? This is not necessarily an impasse as
some metals form films which are slightly conducting. Examples of these are
Copper and Silver [2.29].

When these types of metals are brought into contact a process known
as fritting can take place [2.30]. In certain parts of the interface surface films
may be very thin (as little as 20 A). When a voltage is placed across the
contacts, very high voltage ~adients are developed. This combined with the
reduced insulating properties of the films allows a spark to be induced which
jumps across the gap between the two metals and burns a small hole in the
film. Metal near the hole boils and the vapour coats the inside of the hole
with a metal film. However this thin film is not sufficient to sustain the flow
of current, and thermal shattering of the oxide takes place. Metal vapour fills
the gaps and welds the two metal surfaces together. Electrical contact is made.

Obviously this process has its limitations as well. For very low powered
contacts that are to be found in many of todays electronic circuits other
methods must be used. However it does have a place and when applicable it
can be used to produce cheap and reliable connectors.

22
2.4 Constriction Resistance

2.4.1 Definition

IT we consider an electric or electronic circuit, a connector will simply

appear as a resistance. This is known as the 'Contact Resistance'. This
quantity is obviously important to connector manufacturers and users as it is
one of the criteria used to specify a connector. It is now appropriate to look
at this parameter a little more closely.

The Contact resistance (CR) of a connector normally has three

components [2.31]:-

i) A bulk resistance (Rb) due to the current having to flow through

the bulk of the connector.

ii) A constriction resistance (Rc) due to the current being

constrained to flow through the tiny areas of metal to metal
contact.

iii) A film resistance (Rr) due to the effects of any films present at
the interface.

Hence:

(2.2)

The bulk resistance occurs because any current passing through a

contact or connector must pass through some/all parts of the body. Although
this will be a conductor it will still offer some resistance to the flow of electric
current. It is something that is inescapable for all connectors. In addition it
will be present in all measurements made on real connectors. rO~e . way
to remove it from calculations is to determine what it is for a particular

23
 system, either by measurement or calculation, and subtract it from any results.
By its nature it is stable and should not change during the life of a connector.
However it will usually exhibit a high positive temperature coefficient of
resistivity which needs to be considered in any detailed analysis.
'An alternative method IS to use the non-linearity of the constriction resistance
lWhich is detailed in reference [2.57J ,_
,
!
I
\ \
I,
\ , ,
, \\///
I I I I

" ....,'v'/
, .. ,""

I
/,"'",,"'i \ " ....,
I I t \ ,
I I I \ ,
I" I \\ \\
" I I

1,, ,,I
, ,
·1
I
!I
I I
! !

Figure 2.4
Comparison of Current Flow in a Conductor and a Contact

The constriction resistance arises from the fact that current can only
flow through areas of metal to metal contact (" in fig 2.2). This leads to a
definition of constriction resistance as 'the increase in resistance due to the
current being constrained to pass through the contact spots' (see fig 2.4.)

The film resistance is a result of the fact that the area of mechanical
contact may be affected by films on the surface [2.32J. These may further
reduce the area of actual metal to metal contact hence increasing the
resistance to the flow of current. These films may be readily affected by
voltages used to measure them, and may therefore be difficult to detect. To
overcome this problem "dry circuit" resistance measurement may be used.
With this method the test voltages and currents are confined to low levels
(typically <100mA, <2OmV) to prevent disrupting the surface films [2.33,
2.34J.

24
2.4.2 Mathematical Derivation of Constriction Resistance

Whereas bulk and film resistances will vary with contact design and
levels of corrosion, it is possible to produce mathematical formulae for
determining the constriction resistance at the contact interface. To derive it
in an exact form would require several pages of complicated mathematics.
However a simplified approach is possible and this is now illustrated [2.35].
see fig 2.5.

Figure 2.5
Simplified Model for Calculating Constriction Resistance

2.4.2.1 Approximate Method

Assume: - that the whole area of metal to metal contact is located within
one 'a'-spot of radius 'a'.
Let: the sphere encompassing the 'a'-spot also having a radius 'a'
have infinite conductivity;
the metal be of constant resistivity' p'.

25
Considering the top half of the connector only:-

The resistance (dRJ of a shell radius 'r' from the centre of the contact spot
and thickness 'dr' is given by the formula:

dR = 1!.dr = _P-dr
'A 2nr 2

where p is the resistivity

A is the cross-sectional area through which the current is
flowing, which in this case is 21rr2 (the area of half a sphere)

Therefore the total constriction resistance R.: for both half spheres in series
is:

(2.3)

The actual value based on more rigorous calculations is given in

equation (2.4). This still assumes one contact spot and that the resistance, if
the contact was replaced with a full conducting surface (re. definition of
constriction resistance), is so small that it is negligible.

R =..E.. or 1!. (2.4)

• 2a d

where d is the diameter of the 'a'-spot

As an Example:-

Calculate the constriction resistance (CR) of a contact with the following

properties:-

Hardness (H) = 35 Knoop (35 Kg/mm2); resistivity (p) = 2.35 x ltr Gem;
Normal Force (F) = lOOg; Current (I) O.lA

26
From equation (2.1)

A) = F = O.00286mm 2
H

where At, is the area of metal to metal contact

Assume 1 circular spot

d = (~b)~ = 0.0603mm

where At, is the area of a circle

r is the radius
d is the diameter

Hence using equation (2.4)

R. = ..e. = O.390mO
d

N.B. This result is surprisingly low when considering that bulk resistances of
contacts can typically be in the order of 5 mO. A value of 0.4 Inn is found to
be about right in practise for a good electronic connector design.

As mentioned previously, the major flaw with this model is that it

assumes that only one circular contact spot occurs. In reality this is far from
the truth and the effect may not be negligible. As a result the accuracy is only
to within a factor of two of the correct value. However it must be remembered
that typical values of constriction resistance (for new contacts) are very small
(see above) especially when considered against bulk resistance (eg. Rb =5mn).
Therefore accurate theoretical determination of Rc is practically of less
importance than at first might be assumed. A much more important quantity
is the change in contact resistance due to the ageing of a contact. This is
determined empirically and will be examined in greater detail later.

27
2.4.2.2 Detailed Method

With real contact spots the real area of contact is the sum of several
small contact spots distributed randomly within the apparent area of contact.
The positioning of these contact spots can affect the constriction resistance
significantly [2.36). This can be explained qualitatively as follows.

Consider two rooms both having two doors. In the first room the doors
are positioned side by side, in the second they are at opposite sides of the
room. Assuming all the doors to be the same size, if a crowd of people had
to leave either room in a hurry they would be able to do it much quicker in
the second room. Although the constriction in the flow of people through the
doors would be the same in both rooms, in the first room this would be
further compounded by the fact that the constrictions interfered with each
other. The same reasoning can be used with constrictions caused by'a'-spots
at the connector interface. The constriction of a connector with regular evenly
distributed 'a'-spots would differ from that of a connector with one contact
spot, assuming the areas of contact and materials involved to be the same.

Microconstrictions (R m)

'n' Contact Spots

Macroconstridion (R M)

Figure 2.6
Current Constriction Through a Multiple Contact Region

28
 The formula for contact resistance can be modified to take into account
the distribution of the 'a'-spots [237]. The revised formula is given by
equation (2.5). This appreciates the fact that with a real connector there are
two types of constriction to take into account. There is a macro-constriction,
determined by the overall distribution of the contact spots, and a parallel
combination of micro-constrictions due to the individual spots, see fig 2.6.

R =R +R =.£.+..£... (2.5)
c AI -Dnd

where RM is the macro-constriction resistance

Rm is the sum of the parallel micro-constriction resistances
p is the resistivity of the material
D is the diameter of the macro-constriction
n is the number of contact spots
d is the effective diameter of the individual contact spots

It is worth noting that as the load pressing the contacts together is

increased the number of contact spots will increase. This results in the Rm
component becoming less significant compared to the RM component. Hence
the interface begins to act as one large contact spot.

Obviously equation (2.5) is not as straightforward to use as the simpler

equation (2.4). For very accurate applications of the formula a detailed
knowledge of the number, size and distribution of the individual contact spots
is required in order to calculate 'D'. In practice this information may prove
very difficult to obtain for real contacts. Since 'D' is quite often close to the
diameter of the apparent area of contact, this could be used as a way of
simplifying the maths. Even if 'D' can be determined accurately one still has
the problem determining 'n' and 'd'.

Equation (2.5) can give results with an accuracy of 1% for certain 'a'-
spot distributions. This compares very favourably with equation (2.4). However
(2.4) is far easier to use and as demonstrated in the previous example, initial

29
values of constriction resistance are usually so low that this level of accuracy
is all that is required. In addition, with certain types and distributions of
contact spots that could arise, the error produced through using (2.5) can be
significantly greater than 1%.

2.4.2.3 Complex Method

Another formula for constriction resistance has been developed in the

Soviet Union which takes into account a third term [2.38]. This relates to the
interaction between various groups of contact spots referred to as 'Clusters'.
However by its' nature it is more complicated than equation (2.5) and
although theoretically very interesting, practically it is less useful. /

2.4.3 Plated Contacts

The calculations up to this point have only considered base metal

connectors. However many connectors are plated. The mathematical theory
outlined previously, showed that resistivity and area of contact are the
important parameters in calculating constriction resistance.

The deformation of asperities, due to the surfaces being brought

together, is a very localised phenomenon [2.17]. This means that the hardness
of the plated material and the normal force, will determine the area of
contact. However compared to the region of the constriction, dimensions of
.plating used in connectors are usually small, see fig 2.7. As a result of this, the
bulk of the constriction occurs in the base material, and so its' resistivity
should be used in calculations. Hence when calculating the constriction
resistance in a plated connector'the 'H' of the plating material should be
used and the 'p' of the base material [2.17].

30
 ------- - - - - -

Constriction Region

~ Plating EZ3 Base Metal

Figure 2.7
Constriction Region at an Asperity of a Plated Contact

2.5 Temperature Effects.

When electric current passes through a resistor, energy is dissipated in

the form of heat. This heat will increase the temperature of the resistor
relative to the surroundings. The generation of heat may be desirable in
certain components such as heating elements. However it may well be fatal for
others if constraints are not placed on the levels of temperature rises that can
occur. A connector or contact is one such device [2.39). The consequences of ~

this will now be examined.

2.5.1 Rated Current and Bulk Temperature

When heat is generated within a contact due to the passage of electric

current it is dissipated away be means of conduction through the cabling (eg
copper wires are good conductors of heat) and convection into the

31
surrounding atmosphere. The rate at which this occurs will depend on several
factors. The temperature difference between the contact and the surrounding
atmosphere and cabling will drive the process, whereas the thermal
conductivity of the contact, associated housing and cabling will determine how
effectively it occurs. If the rate at which heat is produced is greater than the
rate at which it can escape, then the bulk temperature of the contact will rise.
This will increase the temperature difference and so cause more heat to be
driven out.

The process stabilises when the heat generated by the current passing
through the contact is balanced by the heat lost to the surrounding
atmosphere and cabling. At this stage the bulk temperature will be larger than
the ambient temperature by an amount which will be a function of the size of
current passing through. This gives a constraint on the amount of current that
a particular device can carry, since limits set for the safe working temperature
of a contact must not be exceeded. This is referred to as the current rating.

In practice a contacts' current rating is almost exclusively obtained

experimentally. The maximum temperature rise above ambient is usually
chosen to be either 20·C or 30·C. The current rating of a contact is the
current which when passed through the device will increase the bulk
temperature by this amount. There is no scientific reason for the villue of
temperature rise chosen.

The normal environment for determining the current rating for a single
contact is in air. In practice that contact may be part of a connector with
several other contacts all passing rated current. The effects of the heat .
generated by the other contacts and the thermal properties of the housing
make it highly likely that contact bulk temperatures will regular exceed the
30·C over ambient threshold. In addition bulk temperature is normally
measured at the surface of the contact and higher temperature may well occur
at its' centre. Due to these problems the current rating should be treated more
as a guide rather than as absolute limit.

32
2.5.2 Super Temperature

As detailed earlier, the contact resistance of a typical contact is

relatively small (ie.in the mn region). As a consequence of this, heating effects
or bulk temperature rise would only be expected to be minimal apart from
when very large currents are involved. When considering the contact as a
whole this is generally true. However the actual interface, which is the critical
part of any contact, can exhibit some strange properties. To illustrate this
effect the following example gives typical values for heat energy dissipation
due to the constriction resistance.

Example:-
Calculate the power dissipated (P) in the conriector used in the previous
example when a current of 0.1A is passed through it.

From previous example

CR (Constriction Resistance) = i 0.39- ~n

P = PR = 3.9"W (2.6)

where P is the power dissipated

R is resistance
I is electric current

At first sight this may seem a very small amount, but it must be
remembered that this is dissipated in the area of influence of the constriction.
This is the area surrounding the tiny 'a'-spots which are in metal to metal
contact. Typically the material involved only has a mass of about 1 x 10-12 Kg.
As a consequence even this relatively small amount of heat causes the 'a'-
spots to heat up to a temperature far in excess of the bulk temperature. This
temperature is referred to as the super temperature of a connector [2.40, 2.41,
2.42, 2.43, 2.44].

33
 There are a couple of interesting facts concerning this effect. Firstly it
is a very localised phenomenon needing only a distance of about 5 'a'-spot
diameters from the spots before the temperature returns to the bulk
temperature [2.41]. Secondly because the amount of material involved is so
small the process has a very small time constant, measured in microseconds
[2.41]. Hence a current need only be applied for about a microsecond for
thermal equilibrium at the contact spot to be reached. Thus the process is very
sensitive to current 'spikes' and noise.

As a consequence of the super temperature at the interface there are

two important considerations. Firstly, an approximation used in chemistry is _
• • • ~ I [2.58]
that for every 10' C rue In temperature the reaction rate doubles. Thus_
because of the heating up of the interface it would be expected that the rate
at which corrosion takes place would be increased. Secondly, the voltages
required to cause the 'a'-spots to reach melting point are comparatively low.
Thus if care is not taken melting will occur with subsequent welding of the
'a'-spots. While this may be desirable in power connectors, it may have very
detrimental effects on wear rates and produce intermittencies (small period
open circuit 'pulses') in other contacts.

2.6 Spring Analysis.

In order to hold two objects together which are not fIxed to elich other,
it is necessary to apply a force to them [2.45]. In many mUlti-part systems, such
as connectors, this force is supplied by a spring. Sometimes it may not be
obvious where the point of action of the spring is, but it must always be
present. A spring member is therefore an integral part of all connector
systems.

34
2.6.1 Ideal Stress/Strain Curves

When force is applied to a material a certain amount of deformation

takes place associated with that force. Conversely if a material is deformed,
forces will be developed within it to oppose the distorting forces. This is
essentially how springs work. In order to investigate these properties more
fully it is more convenient to talk in terms of stress and strain rather than
force and displacement/deformation. It is therefore appropriate at this stage
to define what we mean by the terms stress and strain [2.46).

F (2.7)
STRESS ( (1 ) = -
A

where F is the applied force

A is the area over which it is applied

dL (2.8)
STRAIN ( e ) = -
L

where L is the original length

dL is the change in length due to an applied force

The effects of force and displacement on materials can be characterised

by their stress/strain curves. This is simply a plot of how stress varies with
strain and vice versa. With metals an ideal stress/strain curve is shown in
figure 2.8. This can be explained as follows [2.47]. There are two distinct zones
of deformation, namely elastic deformation and plastic deformation.

35
 Elastic
Deformation
Plastic
I,.
o

o
Deformation

(11
(11
Q)
.... Yield Point
....
Vl

When Stress
is Removed
j
Strain

Figure 2.8
Idealised Stress/Strain Curve for a Metal [2.47]

2.6.1.1 Elastic Deformation

In the elastic zone any force applied to the metal will cause the atoms
in the lattice to change position. This will cause inter-atomic forces to be
developed which will act in such a way as to try and return the atoms to their
original position. To understand why this happens it is necessary to consider
how atoms are held together within the crystal lattice of a metal. An exact
explanation is not easy to grasp, since the inter-atomic bonding is metallic
[2.48]. A fuller account can be found in reference [2.49] but essentially there
are two types of forces at play, one attractive and one repulsive. When atoms
are very close together the repulsive force dominates and tends to push them
further apart. At larger atomic separations the attractive force dominates and
tends to pull them together. When in equilibrium the two forces balance each
other and the structure is stable.

If an external force is applied which tends to push the atoms together,

the repulsive force takes over and opposes it. Similarly for an external force
tending to pull the atoms apart, the attractive force takes over and opposes

36
it. In both cases if the applied force is removed the metal will return to it's
original shape. This gives the wne of elastic deformation where increasing the
stress causes a corresponding linear increase in the strain.

As can be seen from figure 2.8 the relationship between stress and
strain in the elastic region is linear. The slope of this line reflects the relative
ability of a particular material to resist deformation. This quantity is called the
modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus [2.50] and is defined as follows:-

a (2.9)
E=-
e

where E is Young's modulus

a is stress
f is strain

2.6.1.2 Plastic Deformation

Eventually there comes a point were the stresses are so large that they
are able to cause the planes of atoms to slip over each other. Once this starts
to occur no extra force is required to continue the slip. This corresponds to
the plastic wne of deformation. As the applied force is removed the metal
will once again return to the elastic region. The rate of return is the same as
the previous elastic zone but the curve is displaced to the right. The system
has now been permanently deformed.

2.6.2 Real Stress/Strain CU"es

As one would expect the case for real metals is slightly different.
Firstly, the atoms in real metals do not form perfect crystals, and so
imperfections in the lattice must be considered. Secondly, the way in which
deflection occurs may cause non uniform distribution of the stress. These
effects are now considered.

37
2.6.2.1 Lattice Imperfections

Atoms in a real metal do not form a perfect lattice. This means that
when the metal is stressed, different parts of the structure yield before others
due to the dislocations and imperfections in the lattice. These dislocations are
,
moved through the lattice until they reach the surface where they disappear.
This then leads to a 'temporary strengthening' of the metal until the stress
reaches a value large enough to cause the next 'weakest' dislocation to yield.
The process of removing dislocations is known as work hardening and can be
used to increase the elastic limit (yield point) of a metal. This effect is
illustrated in figure 2.9.

Stress
(N/mm 2 )

500
400
300
200
100

0.01 0.02
Strain (%)

Figure 2.9
Stress/Strain Curve Cor Beryllium-Copper (1.7% Be) [2.51]

2.6.2.2 Non Uniform Stress Concentrations

Consider a rectangular beam deflected as shown in figure 2.10. This

will cause the stress concentrations to vary throughout the beam. This can be
illustrated as follows. Initially the beam was of length 'L' as shown. After

38
deformation the only part of the beam to remain of length 'L' will be the
neutral axis which by definition will be unchanged. Therefore the rest of the
beam will be strained and the amount of strain can be calculated using
equations 2.8 and 2.10.

Neutra I Axis

Figure 2.10
Cross-Section of a Rectangular Beam During Bending

Given:

1= r x 6 (2.10)

where - I is the arc length

r is the radius of the arc
e is the angle subtended
then from equation 2.10

L' = (R + h ).6

where - IJ is the arc length at distance h from the neutral axis

R is the radius to the neural axis
and from equation 2.8

STRAIN ( e ) = -dL = L' - L = -h

L L L

39
 It can now be seen from the calculation that as the spring is bent, the
strain varies throughout it's cross-section. Hence the stress will vary
accordingly. As the deformation becomes more severe, then eventually. the
most highly stressed parts (ie. the edges of the beam) will reach the yield
point. As a consequence even if the spring was made out of an ideal metal it's
stress strain curve would resemble the one shown in figure 2.11. This zone is
called semi-plastic because a certain proportion of the metal is in plastic flow,
while the remainder is elastic.

N.B. This mechanism is completely different from the one described

previously.

Semi- Fully
Plastic Plastic
.~
t}
Cl) <;:;0
Cl)
Q)
~
+-
(f)

Strain

Figure 2.11
Stress/Strain Curve for the Beam Being Deflected in fig 2.10

2.6.3 Manufacture of Springs

Most springs are stamped in order to give them their desired shape.
During the stamping process plastic flow occurs in the spring which is why it
retains it's shape. However it should be remembered that as the deforming

40
forces are removed the spring must enter the elastic zone. This means that as
the spring comes out of the stamping die it will change it's shape slightly,
corresponding to the elastic zone of the metal. Figure 2.12 shows the effect
[2.52].

----------..........,................•.....,
Compression ,-' ../
Neutral ----------J/ ./
Axis
T_e_n_s o_n_ _..::/~:... __ ,
-=:._ _ ·_1 ..//..-
Compression -' ..-/
--~----k ..-
Tension ,/

Shape of Spring
...................... Shape of Stamping Die
----------- 'Desired' Shape of Spring

Figure 2.ll
EtTect of Stamping Process on a Real Spring

The line marked .......... represents the shape of the stamping die. The
line marked ______ represents the position the individual layers of the
spring would prefer to go to if they were free to do so. This arises because
after stamping the lower portion of the spring would be in compression and
'wants' to expand. The upper portion of the spring is in tension and 'wants'
to contract. Obviously the two halves of the spring are attached together and
so both these criteria cannot be met. The resulting compromise leaves the
spring with the bands of tension and compression shown.

Thus even before we do anything with our spring we are not starting
with zero stresses inside it. In this example there are alternating bands of
tension and compression. This phenomenon can be used to increase the elastic
limit of a spring when using non uniform cross sections.

41
2.6.4 Anelasticity

In no real metal is the strain in the preplastic range a function of stress

alone [2.53, 2.54]. It has been found practically that over time, stresses relax
and deflection or distortion leads to permanent deformation. These processes
are known as stress relaxation and creep respectively [2.55, 2.56], see figure
2.13 and can be defined as follows:-

Stress Relaxation - a time dependent load (stress) decrease occurring

with fixed geometry

Creep a time dependent geometry change (strain or

displacement) occurring under fixed load

Stress
Creep
Relaxation
Initially
Fo

After time "t" After time "t"

~l

Figure 2.13
Diagrammatic Representation of Stress Relaxation and Creep

42
2.7 Summary

This chapter explained the fundamentals of how stationary electrical

contacts are made and maintained. Its' purpose was not to cover every aspect
in great detail but to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject.
Detailed references have been provided for any reader wishing to delve more
deeply into the evolution of the subject. It was divided into six sections which
are briefly described next.

1 INTRODUCTION
Gave a short introduction.

2 SURFACES
Described what actually occurs when two real surfaces are brought into
contact. It defined some commonly used terms and gave a
mathematical relationship for calculating the area of contact between
two touching surfaces. This was illustrated with an example.

3 ELECfRlCAL CONTACT
Described the three principle methods of producing good electrical
contact between two metal surfaces. ie. use of noble metals, use of
metals with films that can be broken down mechanically, use of metals
with filrns that can be broken down electrically.

4 CONSTRICTION RESISTANCE
Defined constriction resistance and gave two mathematical formulae
for its' calculation. An example was given.

5 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
Described the meaning of a 'contact current rating' and 'super
temperature'.

43
6 SPRING ANALYSIS
Detailed some concepts such as elastic and plastic deformation. These
were then used to describe how actual spring are formed and what
their properties are. A short section introduces anelasticity, though this
is discussed at much greater length in a subsequent chapter.

44
2.8 References

2.1 F.P. Bowden and D. Tabor, 'The Friction and Lubrication of Solids", pp.
1-24, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1954.

2.2 J.B.P. Williamson, 'The Microworld of the Contact Spot", Proceedings

of the 27th Holm Conference, pp. 1-10, Chicago,IL, USA, 1981.

2.3 JA Greenwood and J.B.P. Williamson, "Contact of Nominally Flat

Surfaces", Proceedings of the Royal Society, A, volume 295, pp. 300-
319, 1966.

2.4 J.B.P. Williamson and RT. Hunt, "Asperity Persistence and the Real
Area of Contact Between Rough Surfaces", Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A, volume 327, pp. 147-157, 1972.

2.5 J.B.P. Williamson, J.A Greenwood and J.Harris, 'The Influence of Dust
Particles on the Contact of Solids", Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
volume 237, pp. 560-573, 1956.

2.6 R Holm, "Electric Contacts", pp. 7-9, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1967.

2.7 M. Runde, H. Kongsjorden, J. Kulsetas and B. Totdal, "Detection of A-

Spots in Aluminium Contacts", Proceedings of the 31st Holm
Conference, pp. 43-51, Chicago, IL, USA, 1985.

2.8 R Holm, "Electric Contacts", appendix I, pp.367-379, Springer-Verlag,

New York, 1967.

2.9 R Holm, "Electric Contacts", pp. 1-2, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1967.

2.10 RG. Baker, "Electrical Contact Finishes", Proceedings of 'Connectors

89', pp. 8-18, Coventry, England, 1989.

45
2.11 S.P. Shanna and E.S. Sproles, Jr., "Reaction of Palladium with Chlorine
and Hydrogen Chloride", Proceedings of the 27th Holm Conference, pp.
203-210, Chicago, IL, USA, 1981.

2.12 S.P. Shanna and L.L. Hines, "Oxidation of Ruthenium", Proceedings of

the 28th Holm Conference, pp. 29-33, Chicago, IL, USA, 1982.

2.13 G. Tissier, C.Le Gressus and J. Bouygues, "Surface Phenomena in

Electronics Interconnection Technology: A Review", Proceedings of the
27th Holm Conference, pp. 175-181, Chicago, Il., USA, 1981.

2.14 R Holm, "Electric Contacts", pp. 118-134, Springer-Verlag, New York,

1967.

2.15 N.W. Harmsen, "Aspects of Reducing Gold for Electrical Contact

Applications", Proceedings of the 30th Electronic Components
Conference, pp. 310-316, San Francisco, USA, 1980.

2.16 W. Reyes, E.St. Peter, G. Bolger and C.H. Sie, "Factors Influencing
Thin Gold Performance for Separable Connectors", Transactions on
Components, Hybrids and Manufacturing Technology, volume CHMT-
4, No. 4, pp. 499-508, December, 1981.

2.17 RS. Mroczkowski, "Connector Contact Surfaces - Where the Action Is",
Proceedings INDYCON 500, Indianapolis, IN, USA, August 23-24th,
1983.

2.18 R Schnabl, H. Becker and F. Aldinger, "Porosity of Gold Layers and

Their Influence on the Contact Resistance", Proceedings of the 12th
Annual Connectors and Interconnection Technology Symposium, pp.
257-268, Cherry Hill, NJ, USA, 1979.

46
2.19 RJ. Geckle and RS. Mroczkowski, "Corrosion of Precious Metal Plated
Copper Alloys due to Mixed Flowing Gas Exposure", Proceedings of the
36th Holm Conference, pp. 193-202, Montreal, Canada, 1990.

2.20 AD. LeClaire, "Diffusion and Mass Transport Measurements",

Proceedings of Seminar - 'Physical and Elastic Characterisation',
Institute of Metals, pp.139-176, 1989.

2.21 J.H. Whitley, "Connector Surface Plating: A Discussion of Gold and the
Alternatives", AMP Incorporated, Research Note EN114, Harrisburg,
PA, USA

2.22 W.H. Abbott, 'The Effect of Test Environment on the Creep of Surface
Films Over Gold", Proceedings of the 30th Holm Conference, pp. 47-52,
Chicago, IL, USA, 1984.

2.23 L.R Conrad, MJ. Pike-Biegunski and RL Freed "Creep Corrosion

Over Gold, Palladium, and Tin-Lead Electroplate", Proceedings of the
15th Annual Connectors and Interconnections Technology Symposium,
pp. 401-414, Philadelphia, USA, 1982.

2.24 SJ. Krumbein and AH. Reed, "New Studies of Silver Electromigration",
Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Electric Contact
Phenomena, September, 1978.

2.25 T.P. Ireland, N.A Stennett and D.S. Campbell, "Fretting Corrosion of
Tin Contacts", Transactions of the Institute of Metal Finishing, volume
67, pp. 127-130, 1989.

2.26 T.P. Ireland, NA Stennett and D.S. Campbell, 'The Effect of Current
and Voltage on the Performance of Tin Coated Connectors During Life-
Testing", Proceedings of the CERT '90 conference, London, 1990.

47
2.27 F.P. Bowden and D. Tabor, 'The Friction and Lubrication of Solids", pp.
173-175, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1954.

2.28 M. Antler, "Sliding Wear of Metallic Contacts", Proceedings of the 26th

Holm Conference, pp. 3-24, Chicago, USA, 1980.

2.29 T. Tamai, ''Electrical Conduction Mechanisms of Electric Contacts

Covered with Contaminant Films", Surface Contamination - Genesis,
Detection and Control, Volume 2, pp. 967-981, Plenum Press, London,
1979.

2.30 R. Holm, ''Electric Contacts", pp. 135-152, Springer-Verlag, New York,

1967.

2.31 R. Holm, ''Electric Contacts", pp. 9-11, Springer-Veriag, New York,

1967.

2.32 G.R. Crane, "Contact Resistance on Surfaces with Nonunifonn

Contaminant Films", Proceedings of the 26th Holm Conference on
Electrical Contacts, pp. 259-264, Chicago, 11., USA, 1980.

2.33 M. Nakamura, '1"egularity of Film Resistivity in a Contact Interface and

Contact Conductance", Transactions on Components, Hybrids and
Manufacturing Technology, volume 12, No. 3, pp. 393-396, 1989.

2.34 R. Holm, ''Electric Contacts", pp. 27-29, Springer-Veriag, New York,

1967.

2.35 R. Holm, ''Electric Contacts", pp. 11-26, Springer-Veriag, New York,

1967.

2.36 J.A Greenwood, "Constriction Resistance and the Real Area of Contact",
British Journal of Applied Physics, volume 17, pp. 1621·1632, 1966.

48
2.37 N.K. Myshkin, M.I. Petrokovets, SA Chizhik, V.V. Konchits and AI.
Sviridenok, "Contact of Rough Bodies and its Conductivity", Soviet
Journal of Friction and Wear, volume 4, No. 5, pp. 56-62, 1983.

2.38 N.K. Myshkin, 'Tribological Problems in Electrical Contacts", USSR

Academy of Sciences & Belorussian Academy of Sciences.

2.39 J.B.P. Williarnson, "Deterioration Processes in Electrical Connectors",

Proceedings of the 4th International Research Symposium on Electrical
Contact Phenomena, pp. 30-34, 1968.

2.40 F.P. Bowden and J.B.P. Williamson, ''Electrical Conduction in Solids l.

Influence of the Passage of Current on the Contact Between Solids",
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A, volume 246, pp. 1·12, 1958.

2.41 JA Greenwood and J.B.P. Williamson, ''Electrical Conduction in Solids

Il. Theory of Temperature-Dependent Conductors", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, A, volume 246, pp.13-31, 1958.

2.42 R.S. Timsit, "On the Evaluation of Contact Temperature from Potential-
Drop Measurements", Proceedings of the 28th Holm Conference on
Electrical Contacts, pp. 147-154, Chicago, IL, USA, 1982.

2.43 J.B.P. Williarnson, 'Thermal Stability in Graphite Contacts", Wear,

volume 78, pp. 39-48, 1982.

2.44 R.S. Timsit, 'The 'Melting' Voltage in Electrical Contacts", Proceedings

of the 36th Holm Conference on Electrical Contacts, pp. 218-224,
Montreal, Canada, 1990.

2.45 NA Stennett, T.P. Ireland and D.S. Campbell, ''Normal Force

Reduction in Electrical Contacts", Proceedings of the 36th Holm
Conference, pp. 604-610, Montreal, Canada, 1990.

49
2.46 C.O. Harris, "Statics and the Strength of Materials", pp. 100-151, John
WiJey & Sons, New York, USA, 1982.

2.47 RC. Juvinall, "Engineering Considerations of Stress, Strain and Strength·,

pp. 96-111, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967.

2.48 AP. Cracknell, "Crystals and Their Structures", pp. 144-149, Pergamon
Press, London, 1969.

2.49 S. Raimes, 'The Wave Mechanics ofElectrons in Metals", North-Holland,

Amsterdam.

2.50 A Guinier and R Jullien, 'The Solid State - From Superconductors to

Superalloys", pp. 171-241, Oxford University Press, 1989.

2.51 J.AM. Roelofs and A Sved, "Insulation Displacement Connections",

Electronic Components and Applications, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 80-88, Feb.,
1982.

2.52 RF. Carlson, "Metal Stamping Design", Prentice-Hall, 1961.

2.53 C. Zener, "Elasticity and Anelasticity of Metals", pp. 69-163, The

University of Chicago Press, London, 1948.

2.54 A Kennedy, "Processes of Creep and Fatigue in Metals", pp. 7-55, Oliver
and Boyd, London, 1962.

2.55 K. W. Horn, S.P. Zarlingo, "Understanding Stress Relaxation in Copper

Alloys", pp. 325-336, Proceedings of the 15th Annual Connectors and
Interconnection Technology Symposium, Cherry Hill, NJ, USA, 1982.

50
2.56 E. Shapiro and H. Hummel, "High Temperature Stress Relaxation:
Mechanisms and Data", pp. 99-108, Proceedings of the 17th Annual
Connectors and Interconnection Technology Symposium, Anaheim, CA,
USA, 1984.

2.57 J.H. Whitley, "A Measurement of Constriction Resistance Based on its

Non-Linearity", The Third International Research Symposium on
Electric Contact Phenomena, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, June
6th, 1966.

2.58 F. Jensen, "Activation Energies and theA"henius Equation", Quality and

Reliability Engineering International, pp. 13-17, vo!. I, 1985.

51
52
 CllAPTER3

FAU1URE MECHANISMS

3.1 Introduction

The analysis of failure mechanisms in separable connectors is not a

straightforward process. Often it is not one individual process but the
combination of several that combine to produce a failure. In order to provide
a coherence to the analysis it is useful to group the various mechanisms into
broad bands. These can then be divided and sub-divided until at the lowest
level the individual mechanisms are given. In this way a tree type structure is
formed, giving a hierarchy of failure mechanisms which will illustrate their
interdependence.

Failure mechanisms which manifest themselves at the interface where

the two halves of a separable connector come into intimate contact are
described as 'intrinsic' failure mechanisms. They can be classified into two
broad categories, Mechanical and Chemical, see figure 3.1. These may be
referred to as 'Level-One' categories. Mechanical type failure mechanisms
act to prevent intimate contact between the connector interfaces. The
chemical type form an insulating barrier which disrupts the flow of electrons
across the interface.

The mechanical type failure mechanisms have three constituent areas.

These are the 'Level Two' categories, Force Reduction, Particulate and
Wear. Similarly the chemical 'band' also has three constituent areas Wear,
Metallurgical and Corrosion. The Level-Two category of Wear is common to
both the Level-One categories. The reason for this is that the process of wear

53
 lE:
.-o
C l)

~
o
<...>

cu
.-
E
CD
..c
<...>

Cl)

E
~ .-Cl)

.-o-
::::s
L.&..
l E:
o
..c
u
CD
:::::::E

c CD
.-c
u "15
::::s
c
..c
u
.-
t
u
CD o
:::::::E 0...

lE:
CD
U
L.
.-
o
"ti
o ::::s
~ ""C
CD
c:::

Figure 3.1
Hierarchy of Failure Mechanisms in Separable
Electronic and Electrical Contacts

54
is a mechanical effect, but this on its own will not cause a connector to fail,
it is necessary for some from of oxidation or other chemical process to take
place in order for a failure to occur. In the atmosphere these processes
effectively occur spontaneously when compared to the life of a connector.
Hence wear type failure mechanisms tend to fall between the two Level-One
categories.

At the next level down the 'family tree' of failure mechanisms,

individual processes begin to emerge which are responsible for connector
failure. These Level-Three categories represent the collection of intrinsic
failure mechanisms. A detailed explanation follows with reference to the
branch of the tree to which they belong.

55
3.2 Force Reduction

All separable contacts require a force to maintain their integrity when

they are mated. Reduction of this force can lead to failure. The effects of this
and the causes are discussed next. N.B. A more detailed description of the
effects of normal force reduction is given in chapter 4.

3.2.1 Effect of Normal Force Reduction on Contacts

Certain processes can lead to a reduction of the effectiveness of a

spring with the passage of time [3.1). From a contact's point of view this leads
to a reduction in the normal force holding the two interfaces together. Taken
to the extreme it is possible that given enough time the normal force would
reduce to zero. Failure of a connector would occur long before reaching this
situation. Constriction resistance of a clean contact is inversely related to the
normal force [3.2). This can be demonstrated as follows:-

From chapter 2

(2.1)

where F is the normal force

H is the hardness of the material
At, is the area of mechanical contact

where A is the area of a circle

r is its' radius
d is its' diameter

56
 R = ~ (2.4)
• d

where Rc is the constriction resistance

p is the resistivity of the metal
d is the diameter of the contact spot

N.B. This assumes that metal to metal contact takes the form of one circular
spot of diameter 'd', which has infinite conductivity. For a more detailed
explanation refer to chapter 2.

therefore

HlId 2
F=--
4

and

(3.1)

substituting 3.1 into 2.4

(3.2)

where G is a constant for a given material

hence

1
(3.3)
R. 0< ( F) 2

/N.B. For plastic -defor~~tion only.

57
 Contact resistance is directly related to constriction resistance (see
equation 2.2). Therefore as the normal force decreases the contact resistance
increases; see figure 3.2. This will have a direct effect on the characteristics
of a contact since this is one of the main parameters.

In addition there are other consequences of low normal force. From

equation 2.1 it can be readily seen that the real area of mechanical contact is
directly proportional to the normal force. Hence with low values of normal
force, the area of electrical contact will be reduced and become more
susceptible to corrosion [33]. Finally some contact systems require high values
of normal force to prevent other failure mechanisms occurring [3.4]. An
example is fretting corrosion of tin plated contacts, which is explained in more
detail in section 3.4.3 .

.,
v
c:
o
1;;
.,
·iii
a::
-v

-
o
u
o
c:

Normal Force

Figure 3.2
Relationship Between Contact Resistance and Normal Force

It is most likely that these secondary effects of low normal force will
result in the failure of a contact before the direct effects (ie. the contact
resistance will suffer more through corrosion and other failure mechanisms
caused by low normal force rather than the relationship shown in equation 3.3
which refers to clean contacts).

58
3.2.2 Causes of Force Reduction in Springs

There are two processes which fall into this category namely stress
relaxation and creep, [3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8] see figure 3.3.

Force
Reduction

Stress
Creep
Relaxation

Figure 3.3
Force Reduction Failure Mechanisms

These may be defined as follows, see figure 3.4:-

Stress Relaxation is a time dependent load (stress) decrease

occurring with fixed geometry

Creep is a time dependent geometry change (strain or

displacement) occurring under fixed load

Stress relaxation and Creep not only effect the spring member, but all
parts of the supporting structure. This can have a particular bearing when
different materials, such as the plastic housing, are incorporated into it. When
this occurs, differences in the rates in which these processes occur can lead to
one part of the support structure becoming the 'weak link' [3.9,3.10,3.11].

59
 Stress
Creep
Relaxation

After time "t" After time lit"

~l F.ld
ld l t
t

Figure 3.4
Graphical Representation of Stress Relaxation and Creep

60
3.3 Particulate

Another group of failure mechanisms that fall into the mechanical area
can be referred to as Particulate. With these, some non-conducting object
becomes 'lodged' in the interface and prevents intimate contact from
occurring. The most common source of such objects is air born Dust, [3.12,
3.13,3.14] see figure 3.5. The effect that any dust particles have on a contact
is very much dependent on the size of the dust particles as compared with the
roughness of the contact surfaces.

Particulate

Dust

Figure 3.5
Particulate Failure Mechanisms

As discussed in chapter 2, real surfaces are not smooth but are covered
with 'hills and valleys'. Hence when two such surfaces come into contact, the
effect of any dust will be negligible unless the size of the dust particles is
comparable to the 'hill to valley height' on the surface. To illustrate this
point consider the analogy developed previously relating the contact interface
to the Lake District being placed on top of the Snowdonia Mountain Range.
When the interfaces are brought together, a million 'dust' particles the size
of a tennis ball, would have no effect on the integrity of the interface. In
contrast one 'dust' particle the size of Ben Nevis would prevent contact from
being made. Figure 3.6 illustrates this point.

61
 Small Particles
~~O\..

Figure 3.6
Effect of Dust Contamination at the Contact Interface

The relationship between the size of dust particles and the surface
roughness is important in preventing this type of failure mechanism occurring.
By determining the surface roughness of the connector interface, the size of
particles likely to cause problems can be estimated. This can then be used in
filter design to prevent such particles reaching the contact interface. Another
way by which the problems with dust can be reduced is the incorporation of
a 'wipe action' at the connector interface. This will cause the areas of
intimate contact to be wiped across each other as contact is made. In the
process of doing this, offending dust particles will be pushed to one side.

62
3.4 Wear

With the majority of separable connectors the action of mating and

unmating will cause wear to occur at the interfaces. (The notable exception
being the so-called ZIF or zero insertion force connector). This can cause a
variety of problems, see figure 3.7. These are discussed next.

Wear

Plating Wear
Wear Fretting
Through Debris

Figure 3.7
Wear Failure Mechanisms

3A.1 Plating Wear Through

Many contact systems use plating to improve contact performance and

reduce costs. These platings tend to be thin, (approximately 1 micron thick)
especially those using noble metals. This therefore makes them susceptible to
damage caused by wear. As a result the interface can take on the property of
a base metal junction which is undesirable. This failure mechanism is known
as Plating Wear Through [3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18, 3.19].

63
3A.2 Wear Debris

Another problem that can occur due to the wear process of insertion
and withdrawal of a connector is termed as Wear Debris. As the wear process
begins, small particles from the interface surface will be ripped away. As more
and more insertion and withdrawal cycles occur these particles will
accumulate. H these particles remain conducting the connector will still
function, but often oxidation and corrosion of these particles is increased due
to the increased surface area available for reaction. The result can be that the
particles become insulating and prevent the interfaces from providing suitable
electrical contact [3.20, 3.21, 3.22, 3.23, 3.24, 3.25, 3.26, 3.27].

3.4.3 Fretting Corrosion

The third type of failure mechanism associated with the Wear category
is called Fretting Corrosion. This occurs when small amplitude, less than 100
microns, relative motion occurs at the contact interface. (N.B. At values
greater than 100 microns the process is considered to be wear and not fretting
corrosion). This process is known as Fretting. On its own this will not cause
failure to occur. With materials that don't corrode or oxidise (eg. gold) the
only effect will be a small amount of material may be transferred from one
surface to the other. However, problems arise with those materials where
contact is made by rupturing of the oxide (eg. Tin and Aluminium), see
section 2.3.2. These have the property that their oxides are considerably
harder than the material itself. Consequently when two such surfaces are
brought together the pressure at the points of contact cause the oxides to
crack. The metal in this region, which by definition is close at yield pressure,
extrudes through to give metal to metal contact [3.28, 3.29].

When fretting occurs with such materials, problems arise rapidly. As

the surfaces move relative to each other the oxide cracks and metal to metal
contact is maintained during the motion, see figure 3.8. However fresh metal
is continually becoming exposed to the atmosphere as the points of contact

64
 ,;
!.. .. < 100 Microns

i Initial
\
Broken 0 Id~

Film

--+-

Micromotion

"New" Oxid Film

"New" Oxide Film

'\.----
Micromotion

After 'N' Cycles

Insulating!

Figure 3.8
Fretting Corrosion

65
change. By the nature of these materials films quickly form over any exposed
surfaces. (N.B. Tin forms an oxide sA thick within seconds). This in itself is
not a problem since when the cyclic motion returns to its initial position, this
new oxide is broken up as previously explained. Difficulties arise if the process
occurs for any length of time, as film debris starts to accumulate at the
interface. After as few as several hundred cycles the build up of debris may
be sufficient to produce intermittent high resistance values during the fretting
motion. As the process continues the frequency and duration of these
intermittents rapidly increase until the contact resistances goes permanently
high, the contact now has an open circuit failure [3.30, 3.31, 3.32, 3.33, 3.34,
3.35, 3.36, 3.37, 3.38, 3.39, 3.40, 3.41, 3.42, 3.43].

In general when fretting corrosion occurs failure results after a

relatively short period of time [3.34]. It is therefore necessary to prevent
fretting at the interface of contacts that use the brittle oxide phenomenon for
obtaining electrical contact. One source of fretting is mechanical induced
vibration from another part of the system. The effects of this can be
eliminated with the use of a sufficiently high normal force at the interface. In
addition, connector housing design can be used to reduce vibration being
transmitted to the contacts. Another source of fretting is differential thermal
expansion (DTE). Cyclic changes in temperature such as those occurring
naturally in a normal 24 hour period, may induce fretting via DTE. This is
potentially more of a problem than fretting caused by mechanical vibration.
The main cure for this type of problem is to ensure that by careful design, it
does not arise in the first place.

One method of significantly reducing problems associated with wear is

to use lubricants. These possess certain anti-corrosion and anti-oxidation
properties, as well as reducing the friction between the interfaces. Their main
problems are:- that they increase the collection of dust at the interface which
can cause particulate problems [3.44], they are an added expense and they are
difficult to apply [3.45, 3.46, 3.47, 3.48, 3.49, 3.50, 3.51, 3.52, 3.53, 3.54, 3.55].

66
3.5 Metallurgical

Problems with platings are not confined to wear processes.

Metallurgical processes can affect the integrity of the plating as well as the
ability to act as a barrier, see figure 3.9. These phenomena are detailed below.

Metal-
lurgical

Inter-
Diffusion
metallics

Figure 3.9
MetallurgiCal Failure Mechanisms

3.5.1 Diffusion

One problem associated with the use of platings is known as Diffusion.

This is a process whereby atoms of the base material can migrate through a
plating layer. Once atoms have diffused to the surface, they can corrode
producing an insulating layer over the surface of the plating. To slow this
process down, a barrier plating (referred to as an underplate) can be inserted
between the surface plating and the base material. In addition to increasing
the distance that any diffused atoms have to travel before reaching the
surface, it is also desirable for the underplate to have a reduced diffusion rate
for the atoms concerned. Nickel is frequently used as an underplate. It has

67
been found that the diffusion rate of copper through nickel is significantly less
than through gold and other plating materials when analysed at high
temperatures [3.56).

3.5.2 Intermetallics

Another metallurgical process that can cause problems with platings is

Intermetallics. These are layers of abnormal atomic concentrations that form
at the plating boundary and whose properties can be detrimental to the
connector. An example of this might be that a particular layer is brittle and
may become mechanically unstable. This may lead to the plating becoming
detached from the contact surface. An example of the formation of
intermetallics at the plating boundary is given in figure 3.10 [3.57).

BRASS

(AI-2% Cu-59% Zn39%)

IIIIIIIIII~ (AI-16% Cu-74% Zn-10%)

~~~~~~~~~~~ (AI-33% Cu-67%)

(AI-45% Cu-54% Zn-l%)

ALUMINIUM

Figure 3.10
Intermetallics at Plating Boundary [3.57]

68
3.6 Corrosion

Corrosion of one form or another in electrical contacts and connectors

is probably the most common cause of chemical failure. These failures are not
usually classified by the type of corrosion that occurred but more normally by
the mechanisms or factor that allowed them to take place. This section
examines the different types of corrosion and then goes on to identify the
individual failure processes that fall into this category.

3.6.1 Types of Corrosion

There are principally two types of corrosion, Dry and Wet, see figure
3.1l. These are detailed in the next paragraph.

Corrosion

Dry Wet

Figure 3.11
Types of Corrosion

3.6.1.1 Dry Corrosion

Dry corrosion is the term given to reactions that would take

place irrespective of the presence of water. A typical dry corrosion
reaction is oxidation which occurs on many metals when exposed to the
air [3.58, 3.59, 3,60, 3,61]. This process has already been referred to in
the section on Fretting Corrosion - paragraph 3.4.3.

69
 3.6.1.2 Wet Corrosion

Wet corrosion occurs when water from a humid environment

condenses on to a surface. Pollutants in the atmosphere dissolve in the
water along with ions from the metals surface. These then react to
form corrosion products [3.62, 3.63, 3.64, 3.65, 3.66, 3.67,3.68, 3.69]. A
typical example of this would be a galvanic cell created in a plating
pore, [3.70] see figure 3.12.

Absorbed Film
Pore

Plating
e-

Figure 3.12
A Pore Forming a Galvanic Cell and Causing Wet Corrosion [3.98]

3.6.2 Corrosion Failure Mechanisms

Both wet and dry corrosion cause films to be produced on exposed

metal surfaces. The thickness of these films will increase with time, and with
certain types of connectors this can lead to failure. An example of this would
be a base metal contact which operates at a sufficiently high voltage to break
through such films at the beginning of the contacts life, but as the films get
thicker it becomes unable to do so [3.71].

70
 Although with many of the failure mechanisms corrosion actual causes
the failure, quite often something else must have occurred in order for it to
take place or for it to affect the interface, these mechanisms are now
described, see figure 3.13.

cOIIosion

Pore SUI face Contam· SUI face

cOIIosion MigIation ·ination Pilms

Figure 3.13
Corrosion Failure Mechanisms

3.6.2.1 Porosity

Plating of metal surfaces is not a uniform process. Surface

irregularities and defects lead to holes in the plating with therefore
little or none of the plating material covering the base surface at that
point. These holes in the plating are called pores [3.72, 3.73, 3.74, 3.75,
3.76,3.77]. The amount of pores in any particular plating depends on
several factors, one of which is the plating thickness. A typical
relationship between number of pores and average plating thickness for
Au on Ni is shown in figure 3.14 where porosity index is a measure of
the base metal exposure.

71
 500

..,..x 400
.E
!i 300
VI
0
"-
0
0..
200

100

0.5 1 1.5
Average Plating Thickness
(Microns)

Figure 3.14
Typical Relationship Between Porosity and Plating Thickness

The presence of pores in a plating allows the atmosphere to

attack the metal underneath. This leads to pore corrosion where
corrosion products are pushed up through the pore and propagate over
the surface of the interface. (This is illustrated in figure 3.15 where a
Pd over Ni over base material surface exhibits pore corrosion). These
films tend to be insulating and therefore affect the conducting abilities
of the interface. If there are sufficient numbers of these pore sites, then
the contact will be unable to pass electric current and will have an
open circuit fault.

One obvious means of reducing the effects of pore corrosion is

to reduce the number of pores. This can be achieved by increasing the
plating thickness, see figure 3.14. However this will add to the cost of
the connector. Since the relationship between porosity and plating
thickness is not uniform, there is an optimum range of thicknesses
which give the most cost effective value. In the example shown this
range is 0.25 to 1 microns. Below 0.25 microns porosity is excessive,
above 1 microns porosity decreases very slowly providing little benefit.

72
 PORE Corrosion

Top Plate (Pd)

~$~ Undorplate (NI)

Base Metal
(Copper Alloy)

Figure 3.15
Pore Corrosion on a Pd over Ni over Base Material Surface [3.99]

Another method of reducing pore corrosion is with the use of

a nickel underplate. When the atmosphere reaches the exposed nickel
in a pore, a hard thick oxide film is formed. This effectively 'plugs'
the pore and reduces the corrosion effects markedly.

3.6.2.2 Surface Migration

Surface Migration is a phenomenon that occurs when selective

plating is used on a connector. This is when in order to reduce the
amount of plating material used, the actual plating only covers the area
of the interface (sometimes the rest of the connector is plated but with
a very thin plating know as a flash, 0.1 microns thick). Any corrosion
products that form on unplated areas can then migrate on the interface
resulting in failure [3.78, 3.79].

The rate at which corrosion products can creep or migrate over

a surface is dependent on the material with which the surface is made
of. It has been found that nickel is particularly good at slowing this
process down. Therefore once again the use of a nickel underplate will
be advantageous, reducing the likelihood of this type of failure
mechanism occurring.

73
3.6.2.3 Contamination

Another way in which corrosion can affect connectors may be

termed Contamination. This is simply when 'foreign' atoms are
present on the connector surface which corrode to produce insulating
films. An example of this might occur on connectors with a rolled gold
surface (a thin sheet of gold is rolled into the surface of the interface
as opposed to plating). Atoms from the rollers will be deposited onto
the surface of the gold and these may corrode with time [3.80, 3.81,
3.82, 3~83, 3.84, 3.85, 3.86].

3.6.2.4 Surface Films

The fmal type of failure mechanism in the corrosion category is

termed Surface Films. All exposed surfaces in the atmosphere have an
absorbed film. The make up of this film will normally contain water
and oxygen molecules along with any other substances present in the
air. With mechanisms like wet corrosion, it is this absorbed film which
is an integral part of the process. However surface films can cause
problems in there own right. If excessive amounts of hydro-carbons
from the air build up at the interface they can produce an insulating
barrier and cause failure [3.87, 3.88, 3.89, 3.90, 3.91].

One way in which this can occur is due to the handling of the
interface. Various products are rubbed off operators hands and left on
the connector. Another means which seems peculiar to palladium
connectors is known as Frictional Polymerization. Fretting of palladium
induces polymers from the atmosphere to become deposited on the
surface of the connector and cause failure. The exact mechanism which
causes this process is not known [3.92, 3.93, 3.94, 3.95, 3.96, 3.97, 3.98].

74
3.7 Summary

This chapter has investigated the individual intrinsic failure mechanisms

that occur in separable electrical and electronic contacts. It has been
organised into a hierarchy so as to give the process a formalised order. At the
top were two categories, namely mechanical and chemical. These represented
the first major distinction between different mechanisms. These were then
broken down into narrower bands at the next level of the hierarchy. Finally
these were sub-divided to give the individual intrinsic failure mechanisms.
These were explained in detail along with practical ways in which their effects
can be minimised. The complete hierarchy is shown in figure 3.16.

75
 0')

Cl)
E
.22
~ c:
IC ~ ..~
~ J:
V
Cl)
~

::::::E

Figure 3.16
Hierarchy of Failure Mechanisms in Separable Electrical Contacts

76
3.8 References

3.1 E. Shapiro and H. Hummel, "High Temperature Stress Relaxation:

Mechanisms and Data", The 17th Annual Connectors and
Interconnection Technology Symposium Proceedings, pp. 99-108,
Anaheim, CA, USA, 1984.

3.2 R.S. Mroczkowski, "Connector Contact Surfaces - Where The Action [s·,
Proceedings of INDYCON 500, Indianapolis, IN., USA, August 23-24,
1983.

3.3 J.B.P. Williamson, "Deterioration Processes in Electrical Connectors",

Proceedings of the 4th International Research Symposium on Electrical
Contact Phenomena, pp. 30-34, Swansea, Wales, 1968.

3.4 J.H. Whitley, "Connector Surface Plating: A Discussion of Gold and the
Alternatives", Research Note EN114, AMP Inc., Harrisburg, PA, USA,
1980.

3.5 N.A Stennett, T.P. Ireland and D.S. Campbell ''Normal Force
Reduction in Electronic Contacts", pp. 604-610, Proceedings of the 36th
Holm Conference on Electrical Contacts, Montreal, Canada, 1990. NB.
Copy included in Appendix C.

3.6 J.C. Harkness and C.S. Lorenz "Stress Relaxation of Beryllium Copper
in Bending", Proceedings of The Electronic Connector Study Group
Symposium, 1979.

3.7 W. Loewenthal, "Measurement and Use of Stress Relaxation Data for

Copper Alloys in Bending", Proceedings of the 38th Electronics
Components Conference, pp. 208-219, Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1988.

77
3.8 B. Wiltshire, "Stress Relaxation Measurements ofAluminium Conductors
in Insulation Displacement Connectors (IDC) and Related Effects on
Contact Resistance", IEEE Transactions, vo!' CHMT-7, no. 1, pp. 11-19.

3.9 E.W. Filer and H.T. Mc Clelland, "Stress Relaxation of Copper-Beryllium

and Nickel-Beryllium Alloys", Proceedings of the 13th Annual
Connectors and Interconnection Technology Symposium, pp. 179-186,
1980.

3.10 J. Forster, "Copper Clad Austenitic Stainless Steel- A High Strength High
Conductivity Material for Connector Applications", Proceedings of the
18th Annual Connectors and Interconnection Technology Symposium,
pp.166-177, 1985.

3.11 A Fox and E.O. Fuchs, "Stress Relaxation Conditions in Spinodal

Copper-Nickel-Tin Alloy Strip used for Slotted Beam Connectors",
Proceedings of the 14th Annual Connectors and Interconnection
Technology Symposium, pp. 75-82, 1981.

3.12 J.B.P. Williamson, 'The Influence of Dust Particles on the Contact of

Solids", Proceedings of the Royal Society, A, vo!. 237, pp. 560-573,
1956.

3.13 J.G. Zhang and X.M. Wen, 'The Influence of Dust on the Reliability of
Electric Contacts", Proceedings of the First Annual Conference on
Electric Contacts Sponsored by the Chinese Institute of
Telecommunications, 1984.

3.14 J.G. Zhang and X.M. Wen, 'The Effects of Dust Contamination on
Electric Contacts", Proceedings of the 31st Annual Holm Conference on
Electrical Contacts, pp. 175-179, Chicago, IL, USA, 1985.

3.15 AH. Graham, "Wear Resistance Characterization for Plated Connectors",

IEEE Transactions, vo!. CHMT-8, no. 1, pp. 142-7.

78
3.16 H.S. Blanks, ''Detection and Accelerated Testing of Vibration-Induced
Connector Wear", IEEE Transactions, vol. CHMT-7, no. I, pp. 3-10,
March, 1984.

3.17 L-G. Liljestrand, L. Sjogren, L. Revay, B. Asthner and LM. Ericsson,

''Wear Resistance of Electroplated Nickel-Harden Gold", Proceedings of
the 30th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 53-60, Chicago, IL, USA,
1984.

3.18 KJ. Whitlaw, J.W. Souter, I.S. Wright and M. Nottingham, ''Wear
Properties of High Speed Gold Electrodeposits", Proceedings of the 30th
Annual Holm Conference, pp.33-45, Chicago, IL., USA, 1984.

3.19 L.E. Pope and R.W. Rohde, 'The Effect of Environment and Materials
Properties on the Friction and Wear Behaviour of Precious Metal
Electrical Contact Alloy Couples", Proceedings of the 29th Annual Holm
Conference, pp. 9-14, 1983.

3.20 P. Bernard, M. Belin, S. Noel, L. Boyer and M.De Mendez, ''Wear of

Gold Contacts: Microscopic Phenomena and Effective Contact Area",
Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Electric Contacts,
pp. 13-20, Paris, France, 1988.

3.21 P. Reichner, ''Pressure-Wear Theory for Sliding Electrical Contacts",

Proceedings of the 26th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 25-32, 1980.

3.22 M. Antler, "Sliding Wear of Metallic Contacts", Proceedings of the 26th

Annual Holm Conference, pp. 3-24, 1980.

3.23 M. Antler, C.M. Preece and E.N. Kaufmann, "The Effect of Boron
Implantation on the Sliding Wear and Contact Resistance of Palladium,
6OPd40Ag, and a CuNiSn Alloy", Proceedings of the 27th Annual Holm
Conference, pp. 99-105, 1981.

79
3.24 R Schnabl, G. Herkiotz and D. Poss, "Wear, Corrosion and Contact
Resistance of Electroplated Palladium Compared to Rolled Milled
Palladium and Palladium Alloys", Proceedings of the 16th Annual
Connectors and Interconnection Technology Symposium, pp. 39-52,
Philadelphia. PA, USA, 1983.

3.25 M. Antler and E.T. Ratliff, "Sliding Wear of Inlay Clad Metals and
Electrodeposited Cobalt-Gold", Proceedings of the 28th Annual Holm
Conference, pp. 19-27, Chicago, IL, USA, 1982.

3.26 RW. Rohde and LE. Pope, 'The Effect of Surface Preparation and
Heat Treatment on the Interfacial Resistance, Friction and Wear of
Precious Metal Electrical Contact Alloys", Proceedings of the 28th
Annual Holm Conference, pp. 185-192, Chicago, IL, USA, 1982.

3.27 P.O. Capp and D.W.M. Williams, ':.4 Test Method for Evaluation of
Friction and Wear of New Palladium Alloy Inlays and other Electrical
Contact Surfaces, Part Ir, Proceedings of the 17th Annual Connectors
and Interconnection Technology Symposium, pp. 466-477, Anaheim,
CA, USA, 1984.

3.28 M.E. Peel, ''Evaluation of Tin Lead as a Contact Finish", Proceedings

of the 13th Annual Connectors and Interconnection Technology
Symposium, pp. 21-52, 1980.

3.29 RW. Blackier, M.E. Warwick and J.B. Long, ''Preliminary Studies of Tin
and Tin Rich Coatings as Electrical Contact Materials", Proceedings of
the 26th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 195-212, 1980.

3.30 M. Antler, "Survey of Contact Fretting in Electrical Connectors", IEEE

Transactions, vo!. CHMT-8, no. 1, pp. 87-104, March, 1985.

3.31 E.M. Bock and J,H, Whitley, "Fretting Corrosion in Electric Contacts",
Proceedings of the 20th Annual Holm Conference, 1974.

80
332 M. Antler, "Fretting Co"osion of Solder and Tin Coated Electrical
Contacts", Proceedings of the 16th Annual Connectors and
Interconnection Technology Symposium, pp. 231-241, Philadelphia, PA,
USA,1983.

333 Ph. Caste), A Henet and A Carballeira, "Fretting-Corrosion in Low-

Level Electrical Contacts: A Quantitative Analysis of the Significant
Variables", Proceedings of the 30th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 75-
81, Chicago, IL, USA, 1984.

334 J.H. Whitley, "Investigation of Fretting Co"osion Phenomena in Electric

Contacts", Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Electric
Contact Phenomena, Tokyo, Japan, 1976.

3.35 W.B. Fagerstorm and E.T. Nicotera, "Fretting Corrosion in Connectors",

Proceedings of the 14th Annual Connectors and Interconnection
Technology Symposium, pp. 304-312, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1981.

3.36 J. Ambier and P. Perdigon, ''Fretting Co"osion of Separable Electrical

Contacts", Proceedings of the 30th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 105-
111, Chicago, IL., USA, 1984.

3.37 JJ. Mottine and B.T. Reagor, "Investigation of Fretting Co"osion at

Dissimilar Metal Interfaces in Socketed IC Device Applications",
Proceedings of the 29th Annual Holm Conference on Electrical
Contacts, pp. 61-71, Chicago, IL, USA, 1983.

3.38 J.H.M. Neijzen and J.H.A Glashorster, ''Fretting Corrosion of Tin-

Coated Electrical Contacts", IEEE Transactions, vol. CHMT-10, no. 1,
pp. 68-74, March, 1987.

3.39 A Lee and M.S. Mamrick, ''Fretting Co"osion of Tin-Plated Copper

Alloy", IEEE Transactions, vol. CHMT-lO, no. 1, pp. 63-67, March,
1987.

81
3.40 M. Braunovic, "Fretting Damage in Tin-Plated Aluminium and Copper
Connectors", Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Electrical Contacts, pp. 179-186, Paris, 1988.

3.41 A Lee and M.S. Mamrick, ''Effect of Contact Geometry on Fretting

Corrosion of Tin-Plated Copper-Alloy", Proceedings of the 14th
International Conference on Electric Contacts, pp. 225-231, Paris, 1988.

3.42 M. Antler, "Effect of fretting on the Contact Resistance of Palladium

Electroplate Having a Gold Flash, Cobalt-Gold Electroplate and DG
R156", Proceedings of the 34th Electronic Components Conference, pp.
343-350, 1984.

3.43 A Lee and M.S. Mamrick, "Fretting Corrosion of Tin at Elevated

Temperatures", Proceedings of the 34th Annual Holm Conference, pp.
87-91, San Francisco, CA, USA, 1988.

3.44 C. Azeez, M.D. Richardson and E.T. Ratliff, ''Effects ofDust on Contact
Resistance of Lubricated Connector Contact Materials", Proceedings of
the 31st Annual Holm Conference, pp. 141-146, 1985.

3.45 W.H. Abbott, 'The Lubrication and Environmental Protection of

Alternatives to Gold for Electronic Connectors", Battelle, Columbus
Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio, USA, 1979.

3.46 D.W. Savage, "An Overview of Connector Lubrication", Proceedings of

the 33rd Electronic Components Conference, pp. 400-403, Orlando,
FL, USA, 1982.

3.47 M. Antler, ''Electronic Connector Contact Lubricants: The Polyether

Fluids", Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Holm Conference, pp. 35-44,
1986.

82
3.48 S.P. Sharma and H.G. Tompkins, 'The Thickness of Lubrication Films
for Connector Contacts", Proceedings of the 27th Annual Holm
Conference, pp. 415-419, 1981.

3.49 M. Antler, "Sliding Studies of New Connector Contact Lubricants", IEEE

Transactions, vo!. CHMT-10, no. I, March, 1987.

3.50 M. Antler and M. Feder, "Friction and Wear of Electrodeposited

Palladium Contacts: Thin Film Lubrication with Fluids and with Gold",
Proceedings of the 36th Electronic Components Conference, pp. 244-
250, Seattle, WA, USA, 1986.

3.51 JJ. Mottine and B.T. Reagor, 'The Effect of Lubrication on Fretting
COmJsion at Dissimilar Metal Interfaces in Socketed IC Device
Applications", Proceedings of the 30th Annual Holm Conference, pp.
171-183, Chicago, IL, USA, 1984.

3.52 D.W. Rice, "Corrosion Inhibiting Lubricants for Separable Connectors",

pp. 127-131, Seattle, WA, USA, 1986.

3.53 R.V. Steenstrup, V.M. Fiacco and LX Schultz, ':04 Comparative Study
of Inhibited Lubricants for Dry Circuits, Sliding Contacts", Proceedings
of the 28th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 59-68, Chicago, IL., USA,
1982.

3.54 S. Aujla and B. Wiltshire, "Connector Insertion Force Characteristics",

Proceedings of the 31st Annual Holm Conference, pp. 169-174, 1985.

5.55 LG. liIjestrand, ':04 Study of Some Factors Influencing the Wear
Resistance of Lubricated Gold Contacts", Proceedings of the 28th
Annual Holm Conference, pp. 11-18, Chicago, IL, USA, 1983.

3.56 R.S. Mroczkowski, "Corrosion and Electrical Contact Interfaces", AMP

Inc., Harrisburg, PA, USA, 1984.

83
3.57 R.S. Timsit, "Interdiffusion at Bi-Metallic Electrical Interfaces",
Proceedings of the 31st Annual Holm Conference, pp. 29-41, 1985.

3.58 N.B. Pilling and R.E. Bedworth, 'The Oxidation of Metals at High
Temperatures", Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, vo!. xxvn,
p.72, 1922.

3.59 J. Aronstein and T.K Hare, "Conduction Through Surface Films on

Aluminium Wue", Proceedings of the 34th Annual Holm Conference,
pp. 173-178, San Francisco, CA, USA, 1988.

3.60 S.P. Sharma and LL Hines, "Oxidation of Ruthenium", Proceedings of

the 28th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 29-33, Chicago, IL, USA,
1982.

3.61 T. Yokokawa, T. Yano, C. Kawakita and K Hinohara, ':4 Study on the

Thickness of Rhodium Oxide Film Produced by the Surface Deactivation
Treatment of Rhodium-Plated Contact Reed Switches", Proceedings of
the 32nd Annual holm Conference, pp. 51-55, 1986.

3.62 O.A Svedung, L.G. Johansson and N.G. Vannerberg, "Co"osion of

Gold-Coated Contact Materials Exposed to Humid Atmospheres
Containing Low Concentrations of SO~ and NO~", IEEE Transactions,
vo!. CHMT-6, no. 3, September, 1983.

3.63 Y.Ando, T.Kanai and Y. Sakai, "Degradation Characteristics of

Connector Contact Systems with Gold/I'in and Gold/Silver Interfaces",
Electronics and Communications in Japan, vo!. 67-C, no. 1, 1984.

3.64 E.S. Sproles and S.P. Sharma, "Effect of HCI and Cl~ on Pd Inlay
Coupons and Pd Connector Contacts", IEEE Transactions, vo!. CHMT-
6, no. 3, pp. 343-348, September, 1983.

84
3.65 CA Haque and M. Antler, "Atmospheric Corrosion of Clad Palladium
and Palladium-Silver Alloys Part I: Film Growth and Contamination
Effects", Proceedings of the 27th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 183-
190, 1981.

3.66 S.P. Sharma, "Atmospheric Corrosion of Pd and Pd-Ag Alloys Part II:
Film Chemistry", Proceedings of the 27th Annual Holm Conference, pp.
191-201, 1981.

3.67 S.P. Sharma and E.S. Sproles, "Reaction of Palladium with Chlorine and
Hydrogen Chloride", Proceedings of the 27th Annual Holm Conference,
pp. 203-210, 1981.

3.68 S.P. Sharma, "Corrosion of Electrical Contact Materials", Bell Telephone

Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio, USA

3.69 K Anderson, 'The Behaviour of Atmospheric Pollutants and the Effect

on Corrosion Simulation Tests", Proceedings of the 17th Annual
Connectors and Interconnection Technology Symposium, pp. 58-65,
Anaheim, CA, USA, 1984.

3.70 KI. Yasuda, S. Umemura and T. Aoki, ''Degradation Mechanisms in Tin

and Gold Plated Connector Contacts", IEEE Transactions, vo!. CHMT-
10, no. 3, September, 1987.

3.71 J.H. Tripp and S.M. Garte, 'The Gas-Tightness of Separable Base Metal
Electric Contacts", Proceedings of the 26Th Annual Holm Conference,
pp. 227-236, 1980.

3.72 S.E. Hopp and H.S. Landis, "Clad or Plate? A Very Complex Question",
Proceedings of the 16th Annual Connectors and Interconnection
Technology Symposium, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1983.

85
3.73 J.G. Zhang, K.D. Zhou and C.x. Du, 'The Porosity of Gold Plating by
Dust Contamination", Beijing University of Posts &
Telecommunications, Beijing, China

3.74 W. Reyes, E.St. Peter, G. Bolger and C.H. Sie, "Factors Influencing
Thin Gold Performance for Separable Connectors", IEEE Transactions,
pp. 499-508, vo!. CHMT-4, no. 4, December, 1981.

3.75 R. Schnabl, H. Becker and F. Aldinger, "Porosity of Gold Layers and

Their Influence on the Contact Resistance", Proceedings of the 12th
Annual Connectors and Interconnection Technology Symposium, pp.
257-268, Cherry Hill, NJ., USA, 1979.

3.76 D.R. Nelson, 'The Search for Alternatives to Fifty Microinches of Gold
Plating on Low Normal Force Electrical Contacts", Proceedings of the
15th Annual Connectors and Interconnection Technology Symposium,
pp. 165-174, 1982.

3.77 W. Reyes, R. Currence, E.F.St. Peter, J. Liao and G. Bolger,

"Performance of Thin Gold in the Office Environment", Proceedings of
the 13th Annual Connectors and Interconnection Technology
Symposium, pp. 1-10, 1980.

3.78 W.H. Abbott, 'The Effects of Tests Environment on the Creep of Surface
Films Over Gold", Proceedings of the 30th Annual Holm Conference,
pp. 47-52, 1984.

3.79 LR. Conrad, MJ. Pike-Biegunski and R.L Freed, ·Creep Corrosion
over Gold, Palladium, Tin-Lead Electroplate", Proceedings of the 15th
Annual Connectors and Interconnection Technology Symposium, pp.
401-414, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1982.

86
3.80 C.A Haque, M.H. Drozdowicz, RA Frank and J.T. Hanlon,
"Extraneous Metal Deposits from Production Processes on Contact
Materials", IEEE Transactions, pp. 55-60, voJ. CHMT-6, no. 1, March,
1983.

3.81 T. Tamai, "Electrical Conduction Mechanisms of Electrical Contacts

Covered with Contaminant Films", Surface Contamination - Genesis,
Detection and Control, pp.967-81, voJ.2, Plenum Press, 1978.

3.82 G. Kovacs, "Current and Voltage Effects on Environmental Stability and

Surface Contamination Processes of Electrical Contacts", Proceedings of
the 30th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 163-170, 1984.

3.83 M. Antler, ''Effect of Surface Contamination on Electric Contact

Performance", IEEE Circuits and Devices Magazine, pp. 8-20, 1987.

3.84 G.R. Crane, "Contact Resistance on Surfaces with Nonuniform

Contaminant Films", Proceedings of the 26th Annual Holm Conference,
pp. 259-264, 1980.

3.85 D.E. Tompsett and G.c. Emo, ''Development of a Contact Resistance

Probe for Detecting Contamination on Connector Contacts", Proceedings
of the 29th Electronic Components Conference, pp. 243-246, Cherry
Hill, NJ., USA., 1979.

3.86 G. Kovacs, ''Failure Analysis of Contaminated Gold-Plated Connector

Contacts from Operating Communication Equipment", IEEE
Transactions, pp. 95-101, voJ. CHMT-5, no. 1, March, 1982.

3.87 M. Watanabe, M. Kishimoto, Y. Hiratsuka, S. Mitani and T. Mori,

"Study of Contact Failures Caused by Organic Contamination on Ag-Si
Contacts", Proceedings of the 27th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 233-
239, 1981.

87
 3.88 G. Tissier, C. Le Gressus and J. Bouygues, ·Surface Phenomena in
Electronics Interconnection Technology: A Review", Proceedings of the
27th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 175-181., 1981.

3.89 M. Antler, M.H. Drozdowicz and CA Haque, "Connector Contact

Materials: Effect of Environment on Clad Palladium, Palladium-Silver
Alloys, and Gold Electrodeposits·, Proceedings of the 31st Electronics
Components Conference, pp.393-404, 1981.

3.90 C.H. Brun, S. Pettini, P. Kalousdain, C. Fiaud, J.L Deviller, C.

Delaqueze and P. Blaix, 'The Relationship Between Co"osion and
Physical Properties in Electrical Connections - An Investigation of Gold
Alloy Palladium-Nickel and Tin-Lead Plating on Connections",
Proceedings of the International Symposium for Testing and Failure
Analysis, pp. 173-181, Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1981.

. 3.91 S.P. Sharma and S. DasGupta, "Reaction of Contact Materials with

Vapours Emanating from Connector Products", Proceedings of the 33rd
Electronic Components Conference, pp. 418-424, Orlando, FL., USA,
1982.

3.92 M. Antler and E.S. Sproles, "Effect of Fretting on the Contact Resistance
of Palladium", Proceedings of the 14th Annual Connectors and
Interconnection Technology Symposium, pp. 313-330, Philadelphia, PA,
USA,1981.

3.93 M. Antler, "Fretting of Electrical Contacts: An Investigation of Palladium

Mated to Other Metals", Proceedings of the 32nd Electronic
Components Conference, pp. 65-71, San Diego, CA, USA, 1982.

3.94 J.P. Bare and AH. Graham, "Connector Resistance to Failure by Fretting
and Frictional Polymer Formation", Proceedings of the 31st Annual
Holm Conference, pp. 147-155, 1985.

88
3.95 W.H. Abbott, "Frictional Polymer Formation on Precious Metal Alloys",
Proceedings of the 25th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 11-16, 1979.

3.96 E.S. Sproles, 'The Effect of Frictional Polymer on the Performance of

Palladium Connector Contacts", Proceedings of the 30th Electronic
Components Conference, pp. 317-323, San Francisco, CA., USA, 1980.

3.97 E.S. Sproles, ':,4 Comparison of Pd-Pd and Pd-Au Connector Contacts
in Air and in Toluene Saturated Air", Proceedings of the 14th Annual
Connectors and Interconnection Technology Symposium, pp. 267-280,
Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1981.

3.98 M. Antler, "Chemistry of Surfaces and its Influence on Electrical

Contacts", The Principles of Electric Contact Theory and Application -
one week IEEE intensive course, pp. MA 5-13, San Francisco, USA,
1987.

3.99 RJ. Geckle and R.S. Mroczkowski, "Corrosion of Precious Metal Plated
Copper Alloys Due to Mixed Flowing Gas Exposure", pp. 193-202,
Proceedings of the 36th Holm Conference on Electrical Contacts,
Montreal, Canada, 1990.

89
90
 CHAPfER4

NORMAL FORCE ANALYSIS AND

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

4.1 Introduction and Analysis

This thesis is concerned with the analysis of failure mechanisms in

electronic connectors with reference to the relationship between accelerated
and real life testing. As detailed in chapter 3, connectors have a wide variety
of failure mechanisms that can affect them [4.1]. In order to make a detailed
study in this area it is not possible to examine all such failure mechanisms. It
is only practicable to choose one and to deal with it in great detail. The
subject chosen for this study was Normal Force Reduction in contact springs.

The Normal Force in a separable contact is the force acting

perpendicular (normal) to the surfaces of the interface. It holds the two
mating halves of the system together, and must be present in every contact.
For nearly all practical connectors a spring of some description is used to
produce the Normal Force. (It is understood by the author that some
manufacturers have experimented with a miniature "hydraulic" system in an
attempt to increase pin density).

2
Normal force is inversely proportional to the (constriction resistance)
(see chapter 3) of a contact. Therefore higher values will give low and more
stable contact resistances. In addition, certain failure mechanisms such as
fretting corrosion are reduced or even eliminated with high values of normal
force. These effects can be considered to be the positive effects of increasing
normal force and may be summarised as follows:-

91
 i) Holds interface together.

ii) Produces low contact resistance.

ill) Helps maintain low contact resistance.

Previous workers have found that the force provided by a spring will
decrease with time [4.2). The processes of stress relaxation and creep will
continually work to reduce the effectiveness of the spring [4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7,
4.8, 4.9). The implication of this for connector designers is that they must
incorporate springs into their designs with higher initial normal forces than
would otherwise be required. This must be done in order to cater for the end
of life requirements of the contact when the force provided by the spring may
only be a fraction of the initial value.

Although increasing the normal force reduces the contact resistance,

there are several drawbacks. Firstly, higher normal force results in higher rates
of wear at the interface for a given number of insertion/withdrawal cycles
[4.10,4.11,4.12). Secondly, increasing the normal force will produce a higher
frictional force and therefore a larger insertion and withdrawal force [4.13).
This will be particularly significant when high pin count connectors are used.
(eg. an increase in insertion force of lOOg per contact for a 600-way connector
can produce an increase in mating force of 60Kg). Finally, to produce a higher
normal force generally requires a physically bigger spring. This is a retrograde
step when designers are striving to produce smaller contacts for higher packing
density connectors. The negative effects of increasing normaJ'force, may be
summarised as follows:-

i) Increasing wear at interface.

ii) Increasing insertion and withdrawal forces.

Hi) Increasing size and cost of spring.

92
 To determine the initial normal force, and hence spring type required
for a particular system, it is necessary to know two parameters:-

i) the minimum normal force required for a stable contact (eg. for
gold plated contacts this may be considered to be 30g and for
a tin plated connector 100g [4.14])

ii) what percentage of the initial normal force will remain at the
end of the contact life (ie. to what extent will the spring be
effected by stress relaxation and creep)

When determining the first parameter, it may be necessary to balance

the positive effects against the negative effects of the system under
consideration. For example, if a tin plated contact is being designed, the
ability of the spring to prevent micro-motion at the interface [4.15] (to
eliminate fretting corrosion) may be a greater consideration than wear. Tin
being considerably cheaper than noble metals, is generally plated to a thicker
value and therefore has more wear tolerance. Thus with a tin plated system
a high minimum value of normal force would be chosen. Conversely with a
gold plated system, the wear of the expensive plating may be the prime
consideration and so a low minimum value of normal force would be
necessary.

The second parameter requires a knowledge of how the normal force

produced by the spring changes with time. This will depend on the operating
temperature at which the contact is used, the material with which the spring
is made and its design. (Some contacts use the connector housing as part of
the spring mechanism and this must also be taken into consideration).

Data concerning rates of stress relaxation is provided by material

manufacturers and from the literature [4.8]. Unfortunately it tends to be based
on metal strips rather than on formed springs. Invariably it will have been
gathered using some form of high temperature testing and will incorporate
some sort of extrapolation in the time and temperature domains. (Real

93
connectors tend to have life spans of up to 10 years or more and it is
therefore not practical to test these under working operating temperatures).
In addition, there is rarely any detailed statistical analysis of the data, i.e.
confidence levels etc. All these factors combine to produce uncertainties which
may be considerable.

Due to the problems highlighted above, many tests are comparative;

the stress relaxation rates of one material are compared with those of another.
Such tests will show certain materials (invariably more expensive) to be more
resistant to high temperature normal force reduction than others [4.6].
However, the underlying problem of having to determine the amount of
reduction that will occur in a given system for given temperatures and times
still remains.

To overcome these uncertainties, many manufacturers use an

accelerated life test to determine what effect the reduction in normal force
has on the performance of the component. The most common test used by the
connector industry is the "Heat Age" test. This test is based on the results of
experimental work undertaken by Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1950s
[4.16,4.17,4.18,4.19,4.20]. Their work showed that at 118'C copper wire
relaxes to 50% of it's initial stress in thirty-three days. By extrapolation, the
same amount of relaxation would take forty years at a typical operating
temperature (57' C). However these results are based on several high
temperature tests (150'C to 200'C) of relatively short duration (up to 3
hours) made on wound copper wire. The use of wire instead of real contact
springs, the limited time and temperature ranges of the test data and the lack
of statistical analysis once again leads to uncertainties.

The net result to a contact designer will be an inability to accurately

calculate the amount of normal force reduction that will occur for a given
time and temperature. At best, the only solution available at present is to use
the existing information to make a reasonable guess and then incorporate a
suitable safety margin which may well be a factor of 2 or 3. In addition to the

94
detrimental effects on the negative aspects of normal force, this will also have
cost implications. These may be considerable if a more expensive spring
material is required.

There is a need for a better method of estimating normal force

reduction for given times and temperatures along with appropriate confidence
levels for these predications. This will allow contact designers to produce good
reliable products at the right cost.

The absence of real data for contacts can be attributed to the difficulty
of actually measuring the normal force of the contact in a non-destructive
manner. Measuring the insertion force is not a suitable method because of the
large variability of the coefficient of friction. However, probes have recently
been developed [4.21] that allow a direct non-destructive measurement of the
normal force. They incorporate micro-strain gauges, arranged so as to measure
the normal force between two surfaces opposite to one' another. Using these
devices it is possible to measure the normal force and to observe how it
changes with time for a range of temperatures.

Taking advantage of this development in technology, a series of

elevated temperature heat age tests have been carried out by the author using
real connectors. The aim of these tests has been to investigate how time and
temperature affects the reduction of normal force in real contacts. The data
collected has been used to develop a theoretical model for this process, which
will predict normal force reduction for given times and temperatures with
appropriate confidence levels in these predictions.

95
4.2 Experimental Procedure

4~1 Introduction

Connector lifetimes can range anything up to 40 years in service.

Obviously it is not practical to test for these periods. There are essentially two
ways to overcome this problem, either extrapolation of data obtained with
short duration tests or utilising some form of accelerated testing. Neither
method is perfect.

Extrapolation runs the risk that the short duration data does not show
the dominant trends. In addition, over short periods the actual changes in a
particular parameter at normal operating conditions may be very small.
Umitations of the measuring equipment might produce errors that make long
term predications meaningless. This is ,in fact the case with normal force
reduction. Changes in normal force at typical operating temperatures «
60°C) are very small. It was not possible, even with the new equipment made
available for this research, to measure these accurately enough.

4.2.2 Prelimina.,. Studies

The first problem that has to be overcome with accelerated testing is

to find a suitable acceleration parameter. This is not difficult with normal
force reduction, since it is well documented that elevated temperature
markedly accelerates it. However, care must be taken to ensure that at
elevated temperatures a totally different mechanism is not causing the change
compared with normal conditions.

Preliminary studies by the author of the effect of heat on normal force

reduction, confirmed that it increased markedly at higher temperatures. It was
found that above 200· C the normal force reduced to levels that it was difficult

96
to measure within a matter of hours. At the other end of the scale, at
temperatures below 100· C the changes in normal force even after several
months testing were still at levels in the region of the sensitivity of the
measuring equipment, see figure 4.1. Hence the effective range for any useful
elevated temperature work was decided to be 100· C to 200· C. This is easily
achieved in the laboratory and provides a wide enough range of temperature
to investigate the effect of temperature on normal force reduction rates. It was
therefore decided to use this method as the accelerating medium for the
research.

z
..,0 100
3 90
0

"T'I 80 i-------------------------------~--------
, , ' , ----------
..,
0 , "
1------------------------------~-----------------~------------+-~-
I ' "

n
CD
70 I I I 1

0
en
60 +---
, -------------------------~-----------------~~--~-~~!-~-~---------
0 ' , ,
i 200 C i 1 i
0 50 t-------------- ---------------1------------------1-------------t-----------
lI :I II II
~

- ____________
I I I I
40 -~---_____________________ ----~------------------1- ~----------_

0 ! I 47 Hoursl !
30 -~------------------------------j- ----1---------j------------1"-----------
I I I I
~o ""------------------------------~----
I I ----------~------------""-----------
I I
I I I I
I I I I

10 1-------------------------------~-----------------_t------------1------------
o< I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

c::
CD O~------------~----~~--~----~
1 Hour Week 1 Month Day
Log Time

Figure 4.1
Effective Temperature Range for Heat Age Tests

4.2.3 Temperature Observations

Using elevated temperatures to accelerate normal force reduction in

contact springs is a fairly simple procedure. All that is required is that the
spring is heated to a specific temperature for a certain period of time.

97
Measuring the normal force both before and after, will give the amount of
reduction that has occurred for those particular conditions. However, the
effect of the heat will not occur instantaneously. Once placed into the oven
the contact's temperature will rise to the desired oven temperature in a finite
time period. Since this parameter will affect the timing of the tests, it was
necessary to investigate it further before any accelerated tests could be made.

(Only 5 contacts shown - actual

connector has 25)
Connector used
in Normal Force
Reduction Tests
(Not to Scale)

PLAN VIEW Thermocouple

END VIEW
FRONT VIEW THROUGH SECTION A-A THROUGH
SECTION B-B

Figure 4.2
Positioning of the Thermocouple in the Temperature Rise Tests

By attaching a thermocouple to the centre of a connector (see figure

4.2) and placing it into a pre-heated oven, the temperature rise characteristic
can be obtained. This is shown in figure 4.3. The time taken for the connector
to reach the oven temperature is 25 minutes, however the bulk of the
temperature rise occurs much more quickly. Examining the data more
carefully reveals over 95% of the increase occurs within the first 10 minutes.
This was therefore chosen as the warm-up time prior to commencing the test.

98
 200
190 -----4-----4-----
I
--,-----~-----~-----~-----~----~----~----~----~----
_____ ! _____! ___ ! _____
I I! _____ ! _____ J _____ J _____
I I I , J_____ '_____J_, ____J_, ___ _
~_____ ~

180 I
I ,
I
I
I
I
,
I
,
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
170 -----.--- +-----.-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----~----+-----~----
,
,
I
•
,
,
I
I
I
I
I
,
I
I
,
•
I
•
,
,
I
,
I
•

..-.. 160 -----t- ---t-----t-----t-----t-----t-----t-----t-----t-----t-----1-----1-----

.P 150 -----' ----t-----t-----t-----t-----+-----t-----t-----t-----~-----i-----i-----
I I I I I I I I I , ,

'-" 140 ---- -----~-----~-----~-----r-----r-----r-----r-----f-----f-----f-----l-----

I, II I, I, I, I, II I• II II II II

Q) 130 --- -r-----r-----~-----~-----r-----r-----r-----r-----r-----T-----r-----r-----

I , I I I I I I I , I I

-
L. I I I I I , , I I I , I

:::l 120 -- -r-----r-----r-----r-----r-----r-----r-----r-----r-----r-----r-----T-----

: : ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; I ;
0 110 _ _~----~----~----~----~----~-----~-----r
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
_____r-----r---__ r_____•____ _
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
L.
Q) 100 - --jj----jj----jj----jj----jj----ij-----r-----r-----r-----r-----r-----r-----
I I I I I I I I I I I I
a. 90 --1-----1-----1-----1-----1-----1-----1r----_t-----t-----~----_t-----~----

E 80 - ---1-----4-----4-----4-----4-----4-----4-----4-----4-----1,----1,----1,----
I I I I I I I I I I I I
Q)
I- 70 ---1-----1-----1-----1-----1-----1-----1-----1-----1-----1-----1-----1-----
60 ----1-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----4_----4_----4_----4-----4_----4-----
I I I I I I I I I I I I

50 ----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----4_----
I I I I I I I I I I I I
40 ----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----~-----1_----
I
,
I
•
I
I
I
•
I
•
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I ,
I
,
• , I

30 -----.-----.-----.-----.-----+-----+-----+-----+-----~-----~-----~-----~-----
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
, ,
,
I
I
,
I
I ,
I
,
I I I
20
o 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time (Minutes)

Figure 4.3
Temperature Rise Characteristic of a Connector

This uncertainty in the time required for the connector to reach the
desired temperature affects the test methodology. If a connector is continually
heated up and cooled down, in order to make a series of normal force
readings at different times, then any errors estimating this time will be
cumulative. In addition, this continual changing of the connector's temperature
may very well be more detrimental to normal force reduction than the
elevated temperature.

99
4.3 Equipment

4.3.1 Strain Gauges and Transducer

This investigation into normal force reduction of contact springs has

been made possible by the construction of some new micro-strain gauges.
These allow the contact normal force to be measured non-destructively and
with minimum time and effort. It is as a direct result of this, that so much data
(over 6,000 data points - 12,000 readings) has been collected in the time scale
available.

Strain Ga uges

Split Pin
BEFORE

Deforming
Force

AFTER

Figure 4.4
Cross Section of a Strain Gauge Both Before and After Deformation

100
 The concept is fairly simplistic, a split pin (shown diagrammatically in
cross section in figure 4.4) has had some strain gauges attached to the inside
surfaces. If the pin is deflected, as shown, it changes shape. The strain gauges,
which are attached to the pin must also change shape and strains will be
developed inside them. These devices are made from a material whose
resistance varies with the strain placed on them. By connecting them to a
suitable transducer and calibrating it appropriately, the force deflecting the pin
(causing the strain) can be measured.

Calibrati
A

PLAN VIEW
Mass Table

Strain Gauge

VIEW THROUGH SECTION A-A

Figure 4.5
Calibrating Tool used with Strain Gauges

While the concept is simple, the engineering design and manufacture

is very complex due to the extremely small sizes that are required for use with
contacts. The exterior dimensions of the gauge must be the same as those of
the male pin of the connector. In addition they must be so designed that the
point of contact with the female half of the connector is at the same point
along the pin as that of the calibrating tool.

101
 The calibrating tool is shown in figure 4.5. The calibration procedure
is as follows. The gauge is connected to the transducer and the power is
turned on. The apparatus is left for 5 minutes to warm up. The gauge is then
placed into the calibrating too\, and the zero deflection balance of the
transducer is adjusted until the display reads zero. The mass table is then
inserted into the calibrating tool and a known mass (eg lOOg) is placed upon
it. Since the mass table is known to have a weight of Sg, the total weight (and
hence force - 108 gf in this case) acting on the gauge is known. The
amplification or gauge factor of the transducer is then adjusted until the
display gives the appropriate value. When the mass table has been removed
the transducer display is checked to ensure it is still reading zero. This process
is repeated until a satisfactory gauge factor setting and zero deflection balance
is found.

It was found that within the range 0 - 200g the strain gauges were
linear to within ± 2g. As a result of this, the actual calibration procedure
would use three masses. For example, if it was known that the gauges would
be measuring a contact force of around 150gf, masses of 100g, 150g and 200g
would be used on the mass table and the gauge factor of the transducer would
be set to give the best readings for all three with a slight bias to the 150g.

4.3.2 The Contacts

The contacts selected for this research were made from a high
conductivity phosphor-bronze UNS No. C51100 (Copper Alloy No. 511). The
chemical composition is given in table 4.1. The material was tempered to a
Spring designation, No. H08. The female was stamped and formed into a
simple dual cantilever type spring shown in figure 4.6. The male being a
simple square post, see figure 4.7. Both halves of the contact were then plated
with 1.27 /.Im and Nickel followed by 0.76 /.Im and Cobalt hardened Gold. The
contacts were housed in a black thermoplastic housing shown in figure 4.S.

102
 I ELEMENT I Percentage I
Tin 3.50-4.50
Phosphorus 0.01-0.10
Iron 0.10 max
Lead 0.05 max
Zinc 0.30 max
Copper + Tin 99.5 min
+ Phosphorus

Table 4.1
Chemical Composition of
Phosphor-Bronze

Cantilever Beam Springs

D'~~-\J: IL--------.
Dire ction of Insertion

A
FRONT VIEW THROUGH SECTION A-A SIDE VIEW

------_.- L
-----,•
____J••

_ _ _ _ _.r---- i FIRST ANGLE

PROJECTION
(Not to Scale)
PLAN VIEW

Figure 4.6
Female Half of Contact - A Simple Dual Cantilever Beam

103
 Figure 4.7
Male Half of Contact - Simple Square Post

Figure 4.8
Connector used in Normal Force Research

104
4.3.3 The Heat Age Oven

The Heat Age Oven used for this work was an Heraeus T 5090 E
heating and drying oven. It was controllable within the temperature range
40·C to 250·C with an accuracy of ± 2% of the rated temperature with a
fluctuation oft 0.6%.

4.3A Computer and Software

An IBM AT personal computer was used for data handling and

processing. After collection, data was entered into Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet for
handling and storage. SPSS PC+ was used for statistical processing and
manipulation of the data.

4.4 Final Test Procedure

The final test procedure adopted was as follows. Thirteen 50-way male
and female connectors were selected and marked by cutting off the solder tails
of certain contacts within the connector, see figure 4.9. This was required since
the connector housings were black and the elevated temperatures might affect
any markers applied to them. Referring to the diagram, the contacts indicated
by the green numbers represent the number of the test. (eg. the first test was
conducted at 200·C and all connectors used in this test had the green No.1
contact's solder tail removed, the second test was conducted at 180·C and all
the connectors used in this test had the green No.2 contact's solder tail
removed and so on). The contacts indicated by the red numbers represent the
connector number during the test. (eg. connector number 1 had the red No.1
contact's solder tail removed, connector number 2 had the red No.2 contact's
solder tail removed and so on). In this way all the connectors used in the
elevated temperature tests can be uniquely identified by examining their
solder tails. Also, each individual contact can be identified by referring to the
blue numbering system.

105
 Contact Numbers - 1 to 50
Connector Numbers - 1 to 13
Test Numbers - 1 to 10
26 25 I
1--11--1 Sold er
27 24
1--11--1
23
Tai Is
28
1--11--1
29
30
1--11--1
22
21 / ~I
31 20
t--I--I
32 19
t--I--I
33 18
1--11--1
34 17
35 16
36 15
37 14
38 13 13
39 12 12
40 11 11
41 t--I--I 10 10 10
42 9 9 9
1--1--1
43 8 8 8
44 7 7 7
45 6 6 6
46 5 5 5
47 4 4 4
48 3 3 3
49 2 2 l
, I 2
50 1 1 I 1
TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW BOTTOM VIEW

Figure 4.9
Connector Identification Scheme

106
 Next, all the contacts for a particular test had their initial normal forces
measured. An appropriate sized normal force strain gauge was then removed
from it's case and connected to the detection transducer. This was switched
on and allowed to warm up for 5 minutes. The strain gauge was then
calibrated with appropriate weights and the transducer adjusted accordingly.
With the connector standing on the solder tails (see figure 4.10), the strain
gauge was inserted fully into contact number one so that the dual cantilever
beam springs were distorted. Whilst holding the connector still, the strain
gauge was released. It's geometry ensured that it remained in the vertical
position. The normal force reading could then be obtained directly from the
transducer, see figure 4.11.

It was noted that care must be taken to ensure that the cabling from
the transducer to the strain gauges does not unduly affect the results. i.e. if the
cabling is allowed to hang loose from the strain gauges, it's weight will tend
to pull the gauges from the vertical position and hence distort the results (see
figure 4.12).

Figure 4.10
Strain Gauge Inserted into Connector

107
., •?, ••
.
i •

Figure 4.11
Transducer Display

- -----

Figure 4.12
Effect of Cabling on Strain Gauge Reading

108
 The reading obtained was entered manually into a computer
spreadsheet for ease of data manipulation. The strain gauge was then removed
and placed into contact number two and the process was repeated. After the
first 25 readings were obtained, the calibration of the gauges was checked
once more before making the remaining readings.

The connectors were then mated and placed into a preheated oven at
the designated temperature. After the 10 minute warm up period had elapsed
the timer clock was started. Previous tests had shown that the relationship
between normal force reduction and time was approximately logarithmic. This
fact was used in determining the time periods that each individual connector
spent in the oven. This was done to ensure an even spread of data within the
test parameters.

At the appropriate time, a connector would be removed from the oven

and allowed to cool for 5 minutes. It would then be carefully unmated and
allowed to cool for a further 5 minutes. During this time the strain gauge
transducer was turned on, allowed to warm up and calibrated. Each contact
then had it's final normal force measurement made in the same way as it's
initial measurement. Once again the calibration was checked between readings
number 25 and 26. The result was entered into a computer spreadsheet.

At the end of the test all the used connectors were stored in
appropriately marked sample bags. Backup copies of the computer data were
made as well as hard copy print outs.

109
4.5 Summary

This chapter outlines the experimental procedure that has been

adopted with this research. It has been divided into four sections and these
are detailed below:-

1 INTRODUcrION AND ANALYSIS

This section began by identifying the area of research detailed in this
thesis, namely Normal Force Reduction in Electronic Contacts -
analysing this failure mechanism with a view to investigating the
relationship between real life and accelerated testing. This is then
followed by analysis of Normal Force in contact springs. The positive
and negative effects are described. Problems that can be caused by
normal force reduction are given together with the solutions used in
practise. The benefits of research into this field are outlined.

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
This section detailed factors affecting the test methodology and gave
some preliminary experimental results. The acceleration parameter
chosen for the research into normal force reduction was elevated
temperature. The effective temperature range over which the work was
carried out was chosen to be 100· C to 200· C.

3 EQUIPMENT
This section described the equipment used. This consisted of specially
developed micro-strain gauges, a heat age oven plus some
computational hardware and software. The connectors used in the
research were also described.

4 FINAL TEST PROCEDURE

This section described in detail the final test procedure adopted.

110
4.6 References

4.1 T.P. Ireland and NA Stennett, ''Failure Mechanisms in Electronic

Contacts", Connector Industry News, Vo!. Iss. 4.

4.2 J.C Harkness, W.R. Cribb and H. Koeppen, "Perfonnance

Characteristics of Alloys C17400 and C17410 - New Materials for the
80's", Proceedings of the 31st Annual Holm Conference on Electrical
Contacts, pp. 151-157, Chicago, IL, USA, 1985.

4.3 A Fox and E.O. Fuchs, "Stress Relaxation Conditions in Spinodal

Copper-Nickel-Tin Alloy Strip Used for Slotted Beam Connectors",
Proceedings of the 14th Annual Connectors and Interconnection
Technology Symposium, pp. 75-82, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1981.

4.4 B. Wiltshire, "Stress Relaxation Measurements ofAluminium Conductors

in Insulation Displacement Connectors (IDC) and Related Effects on
Contact Resistance", IEEE Transactions Components Hybrids and
Manufacturing Technology, vo!' 7, no. 1, pp. 11-19, 1984.

4.5 E. Shapiro and H. Hummel, "High Temperature Stress Relaxation:

Mechanisms and Data ", Proceedings of the 17th Annual Connectors and
Interconnection Technology Symposium, pp. 99-108, Anaheim, CA,
USA,1984.

4.6 J.c. Harkness and C.S. Lorenz, "Stress Relaxation of Beryllium Copper
in Bending", Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Holm Conference, pp. 37-
52, Chicago, IL, USA, 1987.

4.7 E.W. Filer and H.T. Clelland, "Stress Relaxation of Copper-Beryllium

and Nickel-Beryllium Alloys", Proceedings of the 13th Annual
Connectors and Interconnection Technology Symposium, pp. 179-186,
USA,1980.

111
4.8 W. Loewenthal, ''Measurement and Use of Stress Relaxation Data for
Copper Alloys in Bending", Proceedings of the 38th Electronic
Components Conference, pp. 208-219, Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1988.

4.9 MJ. White, "Interrelationships Between Contact Alloy Properties Relative

to Connector Design, Manufacture and Performance", Proceedings ofthe
31st Annual Holm Conference, pp. 158-163, Chicago, 11., USA, 1985.

4.10 KJ. Whitlaw, J.W. Souter, I.S. Wright, M. Nottingham, 'Wear Properties
of High Speed Gold Electrodeposits", Proceedings of the 30th Annual
Holm Conference, pp. 33-45, Chicago, IL., USA., 1984.

4.11 L-G. Liljestrand, L.Sjogren, L. Revay, B. Asthner and LM. Ericsson,

"Wear Resistance of Electroplated Nickel-Hardened Gold", Proceedings
of the 30th Annual Holm Conference, pp. 53-60, Chicago, IL., USA,
1984.

4.12 L-G Liljestrand. ':,.t Study of Some Factors Influencing the Wear
Resistance of Lubricated Gold Contacts", Proceedings of the 28th
Annual Holm Conference, pp. 11-18, Chicago, IL., USA, 1983.

4.13 S. Aujla and B.Wiltshire, "Connector Insertion Force Characteristics",

Proceedings of the 31st Annual Holm Conference, pp. 169-174,
Chicago, IL., USA, 1985.

4.14 J.H. Whitley, "Choosing an Alternative to Gold in Contacts", Electronic

Products, pp. 70-71, 26th March, 1982.

4.15 J.H. Whitley, '1nvestigation of Fretting Corrosion Phenomena in Electric

Contacts", Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Electric
Contact Phenomena, Tokyo, Japan, August 22-26th, 1976.

4.16 J.W. McRae, "Solderless Wrapped Connections - Introduction", The Bell

System Technical Journal, vo!. 32, no. 3, pp. 523-524, May, 1953.

112
4.17 R.F. Mallina, "Solder/ess Wrapped Connections - Part I Structure and
Tools", The Bell System Technical Journal, vo!. 32, no. 3, pp. 525-555,
May, 1953.

4.18 W.P. Mason and T.F. Osmer, ''Solder/ess Wrapped Connections - Part II
Necessary Conditions for Obtaining a Permanent Connection", The Bell
System Technical Journal, vo!. 32, no. 3, pp. 557-590, May, 1953.

4.19 R.H. Van Horn, "Solderless Wrapped Connections - Part III Evaluation
and Performance Tests", The Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 32, no.
3, pp. 591-610, May, 1953.

4.20 W.P. Mason and O.L Anderson, "Stress Systems in the Solder/ess
Wrapped Connection and Their Permanence", The Bell System Technical
Journal, pp. 591-610, Sept, 1954.

4.21 Private Communication between AMP Inc. Harrisburg and

Loughborough University of Technology, 1987.

113
114
 CHAPrER5

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter gives the experimental results that have been achieved
during this research into normal force reduction in electrical contacts. The
first section shows the results of the ten elevated temperature tests in
abbreviated graphical form. This was necessary due to the large volume of
experimental data that has been collected. However a full listing of the results
is given in Appendix A. The next two sections show photographically the
permanent set that has occurred during testing and the effect oftbe testing on
the grain structures of the contact springs. The last two sections deal with the
effect of insertion withdrawal cycling on the normal force and the influence
of stress on the reduction process.

115
5.2 Heat Age Test Results

The results of the heat age tests at 100· C, 110· C, 120· C, 130· C,
140·C, 1S0·C, 160·C, 170·C, 180·C and 200·C are shown in figures 5.1--
5.10 respectively.

The time intervals during each test were measured in seconds and have
been plotted on a logarithmic scale. Commonly used time periods have been
indicated. The error in measurement of time is difficult to determine precisely,
due to the uncertainty in determining the time required for the test samples
to reach the desired temperature (see Chapter 4). However, any error
introduced because of this will be the same for all readings in each test and
a value of ± 3000 seconds (S minutes) seems reasonable. Due to the fact that
time scale is expressed logarithmically, the size of the error bars will vary with
each reading. In fact they become negligible after the first few readings and
have therefore not been included.

The normal force scale is expressed as a percentage of the initial value.

Each point shown represents the average reading of the 50 contacts from the
connector which was removed from the test oven at that time. The error bars
show two standard deviations either side of the mean. Therefore, if the data
is normally distributed, 95% of the individual data points will lie within the
error bars shown. In addition according to the central limit theorem [5.1] there
is a 95% confidence level that the actual mean will lie within error bars 1/7th
the size of those shown. Errors introduced by the measurement stage were
estimated to be better than ± 5 g.

116
z
.,0 100 •
i 100'C
3
Q
:
90 ~- ~--:t---- ---- ---- I
--------T---------~~~I~~~--------r---------
.."
.,0
80 t --------- ---- ---- ------- --1"-- I ~ -;;;;::::::::

n 70 1------------------------------ rr------ _____l __________ _

I ----------------

CD I I
I I
I I
! I
Q
en
60 -{------------------------------~-----------------~------------{------------
II I
. .
I ,
I
I I I ,
I I I I
Q 50· -t------------------------------1------------------1-------------t------------
I
,
•
I
•
I ,
I

-
I I I I
I I I I

0
40 -~------------------------------~------------------~-------------~-----------
I I I I
I I I I
, I I ,

:::l
30 -r------------------------------t------------------i-------------r-----------
I I I I
I I I I
:;: I I I I

Q
20 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
I I I I
I I I I

< 10 1-------------------------------r------------------r------------1------------
I I I I
Q I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

C
CD
0 , ' "
1 Hour 1 Day 1 Week 1 Month
Log Time

Figure 5.1
IOO'C Heat Age Test Results

z
.,o 100TT------------~------~----~~--~

3Q .1 i i i 110'C
90 -- -----,------f------------t------------------t-- --------,------------
.." 80· 1----~ __ J _____L _________: -----f~-- --------f~------------
.,o . . . J
n j7(). 1-------------------------------r------ -- -----~-- -------~------ ]
(I) , " ,
Q E)() • -~------------------------------~-----------------~--
~
--------~------------
en I
! !I I
! I

Q !)() • -t---------------------~--------~------------------i-------------t------------
,I . , '
I I I
~

--
I I I I
4 () • -~------------------------------~--------.----------~-------------~-----------
o I
I I
I II I
I
I I I I

:::l
30- -r------------------------------j------------------t-------------r-----------
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I

Q
20- ~----------------------------~------------------~-----------_4_-----------
I
,
I
I ,
I I
I
I ' I I
I ' I I

< 10 1-------------------------------:------------------:------------1------------
Q I I I I
~ ~
C
CD
o ! !

1 Hour 1 Day Week 1 Month

Log Time

Figure 5.2
llO'C Heat Age Test Results

117
z
.,0 100 o 0

3 90
I I I I 120°C
~------------------------------r------------------r------------~-----------
0 0
0 o
o 0 0
o 0

-., 80 i-- ~------------i------------

.,n0 !
o o
,o
0
,0
<D
70 1------------------------------
o 0
0 60 -T------------------------------,-----------------
o

,
o ,0
0

III I I I ,
I I I I
0 50 -t------------------------------1I-----------------II------------t------------
I I I I
l!R

-
I I I I
I _ I I I

0
40 -j------------------------------j------------------,-------------j-----------
I I I I
I I I I

:::I
30 -r------------------------------j------------------j-------------r-----------
I I ' I
I I I I
::;: I I I I

0
20 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I I
, ' I I

< 10 1-------------------------------:------------------t------------1------------
0 , I I I
I I I I
c: 0
<D
1 Hour 1 Day 1 Week 1 Month
Log Time
Figure 5.3
120· C Heat Age Test Results

z
.,0 100 o

3 i i i i130·C
,-------------------------------r------------------r------------,------------
0 90 I
I
'
I
I
I
I
I

-., 80 f11i--~--~-~~~"t..--_f--------~-;-;-~-:-:--~~~==· -------~------------1------------

.,n
0 , ~______________________________ -L' J,
<D
70 ! I·~~~~~;-;-l-~--------!------------

I I I
0 60 -T------------------------------,-----------
o 0
III : I
: : : I I I
0 50 -I------------------------------~------------------i_------------1----------
, , , '
l!R I . I I I

-
I I I ,

0
40 -~------------------------------~------------------~-------------~------------
I I I I
I " I
I " I
30 -r------------------------------j------------------i-------------r-----------
I I I I
:::I
::0: I I I I
0
20 II
----------------~--------~-----+------
II II II
I I I ,

< 10 1-------------------------------:------------------t------------1------------
0 I I ' I
,I ,
I
.I
'I

c: 0
<D
1 Hour 1 Day Week 1 Month
Log Time
Figure 5.4
130· C Heat Age Test Results

118
z
.,0 100
3 90
I I I I 140°C
~------------------------------~------------------r------------~-----------
a I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

..... 80 . -------~------------------~------------i------------
.,0 I
I I
! ,
I I
I
n
OD
70 1------------ -- ----- ---- -----------r------------l------------
I I I ,

a 60 _~--------_------------_--------~-------------- I _____ { ___________ _

1/1 ! I I
a . I
..
50 -+------------------------------4------------------1------
I I
l ----------
I

-
C!R I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

0
40 -~------------------------------~------------------~-------------~-----------
,I I ,I ,I
I I I I

:::l
30 -r------------------------------t------------------t-------------r-----------
I I I I
I I I I
::;: , I I I

a 20 ~------------------+I-----------~~---
,, ,, ,,
I
, ' I
, , I
10 1-------------------------------~------------------~------------1------------
a< ,
I
I
'
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
c::
OD
0 I I "

1 Hour 1 Day 1 Week 1 Month

Log Time

Figure 5.5
140·C Heat Age Test Results

z ,
.,0 100
3 I I i i150·C
a 90 ~------------------------------r------------------r------------~-----------
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I I

..... 80 i-------- -----------f------------------f------------i------------

, , ,
.,n0 , ,l ,I I,
________ ~ _________________ ~ ____________ 4 ___________ _
, , ,
70 1--------
OD i I I, ,I
a
1/1
60 ,i -~-------------------------- ---+------------4------------
.,,, .,,,
i, ,
a 50 -t------------------------------1----------
, , -i-------------t------------
,, i,

-
C!R "
"
0
40 -~------------------------------~------------------~-
I I I
------j-----------
,, "" i
30 -r------------------------------t------------------i-----------
, "
:::l
::;: , , " "
a 20 -4----------------------4---------+-----+----1
, I " I I I
I I I I
I I I I
10
a<
1-------------------------------~------------------~------------1------------
I I I I
I I I I
,I ,
I .I ,I
c::
OD
0
1 Hour 1 Day 1 Week 1 Month
Log Time

Figure 5.6
ISO· C Heat Age Test Results

119
z
.,0 100
3 90
I I I I 160·C
~------------------------------r------------------~------------~-----------
c I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
t
I
,
I

.... 80 ~--- --------------------------~------------------~------------~------------

.,0
o 0 0

i Io I0 I0
n 70 ~------- ------------~-----------------~------------~----------
o 0 0 --
(I)
I Io I0 I0
C 60 -~--------------------- ~-----------------~------------~------------
Io Io I0
'"c o
0
0

50 -t------------------------------I---------
o 0
------1f------------t------------
o 0
~ o o

-
0 0
o 0 o 0

0
40 -~------------------------------~---------------
Io I0 ~-------------~-----------
I
0
o 0 0 i
::J
30 -r------------------------------t------------------t-----
o 0
-----r-----------
0
o 0 0 i
:::;: o 0 0 o

c· 20 i
o
I I I I
10
c<
1-------------------------------~------------------~------------1------------
I I ' I
I I I I

0 ,
I I I I
" ,
c::
(I)
1 Hour 1 Day 1 Week 1 Month
Log Time

Figure 5.7
160·C Heat Age Test Results

z
.,0 100
3 90
I I I I 170·C
~------------------------------r------------------r------------~-----------
c I
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

.... 80 ~-------------------------------~------------------~------------~------------
.,n0 I
I
I
I
____________________________ ~
"
I
o
,
I
_________________ ~,
0
I
I
____________ 4 ___________ _
0

CD
70 I
,I ,
I
'
.I ,I
I I

C 60 -J--------
l
-----------~-----------------~------------J------------
l I I
'"c I

50 -i-------------------------
I I ,

--~------------------i_------------t------------
: : :
~ . ' I '

-
, I I I
40 -~------------------------------~---- ----~-------------~-----------
0 ! I
! ! ! I I I

30 -r------------------------------t------------- ------r-----------
::J ,o ,0 I0
~ 20 o -~------+_!_F~+_-_I
c o
o
o
0 0
0
0
o 0 0

< 10 1-------------------------------~------------------~-----------
I I ,
i--
I
c I
,
•
I
' I '
I ,
I ,
I

c::
(I)
0
1 Hour 1 Day Week 1 Month
Log Time

Figure 5.8
170· C Heat Age Test Results

120
z ,
..,
0 100
3 90
I I I i 180·C
~------------------------------r------------------r------------~-----------
Q I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
, I I I

-., 80 ~-------------------------------~------------------~------------i------------
..,0
I I I I
I I I ,
, , . I

n 70
I
,
I I
, I
,
-----------------------------~-----------------~------------~------------
Cl)
,~ ,I ,!
l_JC-'Oc__ ____________________ ~----------------~------------~--- ________ _
Q 60 , I I I

'"
Q
i
50 -t------------
i i i
---------i------------------~------------t------------
I I I :

-
C!R I I I I

0
40 -~-----------------------
I I
------------~-------------~-----------
I ______
I I
I I I I

:::l
30 -r------------------------------t-
I
---------t-------------r-----------
I I I
:::;
I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
20 ,, ,, ,,
Q
,, ,, ,,
< 10 1-------------------------------~------------------t------------;------------
I I I I
Q I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

C
Cl)
0 I I I I

1 Hour Day 1 Week 1 Month

Log Time

Figure 5.9
180·C Heat Age Test Results

z 100Tr------------~------~----~,----~
..,o
3Q 90·
I I I 200·C i
~------------------------------.------------------.------------T-----------
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I

-., fI()· i-------------------------------~------------------~------------i------------

..,o I
I
I "
I
I
I
I
,
I
I

n j7() • ----------------------------t------------------t------------1------------
, , ,
Cl) ' , ,
Q
\
60 - - - --- --- =---------------+-----------------+------------4------------
, I
, :
, I
'" : rloo..
........__ol

~~ l~~~~-----~~-~ ~\~-r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t~~~~~~~~~~~l~~~~~~~~~~-
Q

C!R

-
o
:5() • -~-----------------------
I
I
20 • +-------------------~-
-- ~\---------------i-------------t-----------
I
I
--
I
I
I
I
---------~-------+-----
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I

< 10 i-------------------------------~-----
I I
~-----------~------------i------------
I I
Q I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

c
Cl) O~'------------~'------~'----~'~--~
1 Hour Day 1 Week 1 Month
Log Time

Figure 5.10
200· C Heat Age Test Results

121
5.3 Permanent Set Photographs

These photographs have been taken to illustrate the effect of the heat
age tests on the separation between the contact springs. Each photograph has
been taken looking down onto the connector as shown in figure 5.11.

. ------------- .
VIEW THROUGH LENS

CAMERA

CONNECTOR
~

FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW

Figure S.11
Positioning of Camera in Permanent Set Photographs

Figure 5.12 shows a connector prior to heat age testing. Figure 5.13
shows a connector that has undergone 2,354 hours at 130' C. The normal force
being reduced to approximately 50% of it's initial value. Figure 5.14 shows a
connector that has undergone 916 hours at 170·C. The normal force being
reduced to approximately 15% of it's initial value. Figure 5.15 shows a
connector that has undergone 51 hours at 200·C. The normal force once
again being reduced to 15% of it's initial value.

122
 Figure 5.12
Gap Between Contact Springs in a Connector Prior to Heat Age Testing
(X17)

Figure 5.13
Gap Between Contact Springs in a Connector After Undergoing 2354
hours at 130· C Resulting in a 50% Reduction in Normal Force
(X17)

123
 Figure 5.14
Gap Between Contact Springs in a Connector After Undergoing 916
hours at 170·C Resulting in an 85% Reduction in Normal Force
(X17)

Figure 5.15
Gap Between Contact Springs in a Connector After Undergoing 51
hours at 200·C Resulting in an 85% Reduct ion in Normal Force
(X17)
124
5.4 Grain Structure Photographs

This section shows the grain structures of the contact springs both
before and after heat age testing. Each photograph shows a cross section of
the cantilever beam spring as illustrated in figure 5.16. This part of the
structure was chosen after computer modelling of the beam using WISPA
[5.2]. This produces a plot of the beam showing the varying levels of stress
concentrations, see figure 5.17. As can readily be seen, the greatest stress
concentrations are to be found in the region where the photographs have been
taken.

(Not to Scale)

Region of Beam Shown in

Grain Structure Photographs

Cantilever Beam Springs

on

FRONT VIEW THROUGH SECTION A-A SIDE VIEW

Figure 5.16
Illustration of Region in Contact Spring Where Grain
Structure Photographs Have Been Taken

Figure 5.18 shows the grain structure of a beam which has received no
heat age testing. Figure 5.19 show the grain structure after the beam has
undergone 3 months at 100' C resulting in a 25% reduction in normal force.
Figure 5.20 shows the grain structure after the beam has undergone 75 hours
at 150' C resulting in a 50% reduction in normal force. Figure 5.21 shows the

125
grain structure after the beam has undergone 23 days at 170· C resulting in an
80% reduction in normal force. Figure 5.22 shows the grain structure after the
beam has undergone 48 hours at 200·C resulting in a 76% reduction in
normal force. Figure 5.23 shows the grain structure after the beam has
undergone 48 hours at 200·C resulting in a 101% increase in normal force.
This occurs because this sample was unmated during the heat age test.

Cl

.
o
co
11

"oo
-'

"Q)

Cl.
Cl.
-<{

Figure 5.17
Computer Generated Plot of Contact Spring Using WISPA [5.2]
Showing Levels oC Stress Within the Beam (N.B. Beam height
has been greatly enlarged to highlight bands)

126
 Figure 5.18
Grain Structure of Contact Spring Prior to Heat Age Testing

Figure 5.19
Grain Structure of Contact Spring after 3 Months a t 100° C
Resulting in a 25% Reduction in Normal Force

127
 Figure 5.20
Grain Structure of a Contact Spring after 75 hours at 150· C
Resulting in a 50% Reduction in Normal Force

Figure 5.21
Grain Structure of a Contact Spring after 23 days at 170· C
Resulting in an 80% Reduction in Normal Force

128
 Figure 5.22
Grain Structure of a Contact Spring after 48 hours at 200· C (whilst
being Mated) Resulting in a 76% Reduction in Normal Force

Figure 5.23
Grain Structure of a Contact Spring after 48 hours at 200· C (whilst
being Unmated) Resulting in a 101% Increase in Normal Force

129
 5.5 Effect of InsertionjWithdrawal Cycling

A test was carried out to investigate the effect of insertion withdrawal

cycling on the levels of normal force being produced by the contact springs.
In this test a single connector (with 50 individual contacts) had it's normal
force measured initially, then after the following numbers of
insertion/withdrawal cycles: 3; 5; 10; and 20. The results are given graphically
in figure 5.24.

~ 100 -r-..,.......,.....""""""""""""'l"'""'l"'""'l"'""'l"'""'l"'"""""'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
3o 9 0 Pi{- i ___ ~-- __ +__+__ ~ ___ ~ ___ ---f---~-J-+--+---~---f---f---~--
I 1, ___

I I I II : :I II :I :I :I :I :I :I
80 1---1---+--" .... +--
I I I I

"'1 --1"'--1---1---,--- ---I ' , , , , , • ,

...,o
n ~() I
I
,I
,
,
,I
I
,I
I
I

I
.
I
I
,I
I
I
,I
,
".
I'

---~---~~--~--~--~--~---~---~---~--~
, ,
I I
"',.,'"
I I I
I

I --~--~--~--4---~---t---~---~--~--
I I I I I I I I I
<D I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I , I I
: : ; : ; I ; I ; I I : I I ; I ; ; I
.,o 60 ---t---~--~--~--1---i---t---t---t---r--1r--~--1---i---t---t---r--~--i---
I
;
I
;
I
;
I
;
I
;
I
;
I
;
I
;
I
;
I
;
I
;
I
;
I
;
I
I
I
I
I
I
t
;
I
;
I
;
I I I I I I I I I I , , I I I I I I I
50 ---~--~--~--~--1---1---~---r---~--~--~--~---1---1---1---r--~--~--~---
II
I I
,
I I ,
I I
,
I ,
I I ,
I I,
I ,
I I •
I I
•
I I , , • , , , , , ,
I I I I I I t I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
40 --+--+--+--i---t---t---~---~--+--+--i---t---t---~---~--+--+--i---i--­
o
..... II II II II II II II II II II
II II II II II II II II II
:S() • --~--~--~---~---~---~---~--~--~--~---~---~---~---~--~--~--~---~---~--­
II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II

- ,

I
I

I
I

I
,

I
,

I
,

I
,

I
I

I
,

I
I
I

20 • --i---i---1---t---t--t--t--t--i---1---t---t---t--t--t--i--,1---1---t---
, I I I I I I I I
I
I

I
I
I

I
I
I

I
I
,

I
I
,

,
,
,

,
,
,

I
I
I

I
,
,

I
I

1() • ---i----i---f---;'--+--+--+--+---i---1---;'---;'--+--+--+---i---i---f---;'--
o<
I I I I , , I I , I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I , I I I I , I , I

C o ~~'--+'--~'~'~~'--+'--~'~'~~'--+'--~'~'~~'~~'--~'--~'~'~~'--~'~
<D
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Number of Insertion/Withdrawal Cycles

Figure 5.24
InsertionjWithdrawal Test Results

The ordinate axis represents the reduction in normal force as a

percentage of it's initial value, as with previous tests. The abscissa shows the
number of insertion/withdrawal cycles. Each data point shown is the average
of the fifty individual contact readings for that particular number of
insertion/withdrawals. As before, the error bars show two standard deviations
either side of the mean. The individual data readings are given in Appendix
B.

130
5.6 Influence of Stress on the Reduction Process

A test was carried out to investigate the influence of stress on the

reduction process. In this test two connectors (each with 50 contacts) had their
initial normal forces measured and were then subjected to a 48 hour heat age
test at 200· C. After removal from the test oven, their final normal force
values were taken and the percentage reductions calculated. The only
difference between the two connectors was that one was mated during the test,
whereas the other was unmated. The resulting reduction in normal force is
shown in figure 5.25. As with previous tests the ordinate shows the reduction
in normal force as a percentage of it's initial value. The abscissa shows a bar
chart layout for the unmated and mated connectors. The numbers at the top
of each bar give the average and the standard deviation for the fifty contacts.
A complete listing of the data is given in Appendix B.

~ 110~----------------------------------~

. , 90
.., Avg: 101.5 S.D.: 2.6

~ l001~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~=~~~~~~~~~~~~1
..,o 80
n
CD
o
70
(I)
60
o
~ 50

-
o 40

20.11==1
30
o
< 10
o
c 0
CD Unmated Mated
Figure 5.25
Influence of Stress Test Results

131
5.7 Summary

This chapter gave the results that have been achieved during the
experimental phase of this research. It was divided into six sections and a brief
resume of each follows:-

1 INTRODUCTION
Gave a brief introduction.

2 HEAT AGE RESULTS

Contained the main batch of results corresponding to the 10 heat age
tests. The data was presented graphically but a complete set is given in
Appendix A

3 PERMANENT SET PHOTOGRAPHS

Showed photographically the effect on the gap between the contact
springs of the heat age tests.

4 GRAIN STRUCTURE PHOTOGRAPHS

Showed the grain structures of the contact springs both before and
after heat age testing.

S EFFECT OF INSERTION/WITHDRAWAL CYCLING

Gave the results of the insertion/withdrawal test that had been carried
out. The results were given graphically but a complete set of data is
given in Appendix B.

6 INFLUENCE OF STRESS ON THE REDUCTION PROCESS

Gave the influence of stress test results. These were shown graphically
but a complete set of data is given in Appendix B.

132
5.8 References

5.1 AC. Baipai, LR. Mustoe and D. Walker, "Engineering Mathematics",

pp. 707-708, John Wiley & Sons, 1974.

5.2 J.B.P. Williarnson, Williamson Interface SPring Analysis program

(WISPA), Williarnson Interface, Monkfield House, Malvern, Wores.,
England.

133
134
 CHAPTER 6

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

6.1 Introduction

This chapter analyses the experimental results that have been obtained
in chapter 5. The first section considers the heat age test results and is divided
into three parts. Part one covers the normal force reduction data, part two the
permanent set photographs and part three the grain structure photographs.

The next section considers the other tests that have been carried out.
It is divided into two parts. Part one examines the results from the test to
investigate the effects of insertion / withdrawal cycling on the normal force
in electric contacts. Part two considers the results from the test carried out to
investigate the influence of stress on the reduction process.

The last section considers the data as a whole and derives an empirical
relationship for the process of normal force reduction. The uses and
limitations of such relationships are explained.

6.2 Heat Age Test Results

The heat age test results are given in three different forms. The first
and potentially the most useful are the graphical results. These show the
trends between normal force reduction against time and temperature. The
other two forms are both pictorial. The first, illustrating permanent
deformation of the contact spring and the second, the effect of heat age

135
testing on the grain structure of the contact beams. This section looks at each
of these sets of results in turn and attempts to highlight the salient features.

6.2.1 Normal Force Reduction Data

The normal force reduction data is given in ten graphs in chapter 5 -

figures 5.1 to 5.10, each graph showing the results from one test at a specific
temperature. The first trend that is obvious from examining any of the
diagrams is that normal force reduces with time. This reduction is not linear,
as is evident when the data is plotted using a linear time scale, see figure 6.l.
At the start of each test, the rate at which the normal force reduces is at a
maximum, this corresponds to a sharp drop in the normal force being provided
by the contact spring. After the initial drop, the rate of reduction of normal
force decreases. This results in a shall owing of the curve. It is not possible to
determine from this data whether the curve becomes asymptotic to the time
axis. These results are summarised in expressions 6.1 and 6.2.

.,
~ 100~~~~~~~~~~-r-r-r-r-r----~
>
o
90
I I I I I I • I I I I I
--l---t---~---~--T--T--l---t---t---~---~--T--T--l---r--r---
! ! 180°C
I I I I I I I I I I I I I , I I
I I I , I I I I , I I I I I I I
.2
:= ~() --f---r---r---r--1---1---f---f---t---r---r--1---1---f---f- --r--
I I , I , , , I I I I I I I I I
c
-
I I I I I I I I I I I , I I , I
;ro --
---
---~--~--~---~---I---I---~--~--~--~---~---I---I---I--
I , , , I I I , I , I I I I , ,

o I I I I I I I I I : I I I : : I
~
60 --t---t--1---1---t---t---t---t---t--1---1---t---t---t---t--i"--
I I I I I I I I I I , , I , , I

o S() - -~--~--1---1---t---t---r---r--~--1---1---f---t---r--~--1---
., I I I I ; ; ; I ; ; I I ; I I
o 40 --+I J...--~---~---~---~--+--_I_---:---~---~---~---~--+--_I_--~--­
., I
,I I II 1
I
II II II II II II II :I II II II
...uo 30 --~-+-+-- --+--+-+-+--~---I---I--+--+-+-+--
... 20
I
I
I
I I
I
I
I

I
I
I
I
I
I I

--i---1---t---t---~--+--+--i---t---t---,
I I I I I I
I

I
, I I
I I I
I
I

I
I
I I
I

I
--.,I----'---~---
I
o I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
l() --1---1---r---r---r--ir--1---1---r---r---r--ji--ji--1---1---r---
...E
o
I I

O+-~~_+~~~~+_~~~_+~~
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

z o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Time (Hours)

Figure 6.1
180'C Heat Age Data Plotted with a Linear Time Scale

136
 dN (6.1)
- sO for t>O
dt

where· N is the percentage residual normal force

and t is the time in seconds

tPN ~ 0 for t > 0 (6.2)

2
dt

The second dominant trend observable from the reduction data

becomes apparent when test results at different temperatures are compared,
see figure 6.2. This shows the heat age results from the 120· C, 150· C and the
180· C tests (the error bars having been omitted). It is apparent from this
diagram that the greater the temperature, the more rapidly normal force
reduces with time. This trend is consistent with all the test results and can be
summarised by expression 6.3.

:z
...0 100
: I I I
3Q 90 i-------------------------t--------------i-----------~---------

,-
.., ··1..................... I I :
~ __________ ~~~uuuu~uuM_~"n~~~~~----------1----------lr- --------
80
...n0 1-.....
~-
·..·.......
___________ ~:~~.~_- __ : ...·····...... 1
--_~-----------:=~~::::::u.q-~-
;
________
70 , " ........ '
CD : ; ..........
.,
Q 60 f----
I
------------------~~.~,----------~----------~-----~~~q~
I .............., ! !
Q 50 t------------ ---------~-----------~"t----------t---------
lR !
40 -~--------------------
!.,-
--~--------------~--~ ..
-----~---------
I

-
0

:::l
::;:
I ,

I ......._....., 120°C:
I
•
I ......... I
I

30 -~------------------------i---- ---------~----------t·.-------
I
"-,

I
o· 20 i----------------~--------1----------- -~----------~---------
: ............. 150 C : I :

< 10 4-------------------------1--------------4----------4----------
I 0 I I I
Q : -180 C: : I
c: 0
CD
1 Hour 1 Day Week Month
Log Time

Figure 6.2
Comparison of Heat Age Test Results at Different Temperatures

137
 /oranyt?O. dN 1asT1 (6.3)
dt

where - T is the absolute temperature in • K

6.2.2 Permanent Set Photographs

The permanent set photographs, shown in figures 5.12 to 5.15, illustrate

that the contact springs have been permanently deformed as a result of the
heat age tests. The gap between the cantilever beams on the female half of
the connector has been altered. Using the photographs shown, it is possible
to calculate the gap distance. This has been undertaken and the results are
given in table 6.1. Clearly, the effect of the heat age tests causes this gap to
change. Also there is a direct correlation between the severity of the test (the
amount of reduction that occurs) and the amount of permanent set. Therefore
it may be deduced that the process which is causing the normal force to be
reduced, is also causing the contact springs to be permanently deformed. .

Figure % Reduction Spring Gap Temperature

5.12 0 0.38mm R.T.

5.13 50% 0.51mm 130'C

5.14 85% 0.61mm 170'C

5.15 85% 0.61mm 200'C

Table 6.1
Measurement of Permanent Set in Contact Springs

138
6.2.3 Grain structure Photographs

The grain structure photographs are shown in figures 5.18 to 5.23. The
most salient feature of these is the fact that there is little or no evidence of
any large scale change in the grain structures. There appears to be a slight
increase in the grain size after some of the higher temperature beat age tests,
though this observation is fairly subjective.

An increase in grain size after heat age testing would suggest that
recrystallisation is occurring. However other factors do not support this idea.
Firstly, recrystallisation is dependent on the material being stressed during the
annealing process (heat age testing) [6.1]. This does in fact occur, but because
the material is in the form of a beam, the stress levels are non-uniform. In the
photographs shown, the stress levels will be at a maximum at the outside edge
of the beam cross-section, decreasing to a minimum of zero (at the neutral
axis) near the right hand side of the photographs. If recrystallisation had
occurred, one would expect this non-uniformity in the stress levels to result in
differences in the observed grain sizes across the beam (ie. from right to left
in each of the photographs). There would be a preference for the larger grains
to occur near the outside edge. This is not the case, if anything the converse
is true.

This point is reinforced when comparing figure 5.22 and 5.23. No

observable difference between their respective grain structures is apparent.
This is despite the fact that the contact beam shown in figure 5.23 was
unmated and therefore was unstressed during the heat age test.

Recrystallisation is a temperature dependent phenomenon. For any

particular material, there is a cut off temperature below which it will not
occur. For the material used in this study, it was not possible to obtain this
temperature. However, informed opinion based on copper data with
impurities, suggests that it will be in excess of 300· C.

139
 It is possible to detect the presence of recrystallisation using
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) to detect dislocation densities both
before and after heat age testing. Unfortunately due to the physical size of the
beams used in this research, this method was not practical. However, based
on the evidence given, it is the opinion of this author that recrystailisation is
not the prime cause of loss of normal force in the test carried out.

6.3 Other Tests

This section analyses the other tests that were carried out in
conjunction to the heat age tests. These consisted of a test to investigate the
effect of insertion / withdrawal cycling and a test to analyse the effect of stress
on the process of normal force reduction. These are now discussed.

6.3.1 Insertion I Withdrawal Cycling Test

The insertion / withdrawal test results, see figure 5.24, show that
normal force reduces as the number of insertions and withdrawal cycles
increases. Also, the amount of reduction is smaller the greater the number of
cycles. These results can be summarised in expressions 6.4 and 6.5.

dN (6.4)
-!.O/orl>O
dl

where - N is the percentage residual normal force

and I is the number of insertion / withdrawal cycles

(6.5)

140
 A possible explanation of this behaviour can be gleaned by considering
figure 5.17, the computer generated plot of the contact spring. This shows that
when the spring beams are deflected, areas of the beam under maximum
stress exhibit plastic deformation, therefore a certain amount of permanent
deformation will have occurred when the spring has been unmated. Upon
remating, the spring deflection will now be reduced, hence accounting for the
reduction in normal force.

This process will be compounded by two factors. Firstly, each individual

contact spring sits in a connector housing with 49 other contacts. Tolerances
in the design will ensure that some springs will be deformed more than others
and therefore suffer a greater loss of normal force. This can be seen by the
size of the error bars, shown in figure 5.24, corresponding to ± two standard
deviations about the mean of the 50 individual readings. Secondly, the actual
process of mating and unmating will cause some contacts to be stressed more
than others, as each cycle will occur physically in a slightly different way (ie.
one end of the row of contacts may be inserted first etc.). This can be
illustrated by careful examination of some of the individual results shown in
Appendix A (ie. contacts 24 to 28 on page A-18 column 1 and contacts 1,2,
49 and 50 on page A-9 column 3 - these are the end contacts of the connector,
see figure 4.9). This may account in part for why the loss of normal force is
observed to continue after the first cycle.

6.3.2 Influence of Stress on the Reduction Process

This test clearly demonstrates that physical properties of the contact

material have not been changed by the heat age testing, see figure 5.25. If for
example, the heat age testing caused the normal force to reduce by changing
the material's modulus of elasticity, then there would be no observed
difference between the unmated and the mated samples. This is clearly not the
case. These results therefore confirm that. the process by which the normal
force is reduced depends upon the material being stressed.

141
 One interesting aspect of these results is the fact that the normal force
of the unmated samples appeared to increase as a result of the heat age
testing. The observed increase is in fact quite small, 1.5% compared with a
standard deviation of 2.6% and may therefore be due purely to statistical
variations. However, an alternative explanation may be gleaned from
considering section 2.6.3 - Manufacturing of Springs. This explains how contact
springs that have been formed by the process of stamping, contain residual
stresses and strains. The effect of these may be to cause certain parts of a
contact spring under deformation, to reach their elastic limit sooner than if the
material had been strain free. The effect of performing a heat age test on an
unmated contact spring would be to relax the residual stresses and strains and
so cause the spring to respond as if the material was strain free. This
phenomenon could therefore account for the observed increase in normal
force after heat age testing.

6.4 Derivation of Empirical Relationships from the

Heat Age Data

This section derives an empirical relationship from the heat age test
data. It's purpose is to illustrate the types of formulae that can be derived,
their uses and their limitations. The relationship chosen is termed the
Logarithmic relationship and rises from the fact that when plotted on log-
linear graph paper the heat age data approximates very well to a straight line.

When the data from each heat age test is plotted on log-linear graph
paper as shown in figures 5.1 to 5.10, it approximates very closely to a straight
line in most cases. This suggests that it may be possible to model the normal
force reduction process with a relationship of the form shown in equation 6.6.

142
 N = m.b1(t) + c (6.6)

where - N is the percentage residual normal force

t is the time in seconds
m is a temperature dependent parameter representing the slope
of the straight line
c is a temperature dependent parameter representing the
intercept with the zero time axis

Values of 'm' and 'c' for each test can be obtained using standard
linear regression [6.2]. This will give values which pr9duce the line of best fit
through the data points so as to minimise the size of the sum of the square of
all the errors. These have been calculated for each heat age test and the
results are given in table 6.2

Heat Age Test 'c' SE 'm' SE R RZ

100'C 98 5.0 - 1.4 0.08 0.553 0.306

110'C 112 3.8 - 2.7 0.06 0.880 0.774

120'C 109 4.3 - 2.8 0.07 0.843 0.711

130'C 122 4.5 - 4.3 0.07 0.926 0.857

140'C 121 3.5 - 4.7 0.07 0.941 0.885

150'C 144 4.5 - 7.4 0.09 0.960 0.921

160'C 146 3.8 - 8.0 0.08 0.975 0.950

170'C 147 3.3 - 8.9 0.07 0.984 0.969

180'C 145 2.7 - 9.7 0.06 0.985 0.970

200'C 156 5.8 -11.1 0.20 0.922 0.851

Table 6.2
Results of Regression Analysis on Data Using Logarithmic Relationship

143
 The columns referred to as 'SE' give the standard error for the
corresponding values of 'c' and 'm' and is included to give some idea of the
variability of the results. The column marked 'R' gives the correlation
coefficient for each regression analysis. This is defined as the quantitative
measure of association between the variables [6.3]. A value of 1.0 would
indicate perfect correlation whereas a value of 0 would indicate no
correlation.

The column marked 'R2' is the coefficient of determination for each

regression analysis [6.4]. In the case of the heat age test data this may be
considered to be the proportion of the variation in 'N' that can be explained
by 'Ln(t)'. Confidence levels can be placed on these predictions by
comparing the value of the correlation coefficient (R) with values in statistical
tables [6.5]. For example with the 180'C heat age test, a 99% confidence level
in 'R2' would require that 'R' is greater than 0.115 [6.6]. Clearly, examining
table 6.2 shows that for this test R = 0.985 > 0.115. Hence it can be
concluded with 99% confidence that 97% of the variation in 'N' could be
explained by the variation in 'Ln(t)' for the 180' C test.

Having determined the line of best fit to the data, it is now possible to
use these relationships to predict values for normal force reduction at anyone
of the test temperatures. This is illustrated with the 180' C test data. Figure
6.3a shows the test data, while figure 6.3b shows the line of best fit for this
data as calculated from the parameters shown in table 6.2 (ie. N = 145 -
9.7*Ln(t) ). Also included are the 99% confidence level bands (see reference
[6.7] for calculation). These show the interval around the line of best fit in
which there is a 99% confidence that any particular measurement of normal
force reduction will lie at a given time. For example, after one week at 180' C
the line of best fit relationship predicts that the normal force will have
reduced to 16% of it's initial value. In addition, the confidence bands show
with 99% confidence that any particular value will lie between 22% and 10%
of the initial value. This can be verified using the test data for 168 hours at
180'C shown in Appendix A, page A-40, column 2. NB.The data given is in
grammes force and needs to be converted to a percentage (FNFxl00+INF).

144
z
..,0 100 ,
3 , " i, 180 °C
0 90 -t-------------------------------i-------------------i-------------i------------
I I , I
I I I I
..., 80
I
I
I
'
I
I
I
I
~-------------------------------~-------------------r-------------r------------
I
I
I
I
..,
0 I
I
I
I
I
I
,
I

n
CD
70
I '
,,, I
,,,
-------------------------------~------------------~------------~----------- ,,,
I

, ,
------_______________ L__________________ -L _____________ L___________ _
,
0 60 I
,
I
,
I I
,
VI I I I I
I I I I

0 50 -f-------------
:
---------i-------------------i-------------i------------
I : I
l!R I

-
I I I
40 -r------------------------ - 4-------------------~-------------~------------
0 I I ; ;
I I f :
30 1--------------------------------t- ---------~------------~------------
:::l I I ! I
=-=
0
20 -f-------------------------------~-------------
, , I ____________ ~------------
,
I i !
10 -1--------------------------------r------------------~------------~------------
<
0
I
I
I
I
'
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I I
c: 0
CD
1 Hour 1 Day 1 Week 1 Month
Log Time

Figure 6.3a
180' C Heat Age Test Results

z
..,0 100
3 ! ! i ! 180°C
90 -t-------------------------------i-------------------i-------------t------------
0
! !
I ." • I

..., 80
Lire of Best !FIt
~-------------------------------,-------------------r-------------T------------
..,0 )' '"
,•••••••••• gcl>% Confidemce Intervals
f ,
n
CD
70 -1-··,~::~------------------------r------------------1r-------------r------------
I

10----
I
---"">--________________ <___________________ L_____________ L___________ _
"''''''' I I I
0
VI
60 I "'Ill",,,, "'''''''''' I I I
I "'''''''- "'''',,-: I I
0 50 -t--------··.---- ----·.,------,,------------------i-------------,,-----------
I "''''Ill. "'''''''''' I : I
l!R 1 "-Ill "'-",I I I

-
0

:::l
40 ~------------------~III~----
30
I
I
" ' ' ' ' I___
ll'=.""----------------~-------------~------------
'Ill",
Ill",

J___________________________ ~~~III_t___
I
,
20 -}-------------------------------~-----~~,,,----
'

r... ",, ,
'''''''
"-
I
I I
_~~~."'.------L-------------L------------
"'-Ill. I
III~
I
,

o·
=-=
II I 111111111
, 1 1 1111111 I
-1-------------4------------
I
,

< 10 1--------------------------------~-----------------~'r-------------r------------
I I I I
0 , I I I
I I 1 I
c: 0
CD
1 Hour 1 Day 1 Week Month
Log Time

Figure 6.3b
180' C Line or Best Fit and 99% Confidence Intervals

145
 The logarithmic relationship shown in equation 6.6 is temperature
dependent, i.e. 'c' and 'm' vary with temperature (T). A further
development can be incorporated if the parameters 'c' and 'm' vary with
'T' in a predictable way. A similar approach can be adopted as that used
previously. Figures 6.4 and 6.5 give graphical representations of 'c' plotted
against 'T' and 'm' plotted against '1" respectively. linear regression
analysis has been used to determine the line of best fit to the data in each
case.

170~-----r----~------~----~----~

160
I, """,-
I .,."' ....
I I .. -
I I : : ....."-
150
140
---------------~---------------~---------------~--------------~----
I
I"
I
I
I
I
: 'I
"fI I
I
I .. "
.
".....
...... 1"
I I '"-
l I
: I
I I .. fi"' ....' I
I
I
I
u 130 ---------------~----------------r-- ~----------t---------------i_--------------
I : __"1~'" I I : :
120 ,, "
"
: "....'" I :
","i'" !!
110 " I
--------------,---------------1r---------------t---------------
,
, , ,
I I

,
I
Test Data ResuHs
I I
i
,
100 I : : :
......+ I

90+-~---r'--~~'---r--~'--~--~'--~~
Line of
I
Best Fit: C
I
= 42! -I
0.6T
100 120 140 160 180 200
Temperature (OC)

Figure 6.4
Variation of Logarithmic Relationship Variable "C" with Temperature

As with the previous regression analysis, it is possible to determine

confidence bands around the line of best fit. These relationships could be
incorporated in the formula given in equation 6.6 to produce a more detailed
model, see equation 6.7. However the effect of applying linear regression twice
(ie. using the outputs from the first regression as the inputs for the second)
_has a considerable effect on the accuracy of the results. This can be
demonstrated by calculating 'N' using equation 6.7 with t = 168 hours and
T = 180' C. The resulting predicted value for 'N' of 30% may seem

146
particularly wayward as compared to the previous value, but the associated
95% confidence range is 60% > N > O. (N.B. the actual calculated lower limit
was -12 but clearly this has no physical meaning). This obviously makes
equation 6.7 of little practical use.

O~-----r----~------~-----r----~
:
-1 I
I
,
I
I
I
I
I
-- 2 .. --------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------
~'I I I ;
-3 .....; ""..
I
,
I
,
:
I
-- 4 -------------i--~
o
-------1--------------t--------------+-------------
0 0
-5 I ......... I : 1
I . . . i.... I I
-- 6 -------------+-------------+- ---------,--------------1--------------
I I "".. I I

:
E -7 II II .... .......: II
__ ~ ______________ L______________ L____________ ..
~ ,---------~-_-----------
I I I..... I
-9 ' I II I
I ........
,... I I
o 0 0
-- l() -------------1--------------1--------------1--------------1- ----------
I , I I

-11 ! Test Datp Results! !

-- 1~ -------------~-------------~-------------~-------------~-------------
I I I I

- 13 ! Line of Best Fit: rh 9.0 -1 0.1T

I I I
= I
_14+-__~--~o~--r_--~o--~--_40--~~--~o--~--~
100 120 140 160 180 200
Temperature (QC)

Figure 6.5
Variation of Logarithmic Relationship Variable "m" with Temperature

N = 42 + 0.6T + (9 - O.l1)Ln(t) (6.7)

where - N is the percentage residual normal force

t is the time in seconds
T is the temperature in degrees centigrade

An alternative approach to the one adopted would be to use advanced

statistical packages to consider all the data at the same time. Using this
method it may well be possible to improve the accuracy of the resulting
formula. However, before devoting time to such an exercise, it is worth
pausing and taking a closer look at empirical relationships in general, to
ascertain the benefits of such a procedure.

147
 Empirical relationships provide a mathematical formula which can be
used with varying degrees of success to predict certain outcomes. However any
such relationship is only valid within the ranges with which the data has been
collected. With the heat age test these are 100· C to 200· C and 0 to 3 months.
To extrapolate such predictions outside these ranges is unwise unless there is
a sound theoretical basis for doing so. Hence, even if we could find a
relationship that fitted the data extremely well, it's practical use would still be
very limited due to the above constraints (practical connectors are used at
temperatures down to room temperature and times of up to 40 years).

This danger in extrapolation outside of the data collection ranges can

be amply demonstrated with the logarithmic relationship. The expression
shown in equation 6.6 has no physical representation at the extremes of time.
ie. at t = 0 if the relationship were true for all values of 't', 'N' the
percentage residual normal force would be infinite; and at very large values
of 't', 'N' will approach minus infinity. Clearly these represent considerable
problems for the relationship since in all practical situations 'N' is confmed
to the range 100 2: N 2: O. Hence although some empirical relationships can
produce accurate predictions with associated confidence levels, great care must
be taken in their application.

The empirical relationship demonstrated in this section is only one in

a myriad of possible relationships that could be chosen. Obviously the degree
with which they can be used to model the process of normal force reduction
will vary considerably. An alternative relationship for the data used in this
work is given in reference 6.8 and a copy is contained in Appendix C.

To understand more fully the underlying processes that are occurring

it is necessary to consider the phenomenon from a theoretical point of view.
This is the approach adopted in the next chapter.

148
6.5 Summary

This chapter provided an analysis of the results presented in chapter

5. The chapter was divided into four sections. These are detailed below:-

1 INTRODUcrION
This section gave a brief introduction.

2 HEAT AGE TEST RESULTS

In this section the results of the heat age tests were analysed. The bulk
of these consisted of the normal force reduction data. From this the
following relationships were found to be true:-

dN
-!:.Ofort>O
dt

for any t ~ 0, dN I as T I
dt

where - N is the percentage residual normal force

t is time
T is the temperature

In addition, analysis of enlarged photographs of the gap between the

contact springs suggested that permanent set had occurred. The amount
of permanent set appeared to be directly proportional to the reduction
in normal force.

Examination of the grain structures of the sample showed no evidence

that recrystallization had occurred.

149
3 OTHER TESTS
This section examined two other tests that were carried out in
conjunction with the main research. These were the 'Insertion /
Withdrawal Cycling' test and the 'Influence of Stress on the
Reduction Process' test. Analysis of the 'Insertion / Withdrawal
Cycling' test produced the following relationships:-

dN!.O jor 1>0

d1

tPN
- ~O jor 1>0
dfZ
where - N is the percentage residual normal force
and I is the number of insertion / withdrawal cycles

Analysis of the 'Influence of Stress on the Reduction Process' test

results showed that without an initial stress present in the contact
spring beams, no reduction occurred. In addition, this test also
confirmed that the material properties of the contact springs had been
unaffected by the heat age testing.

4 DERIVATION OF EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIPS FROM THE

HEAT AGE DATA
In this section an empirical relationship was derived from the heat age
data. This relationship is shown below:-

N = 42 + 0.6T + (9 - O.tnLn(t)

where - N is the percentage residual normal force

t is the time in seconds
T is the temperature in degrees centigrade

150
It was found that due to the method of calculation. the errors for this
formula are so great that it is of little practical use. However, it served
to illustrate the uses and limitations of such approaches. It was
concluded that although a more accurate relationship might well be
found, a more meaningful approach would be to look at the problem
from a theoretical point of view.

151
6.6 References

6.1 J.G. Byrne, "Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth", pp. 91,
Macmillan, London, 1965.

6.2 D.C. Montgomery and E.A Peck, '1ntroduction to Linear Regression

Analysis", John Wiley and Sons, 1982.

6.3 C. Upson and NJ. Sheth, "Statistical Design andAnalysis of Engineering

Experiments", pp. 374, McGraw-HilI, 1973.

6.4 D.C. Montgomery and E.A Peck, '1ntroduction to Linear Regression

Analysis", pp. 33, John Wiley and Sons, 1982.

6.5 C. Upson and NJ. Sheth, "Statistical Design and Analysis of Engineering
Experiments", pp. 375-377, McGraw-HiJI, 1973.

6.6 C. Upson and NJ. Sheth, "Statistical Design and Analysis of Engineering
Experiments", pp. 496, McGraw-HilI, 1973.

6.7 C. Upson and NJ. Sheth, "Statistical Design and Analysis of Engineering
Experiments", pp. 387-391, McGraw-HiJI, 1973.

6.8 N.AStennett, T.P. Ireland and D.S. Campbell, "NonnaJ Force Reduction
in Electronic Contacts", IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids
and Manufacturing Technology, pp. 45-49, Vo!. 14, No. 1, March 1991.

152
153
 CHAPTER 7

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

7.1 Introduction

This chapter explores the theoretical reasoning why the force produced
by a spring under deformation, should reduce with time. The first section
considers the subject from an historical view point, beginning with the work
of Robert Hooke on which the modern theory of elasticity is based. It then
goes on to define anelasticity and describe early attempts to include it into the
classical theory of elasticity.

The next section outlines some possible physical interpretations of

anelasticity. It starts by considering atomic diffusion and this is developed into
the concept of grain boundary diffusion. The section ends by considering
metallurgical effects such as recovery and recrystallisation as a means of
accounting for anelastic behaviour.

The last section brings together several of the concepts previously

explained and develops the so-called variable activation energy theory. This
is essentially derived from metallurgical recovery and grain boundary diffusion,
and is by far the best option for explaining the processes that are occurring.
A detailed model is derived and it's uses and shortcomings are explained.

154
7.2 Historical Perspective

This section examines the evolution of elasticity and anelasticity. It

begins with a brief resume of the modern theory of elasticity. This is followed
by a definition of anelastic behaviour. Finally it gives an account of the first
attempts to incorporate anelasticity into the classical theory of elasticity.

7.2.1 Elasticity

The theory of modern elasticity can be traced back to the work of

Robert Hooke [7.1] in the seventeenth century. This research resulted in
Hooke's Law which states that the deformation (d) produced by a force (F)
acting on a body is proportional to the force. The mathematical interpretation
of this relationship is given in equation (7.1).

F = M.d (7.1)

where - M is the elastic modulus

The original formula requires that forces are applied in a quasi-static

manner in order to overcome the effects of elastic waves having to travel
through the specimen and to avoid vibrations [7.2]. This restriction was
removed by considering any body to be made up of a large number of small
elementary regions. Changes in shape are considered in terms of strain
components, and changes in force are considered in terms of stress
components.

Classical theory of elasticity is essentially the development of all the

consequences arising from the application of Hooke's Law to elementary
regions. Examples detailing this theory are given in references [7.3, 7.4]. An
extensive history of this subject is given in reference [7.5].

155
7.1J. nefmition of AneIasticity

According to classical theory, stress and strain are uniquely related in

the pre-plastic range. However, elastic strain is due to the relative
displacement of atoms whose motion cannot be instantaneous. Furthermore
since atoms are in contact, their movements involve friction which absorbs
energy. Hence real elastic strain is more complicated and gives rise to effects
such as stress relaxation, creep and internal friction (loss of energy due to heat
in a vibrating spring system [7.6, 7.7]). These properties of solids are
collectively termed 'anelasticity' [7.2, 7.8].

7.2.3 Anelasticity and Classical Theory

The first attempts to incorporate anelastic phenomenon into classical

theory were made by O. Meyer [7.9] and W. Voigt [7.10]. These related stress
to both strain (€) and strain rate, see equation (7.2).

a = exe +
A
I'
de (7.2)
dt

where - a is the stress

€ is the strain
t is time
a and f3 are constants for a given material

The effect of this extra term results in no instantaneous strain in a

system on the application of a sudden stress. The strain gradually approaches
an asymptotic value. Similarly, when the stress is suddenly removed there is
no instantaneous recovery, but the strain disappears gradually. The process
can be modelled with the spring and dashpot system illustrated in figure 7.1.
Materials which exhibit this behaviour are referred to as 'Voigt Solids'. Some
materials such as cork [7.11] have been found to exhibit such properties, but
all metals show instantaneous strain upon the sudden application of a force
and instantaneous recovery upon removal of that force.

156
 Doshpot <Il
v
....o
L....

Force
Time
Spring
c:
.~
15
E
....
....o<Il
o

Time

Figure 7.1
Mechanical Model of Voigt Solid

An alternative approach used by Poynting and Thomson [7.12] was to

develop an appropriate mechanical model and then derive the equation for
the model. They realised that the defects of the 'Voigt Solid' model can be
easily overcome by placing a second spring in series with the dash pot, see
figure 7.2. Application of a suddenly applied stress gives rise to an
instantaneous strain determined solely by the spring constants. This is followed
by a further increase in strain as the dashpot opens up with time. Sudden
removal of the applied stress results in partial instantaneous recovery as the
springs release some of their stored energy. Complete recovery must await the
gradual relaxation of the forces across the dashpot. Such systems possess the
general features of elastic after-effects which occur in real solids [7.13].

The mechanical model given in figure 7.2 may be represented by

equation (7.3). This is a general linear homogeneous equation in stress, strain
and their first derivatives. Solids which obey this equation are known as
'Standard linear Solids'.

157
 (7.3)

where a is the stress

€ is the strain
t is time
aI' 3.z, b l and bz are constants

Standard linear solids possess certain general features in common with

real solids. However, they do not precisely reproduce the behaviour of any
real metal. To improve the model it is possible to use a differential equation
similar to equation (7.3) but containing higher derivatives of stress and strain.
This approach is detailed further in references [7.14, 7.15).

Oashpot III
Spring ...uo
u...

Force
.
Time

c:

-...E
o
o

-o
III
o
Time

Figure 7:1.
Mechanical Model of a Standard Linear Solid

158
 An alternative approach was introduced by Boltzmann [7.16]. The
underlying assumption is that the fundamental relationships between stress
and strain are linear in stress and strain and in their higher derivatives. As a
result solutions satisfy the principle of superposition. This method is detailed
in reference [7.13].

As is evident, there are various ways in which classical elasticity theory

can be modified to take account of anelastic behaviour. As the adaptations
become more complex, the models become more accurate. However, while
this approach may help in predicting certain anelastic trends, it does not
explain the underlying processes that are involved. Until these can be
identified, it is not possible to produce a model that will be of practical use,
especially when considering the effect of other parameters such as
temperature.

7.3 Physical Interpretation of Anelastic Behaviour

To understand the causes of anelastic behaviour, it is first necessary to

consider what elasticity physically represents. The elastic properties of a
material arise from the individual atoms in a material, particularly changes in
the atomic spacings caused by material deformation. It therefore seems
plausible that anelastic behaviour might result from factors affecting the
movement of individual atoms.

One well documented process causing the movement of atoms within

a material, is atomic diffusion. This is analysed in this section to determine
whether this process can account for anelastic behaviour of materials.
Theoretical difficulties with diffusion within perfect crystal lattices have been
resolved by considering vacancies in the lattice. This leads on to the concept
of grain boundary diffusion within a polycrystalline structure which is discussed
next.

159
 The last part of this section considers anelasticity from a slightly
different perspective, namely considering metallurgical effects. Mechanisms of
recovery and recrystallisation have been well documented, and this section
analyses them to determine their ability to explain anelastic behaviour.

7.3.1 Atomic Diffusion

Atomic diffusion is the movement or mixing of atoms within a material

over a period of time. In a gas, molecules are widely separated and have mean
velocities in the order of 100 m/s due to thermal agitation [7.17]. Under these
conditions, diffusion may be considered as the process of a particular atom or
molecule moving away from it's initial position and is relatively easy to
visualise.

In a solid, the atoms and molecules are much more tightly packed and
appear to be held in a rigid framework. This is particularly true of a crystal
and the lattice structure. Under these conditions it is more difficult to
understand how diffusion occurs. However it must be remembered that in a
solid, the atoms are not in fact fixed, but vibrating about a fIXed point due to
thermal agitation. The amplitude of vibration is not constant, but fluctuates
randomly [7.18]. A fluctuation may occur that is so great, that the atom
acquires sufficient energy to enable it to force it's way through the barrier that
keeps it in place. It is this process of thermal excitation which occasionally
allows an atom to move from one lattice site to another and for diffusion to
occur.

The elastic force produced by a material that opposes a deforining

force is due to a repositioning of the individual atoms and molecules within
that material. Since diffusion involves movement of atoms and molecules over
a period of time, it seems reasonable to suggest that this process may account
for the anelastic behaviour observed in real materials.

160
 Theoretical analysis of diffusion within a perfect crystal uncovers the
fact that this process requires a considerable amount of energy to be input
into the lattice for it to take place. This is due to the fact that in order for two
adjacent atoms to change place in the lattice, there must be an intermediate
state involving considerable distortion. Experimentally it has been found that
the actual energies required for diffusion within real materials are much less
than calculated from perfect crystalline models. This arises from the fact that
the atoms in most real materials are not arranged into perfect crystal lattices.
Phenomenon such as vacancies (an unoccupied lattice site - see figure 7.3)
considerable reduce the atom of energy required for atomic diffusion to occur
and bring the theoretical and experimental results into good agreement. (A
fuller account of the mechanism is given in reference [7.19]).

o
VACANCY

-------
e e
Figure 7.3
Vacancy in a Hexagonal Close-Packed Plane of Atoms

161
 A possible mechanism by which atomic diffusion could account for
anelastic behaviour would be as follows. After the lattice structure has been
deformed then atomic diffusion would occur. At the atomic level the process
would appear to be random. However, the overall effect would be to reduce
the internal energy (strain energy) within the material to a minimum - "all
matter strives to achieve minimum potential energy". Thus over a period of
time, the stored strain energy with the contact spring would be dissipated by
vacancy assisted atomic diffusion and normal force reduction will occur.

7.3.2 Grain Boundary Diffusion

In the analysis of diffusion so far, the materials considered have been

single crystal structures. These are rarely used for engineering applications
because of limitations involving their strength, size and production. (There are
certain notable exceptions such as solid state electronic devices [7.20] and
turbine blades for jet engines [7.21 D. Commercial metal products are
invariably made up of a large number of individual crystals or grains, see grain
structure photographs in chapter 5, and are referred to as polycrystalline
[7.22]. The orientations of these grains are randomly distributed throughout
the material. As a result individual grains do not deform in accordance with
the laws of single crystals because of the restraining effect of the surrounding
grains.

In general, the grain boundaries represent an area within the material

in which there are abrupt crystallographic changes. These have relatively high
surface energy which makes them preferential sites for processes such as
diffusion and recrystallisation [7.23]. The mechanisms by which these processes
can account for anelastic behaviour are essentially the same as for atomic
diffusion. The major difference being that the vast majority of the diffusion
occurs at the grain boundaries, which in turn relives the deformation produced
in each individual crystal by it's surrounding neighbours.

162
 The hypothesis for grain boundary diffusion causing anelastic behaviour
is therefore as follows. When a polycrystalline material is deformed, the
individual crystals are distorted by their surrounding neighbours and because
of their elastic properties, they produce a force opposing the deformation.
Over a period of time grain boundary diffusion occurs causing a slight
alteration in the boundary layers between the crystals. This reduces the
distortion between individual crystals and hence the force opposing distortion.
Although the change in an individual boundary is small, the overall effect
produces visible permanent set in the material. This is due to the large
number of crystals that make up a polycrystalline structure.

7.3.3 RecrystaIlisatioD

Recrystallisation is the nucleation and growth of new strain-free grains,

and the gradual consumption of the cold-worked matrix by the growth of these
grains [7.23]. The cold-worked state refers to any strained or damaged
condition of a crystalline material, regardless of the process which produced
this condition. For the purpose of this work, the cold-worked state is obtained
by deforming the female contact spring by inserting the male half of the
contact, resulting in a strained material (ie. the contact spring).

Recrystallisation kinetics resemble those of phase transforms such as

solidification. The reason for this is that both processes take place by
nucleation and grain growth. The rate of growth has a sigmoidal form as
illustrated in figure 7.4. After an initial incubation period there is a rapid rise.
This is due to the fact that initially the nuclei grains start to grow from a
number of sites. The number of sites increases with time and the strain-free
grains grow until they have consumed the entire cold-worked matrix. A formal
theory of recrystallisation kinetics is given by Burke and Turnbull, reference
[7.24].

163
 Recrystallisation therefore offers another possible theoretical
explanation for certain anelastic features such as stress relaxation in electrical
contacts. When the spring is initially deformed, it's elastic properties produce
a force which opposes the deformation (the normal force). After a period of
time, the strain-free grains begin to grow within the spring, thus reducing the
normal force. These will continue to grow until all the spring is strain-free, at
which time the normal force will be zero.

100%
".!!!
Cl)

-~
u
.o,
Cl)
Q::
Cl)

-
Cl
o
cCl):
U
L.
~ 0%
-+------~------------~~
Time of Isothermal Anneal

Figure 7.4
Percentage Recrystallisation Versus Time of Isothermal Anneal

7.3A Recovery

Recovery is the modification of material properties during annealing

which occurs before the appearance of the new strain-free grains associated
with recrystallisation [7.25]. The recovery process utilises a wide spectrum of
mechanisms such as point defects and dislocations to produce these
modifications.

164
 Point defects are defects which are attached to one point in the crystal.
There are several types of point defects namely vacancies, interstitial atoms
and impurities [7.26]. Vacancies, as previously explained, represent points in
the crystal lattice where there is an atom missing ie. an empty site. When a
vacancy exists on its own, it is referred to as a 'Schottk)l"defect. \ -- - --- -
'"0 "
> -

Interstitials are effectively the opposite of vacancies in that instead of

there being an atom missing in the lattice structure, there is an extra atom.
This is shown diagrammatically in figure 7.5. They can be produced by
irradiation of crystals with high energy particles, whereby atoms are ejected
out of their normal positions creating a vacancy and interstitial pair. This
simultaneous production of an interstitial and vacancy is known as a Frenkel
defect.

• • • •
• • •
• • / ......... --------- ...-..........
• •
,,/
I
•,,
••
.'........------------...... ,~'
",

/
•
,,I
•
• • Figure 7.5
• •
A plane of atoms parallel to the face of the cubic unit cell in aluminium in
which one atom of the perfect lattice is replaced by two [7.31].

165
 The last type of point defects are caused by impurities in the crystalline
structure. All real crystals will contain certain amounts of impurities. At the
atomic scale these will disrupt the lattice and produce a point defect. The
effect of an individual impurity atom will depend on it's properties
(particularly it's diameter), as compared with those of the lattice atoms.

Dislocations may be considered to be discontinuities in the lattice

structure. An example of a dislocation is given in figure 7.6. As with point
defects, dislocations allow atomic movement to occur at much lower energy
levels than if the lattice was perfect. However unlike point defects which
involve the movement of individual atoms, dislocation movement causes
planes of atoms to move.

DISLOCATION

Figure 7.6
A Dislocation in a Crystal Lattice

166
 The recovery process consists of the loss of the stored elastic energy
over a period of time. The energy is dissipated via the movement of point
defects and dislocations. Initially. on deforming the contact spring, a relatively
large number of these defects would be created within the atomic matrix
[7.27]. The movement of these defects would give rise to the high rates of
normal force reduction observed at the beginning of the heat age tests. Over
a period of time the numbers of these defects will gradually reduce. A vacancy
and an interstitial may meet and cancel each other out, others may move
through the material until they eventually reach the surface which will simply
modify to accommodate them. This would correspond to the reduce rates of
normal force reduction observed towards the end of the heat age tests. In this
way recovery could account for anelastic behaviour such as the normal force
reduction observed in the contact springs during the heat age tests. A more
detailed explanation of the process of recovery is given in reference [7.28].

167
7.4 Variable Activation Energy Theory

The previous section described several possible processes that might

account for anelastic behaviour of electrical contact springs. The next
questions that need to be answered are how well do these theories fit the
experimental evidence, and can any physical model be derived for the
process? This section addresses these questions.

Four hypotheses were presented to account for anelastic behaviour,

namely: atomic diffusion; grain boundary diffusion; recrystallisation; and
recovery. Although atomic diffusion provides a possible process for explaining
certain anelastic phenomenon, a major difficulty arises when considering it
with respect to the heat age tests. It has been found that when dealing with
metals, diffusion is generally negligible until the temperature approaches the
melting point of the material [7.29]. Since the highest temperature used in the
heat age tests (200' C), was well below the melting point of the material
(950'C to 1050'C [7.30]), then it would appear that atomic diffusion is in fact
not responsible for the anehistic effects observed in this work.

Of the remaining three hypotheses, the most easily rejected, based on

the experimental evidence, is that of recrystallisation. The grain boundary
photographs shown in figures 5.18 to 5.23 show little or no evidence of such
a phenomenon occurring. In addition, the normal force reduction data does
not conform to the classical recrystallisation curve shown in figure 7.4. Other
supportive arguments are given in section 6.2.3.

This leads grain boundary diffusion and recovery. These provide

possible mechanisms for explaining the phenomenon and cannot be ruled out
because of the experimental evidence. Therefore the next step should be 'to
derive mathematical models of them to find out whether or not they fit the
experimental data. However, attempts to develop such models for the system
under investigation, proved to be very difficult due to the complexity of the

168
mathematics. As a result of these difficulties, it was necessary to adopt another
approach.

The rate of reduction of normal force increases with increasing

temperature. Therefore we may assume that the process is thermally activated.
If an activation energy can be found for the process it may be possible to
deduce the mechanism involved by comparison with known processes.

Activation energies arise from the so-called Arrhenius relationship,

given in equation (7.4). This result stems from research into the diffusion of
gases. The relationship as a whole may be considered to represent the
probability of a given number of events occurring in a given time ie. a given
number of atoms diffusing from one position to the next. The activation
energy is the actual amount of energy that must be acquired by each
individual atom for that change to occur.

R = -K.exp(- Q-) (7.4)

ksT

where - R is the rate of a given process

K is a constant
Q is the activation energy
kB is Boltzmann's constant
T is the absolute temperature

An analogy to this process is given in figure 7.7. Here a mechanical ball

is rolling at a minima M\. For the ball to change position to M2 it must
overcome the energy barrier 'mgh' (where m is the mass of the ball, 'g' is
the force of gravity). In this case the activation energy required for the change
to occur is 'mgh'.

In order to use the activation energy approach, it is necessary to define

an activation energy model that will fit the data. Analysis of the normal force

169
 ,,

I
-...~:.-,-~----------------.

Figure 7.7
Mechanical Analogy of Activation Energy

reduction data shows a strong tendency for the data to obey a simple
logarithmic relationship similar to the one shown in equation (7.5), (see
section 6.4). This does not readily lead to a simple activation energy model.

N = m.ln(t) + c (7.S)

where - N is the percentage residual in normal force

t is time
m and c are temperature dependant variables

However, it has been suggested by Kuhlman-Wilsdorf [7.31] that with

certain recovery processes the activation energy is a' function of the
instantaneous value of the recovering property. If this is the case with normal
force reduction in contact springs, then activation energy becomes as shown
in equation (7.6). When this is substituted into the Arhenius equation (7.4),
the resulting equation will reduce to a logarithmic relationship similar to the
one given in equation (7.5). This will be demonstrated next.

(7.6)

where - Q o= a constant
b =a constant

170
Substituting (7.6) into (7.4) gives:-

dN = -K.exp-( 0 0 - bN) (7.7)

dt ksT

where - dN/dt = the rate of normal force reduction

Separating the variables and integrating gives:-

1 ~OO - bN) dN = f dt
J--.ex
K ksT
(7.8)

:. k:a,T .exp(Q°ksT- bN) = t + C (7.9)

where - C = the constant of integration

Taking logs of both sides gives:-

Q -
o
bN = Ln(t + C) (7.10)
ksT

Hence

(7.11)

- N =A - B.ln(t + C) (7.12)

Substituting the initial conditions (ie. when t =0, N = 100) in equation (7.12)
gives:-

A = 100 + B.ln(C) (7.13)

- N =-100 + B.Ln(C) - B.In(t + C) (7.14)

171
where

(7.15)

(7.16)

(7.17)

As can be readily seen, equation (7.14) is similar to the logarithmic

relationship shown in equation (7.5). The major difference is the fact that
equation (7.14) contains an extra parameter inside the log term ie. 't + C' as
opposed to just 't' in equation (7.5). Surprisingly, this additional term
resolves one of the major difficulties with the standard logarithmic
relationship. At time t=O equation (7.5) gives a value for N =00. Clearly this
is an impossibility. However at the same value of time, equation (7.14) gives
a value for N = lOO, which it clearly is.

Having now defined a physical model for the process under

consideration, the next stage is to attempt to fit the experimental data to the
model to obtain values for the model parameters. Having obtained over 6,500
individual measurements at varying times and temperatures, the most
appropriate method of fitting the data to the model would be the use of linear
regression analysis using some suitable statistical package. However in order
to adopt such an approach, it would be necessary to use a linearising
transform on the model to separate the variables. Unfortunately, because of
the complexity of the model, it was not possible to do this.

An alternative approach, as adopted in section 6.4, is to treat the data

for each of the ten heat age tests separately. The temperature dependent
parameters 'B' and 'C' can then be calculated for each test, and these can
then be used to determine the global model parameters, namely '00', 'b'
and 'K'.

172
 Fitting the data from each of the heat age tests to equation (7.14) to
determine the model parameters, would be relatively simple except for the
appearance of the 'C' term in the log function. This complicates the matter
significantly for an exact solution. H this term did not exist, simple standard
linear regression with a linearising transform could be used to determine the
equation of the line of best fit. From this, 'B' would equal the slope of the
line and 'C' = exp[(c-100)/B], where 'c' is the intercept with the zero axis.
This is the method that was used with the empirical relationship given in
section 6.4.

However, the effect of the 'C' term in the log function has only a
minor effect on the shape of the line of best fit within the range of the data
that has been collected. This can be demonstrated by examining figure 7.8.
Changes in the value of 'C' over several orders of magnitude. only affect the
shape of the curve for times of up to one hour (approximately 8 on the
Ln(time) scale) on the time scale. This is because the time parameter is
measured in seconds and so this term quickly dominates the log function after
relatively short time periods. Since the line of best fit is being calculated from
time values of one hour to three months, then the effect of the 'C' term in
the log function is therefore negligible unless it is very large. As a result, very
good approximations for 'B' and 'C' can be calculated from the line of best
fit to equation (7.18) and then substituted into equation (7.14) to give the
model at each of the test temperatures. Since this analysis has already been
performed in section 6.4, then values of 'B' and 'C' can be calculated
directly from 'm' and 'c', where 'B = -m' and 'C = exp[(c-lOO)/Bl'. This
has been undertaken for each of the heat age tests and the results are given
in table 7.1.

N = 100 + B.Ln(C) - B.Ln(t) (7.18)

,173
 100 I I I I
! , I , • :----iC:;:1.
........ 90 • ...... '______JLI ______ IL______ J:______JLI ______lI ______JL: ______ :L______1:______
()
·1·~...: : : : r····--, C =F 10:
-+
' -"
c
....J
80
70
------~---~~~
I
-j-"""';"";
I I
, ------~------~------~------~------~------~------~------
....
------1------ii----~·,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
I
I

I
,
r----l C I
=1=I 10
-----ij------t------1-------t------t------1j------
b
I

I() I : : ! ! :---; C =*= 10PO

60 ------~------~------~----
i i i
------~------~------~------~------~------
i i i i i
I I I : I I I :
0 50 ------~------~------~-------~----- ' -----~------~------~------~------
I I I I I I I I

0 : : :: :: I :
! ! ! ! . ! ! ! !
~
40 ------~------.------~------~------~------
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
I
------.------~------.------
I
I
I
I
I
,
I I , I I I I I I
11 I I I I I I I I ,

30 -7----r------i------i-------t------,-------r------, -----i-------t------
z I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

20 I I I I I I
------T------,_------~------~------~------T------,_-----
II II II II II I :I
I
------,------
I
I

I I
I I I I I I I I
10
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Ln (time)
Figure 7.8
The Effect of 'C' Term in Log Function

IHeat Age Test I 'B'

I'c' I
100'C 1.4 0.24

11O'C 2.7 85

120'C 2.8 25

130'C 4.3 168

140'C 4.7 87

150'C 7.4 382

160'C 8.0 314

170'C 8.9 197

180'C 9.7 103

200'C 11.1 155

Table 7.1
Calculation of Model Parameters From Test Data

174
 The results of this analysis can be compared with the experimental
data. This is shown in figures 7.9 and 7.10. In addition to the visual evidence,
the statistical correlations for the temperature dependent parameters show a
very high degree of dependence between the model and the experimental data
(see section 6.4).

Having obtained values for temperature dependent parameters 'B'

and 'C' for each of the ten heat age tests, the next stage would be to
investigate how they vary with temperature, ie. to calculate for the global
parameters '00', 'b' and 'K' in equations (7.15 - 7.17). However, a brief
analysis of the data shown in table 7.1 immediately highlights a problem. The
values obtained for the parameter 'C' vary significantly over the temperature
range and in no obvious manner. This arises from several factors such as 'C'
is calculated from 'B' (which will contain a small error), it is the result of an
exponential function, thus amplifying any errors, and the fact that the line of
best fit equations from which it is derived are fairly insensitive to changes in
this parameter. As a result there is little to be gained from attempting to
calculate the global parameters '00', 'b' and 'K' since the errors would be
so large as to make the results meaningless.

This is as far as it is possible to take this method of analysis. It has

been found that a physical model based on a variable activation energy fits the
experimental data to a high degree. The temperature dependent model
parameters for each of the ten heat age tests have been calculated and are
given. Due to limitations with the mathematics, the global (temperature
independent) model parameters, could not be calculated. As a result, further
analysis of the processes responsible for the variability in the activation energy
could not be undertaken at this stage. However, some possible explanations
for this phenomena are now given.

One method of accounting for the variable activation energy is

obtained by postulating that in the most severely deformed regions of a
contact spring, the activation energy is lowest because the stored energy is
highest [7.32]. (ie. since these regions may be at or near the yield point of the

175
material, then far less input energy is required for atomic movement to occur
than if the material was unstressed). It is therefore reasonable to assume that
these regions will recover first. Thus, as the recovery process proceeds, the
I
activation energy will increase and is therefore variable.

It has been suggested that the activation energy for recovery is the
activation energy for self-diffusion, less the stored energy of cold work [7.32],
ie. 0 = O",If-<liffusion - O"Ored. If this is the case, then in equation (7.6), • 0 0'
represents. the activation energy for self-diffusion and 'bN' gives a measure
of the amount of stored energy within the contact spring. If the limitations
with the mathematics can be overcome at some stage in the future, then it will
be interesting to compare the experimental values of 00 with those for the
activation energy of self-diffusion which have been obtained by other means.

176
 o
u u
0 0
u u
0
u
0
0 0 0 00
..-- t<) If) r--.. 0
..-- ..-- ..-- ..-- N

-
I
I ..c
I I C
/1 I I I I o
- - I - - f - /+--1 -1--+- 1" --1- ~
I / I I I I I ..--
I / I I 11 I
I / I I I
I I I I .::::t.
I I I I I I I I Q)
- -1--, j J i - - I- -1--,- Q)
I 1 I I I I 3
I I I ~I I I (I) ..-
I I 11 I 1_ Q)
I I
I I
I
I
I::J
I (I)
E
0-

I I I Q) I-
~I >-
I I I I 0::: c rn
- - 1- - - 1- 1.. +- g- - 1- - t- - o o
I 11 I 'I I /1 I I 2 ..--
-J
I I /1 1 I I I C
I 1 // 1 I EQ)
I I I 11
I 1/ I I I I I 0L:
/ ( / I I ~ Q)
11 lOa.
x
I ~ W
1 1 I, I
I II I
1 1/ I L.
I j, I ::J
1 I ~ _ _ 1_ _ 1 _______ _ o
:r:
00000000000"-
o ~ ro r--.. ~ If) ~ t<) N ..--
..--

Normal Force as a % of Initial Value

Figure 7.9
Comparison of Variable Activation Energy Model with Experimental Data

177
 z
(')
0
3
.,0 100 100°C
"0
10 3 90 -------------~-------~-----~-----
::l. e
~'-~. .E-
. . -~;:=~~~-
----::~-=-~---
~~-~'~---
~~~~-~-~~~~~~~
120°C
'"0
...<=
0 .,
.,0
80 FI
~ -,
~-
--- ---- 140°C
10
::l.

->..,_.
10
0-
to
n
(1)
70 I- - - - - - - - - - -
.... ...........
-- -- 1- - -
- - - - - -
1 1
160°C
-"" e 60 .1 - - - -- -- -- """"'It:::-ok:-
i
-
---..~
- - - .l.. - - -

-o· ;q.
(/)
10 .......
I ....... I 18 0 °C
= .,
"l
e 50 - --- - -1 - .......
~-- --1----
t'l =
..... .......
-.J 1 .......
ex:> =
., ;-l
to
to
C!R 1 I 1
40 -----1------
--.
~ .... c::>
1- - - - - - - - - - -
0 I 0-. I
s::
0

-
c.
to 30
1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .1. _
I
.......
_ _ _ _ ..l _ _ _ ....... _.1. _ _ _ _ _
I
.. I
-=-
:l.
t'l
:::J
-.
-+
e 20
I
------------------- --)-----------
I
I
I
I I

oSto 1-- - - Model I

., 10
s· < 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - i - - - - - - - I - - - - - I - - - - -

--=
to

10
e
C 0
I Experimentat Results I I

-Cl
10
10
(1)
1 Hour 1 Day 1 Week 1 Month
Log Time
7.5 Summary

This chapter considered the theoretical aspects of normal force

reduction in contact springs. It was divided into four sections. A brief
description of each now follows:-

1 INTRODUCI'ION
This section gave a brief introduction.

2 HISTORICAL PERSPECI'IVE
This section examined the evolution of theories of elasticity and
anelasticity. It began with a brief account of the modern theory of
elasticity. This was followed by the definition of anelasticity. Finally it
detailed the various attempts historically to incorporate anelasticity into
the classical theory of elasticity.

3 PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF ANELASTIC BEHAVIOUR

This section detailed four possible processes that could account for
anelastic behaviour. These were atomic diffusion, grain boundary
diffusion, recrystallisation and recovery.

4 VARIABLE ACTIVATION ENERGY THEORY

This section reviewed the findings of section 3 and developed them
into the variable activation energy theory. These produced the
following physical model for normal force reduction in electrical
contacts:-

N = 100 + B.Ln(C) - B.ln(t + C)

179
where

and N is the residual normal force as a percentage of its

initial value
t is the time in seconds
T is the absolute temperature
0 0 is the activation energy of self-diffusion
b is a constant relating the amount of stored energy to N
kB is Boltzmann's constant
K is a constant

The experimental data has been found to fit the physical model to a
high degree. The temperature dependent model parameters for each
of the ten heat age tests have been calculated and are given. Possible
explanations for the variability in the activation energy are described.

180
7.6 References

7.1 Robert Hooke, "De potentia restitutiva", London, 1678.

7.2 C. Zenner, "Elasticity and Anelasticity of Metals", pp. 1-4, The University
of Chicago Press, 1948.

7.3 AE.H. Love, "Mathematical Theory of Elasticity", Cambridge University

Press, 1927.

7.4 R.V. Southwell, 'Theory of Elasticity", Oxford University Press, 1936.

'7.5 I. Todhunter and K Pearson, "History of the Theory of Elasticity",

Cambridge University Press, 1886.

7.6 C. Zenner, "Elasticity and Anelasticity of Metals", pp. 44, The University
of Chicago Press, 1948.

7.7 A Guinier and R. Jullien, 'The Solid State - From Superconductors to

Superalloys", pp. 188, Oxford University Press, 1989.

7.8 A Guinier and R. Jullien, 'The Solid State - From Superconductors to

Superalloys", pp. 187, Oxford University Press, 1989.

7.9 O. Meyer, 'Zur Theorie der innere Reibung", Jour. rein. u. angew. Math.,
LXXVIII, 1874.

7.10 W. Voigt, "Uber innere Reibungfester Korper, insbesondereder Metalle",

Ann. d. Phys., XLVII, 1892.

7.11 E. Schmid, "Gesundeits-Ing. ", XLVI, 1923.

181
7.12 J.H. Poynting and JJ. Thomson, ''Properties of Matter", London: C.
Griffin & Co., 1902.

7.13 C. Zenner, "Elasticity and Anelasticity of Metals", pp. 41-59, The

University of Chicago Press, 1948.

7.14 T. Alfrey, "Non-homogeneous Stresses in VlSco-elastic Media", Quart.

Jour. Appl. Math., Ill, 1944.

7.15 T. Alfrey, "Methods of Representing the Properties of VlSco-elastic

Materials", ibid., Ill, 1945-46.

7.16 L Bolzmann, "Zur Theorie der elastische Nachwirkung", Ann. d. Phys.,

VII, 1876.

7.17 A Guinier and R. Jullien, 'The Solid State - From Superconductors to

Superalloys", pp. 242, Oxford University Press, 1989.

7.18 A Guinier and R. Jullien, 'The Solid State - From Superconductors to

Superalloys", pp. 248, Oxford University Press, 1989.

7.19 A Guinier and R. Jullien, 'The Solid State - From Superconductors to

Superalloys", pp. 254-255, Oxford University Press, 1989. -

7.20 B.G. Streetman, "Solid State Electronic Devices", pp. 12-24, Prentice-
Hall, 1980.

7.21 F.L Versnyder and M.E. Shank, "Mater. Sei. Eng. ", vol. 6, pp. 213-243,
1970.

7.22 G.E. Dieter, "Mechanical Metallurgy", pp. 184-201, McGraw-HilI, 1988.

7.23 J.G. Bryne, ''Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth", pp. 60,
Macrnillan, 1965.

182
7.24 J.E. Burke and D. Turnbull, "Progress in Metal Physics", pp. 220, vo\. Ill,
B. Cbalmers, ed. (New York: Pergarnon Press), 1952.

7.25 J.G. Bryne, "Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth", pp. 37,
Macmillan, 1965.

7.26 A Guinier, 'The Structure of Matter", pp. 108-110, Edward Arnold,

London, 1984.

7.27 J.G. Bryne, ''Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth", pp. 1-36,
Macmillan, 1965.

7.213 J.G. Bryne, ''Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth", pp. 37-59,
Macmillan, 1965.

7.29 A Guinier and R. Jullien, 'The Solid State - From Superconductors to

Superalloys", pp. 246, Oxford University Press, 1989.

7.30 T. Lyman, H.E. Boyer, P.M. Unterweiser, J.E. Foster, J.P. Hontas and
H. Lawton, ''Metals Handbook 8th Edition VoLl Properties and Selection
of Metals", pp. 1027-1028, American Society for Metals (ASM).

7.31 D. Kuhlman (now Wilsdorf), 'Zeit. fur Physik", vo\. 124, pp. 468, 1948.

7.32 J.G. Bryne, ''Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth", pp. 42,
Macrnillan, 1965.

183
 CHAPfER8

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

8.1 DISCUSSION

This thesis has attempted to address the problem of normal force

reduction in electrical contact springs. The approach has been to combine
detailed scientific experimentation and analysis along with practical
considerations. In this way it is hoped that the results will provide useful
methods that can easily be adopted by industry in the design and manufacture
of electronic and electrical contacts. From the very beginning it was decided
to examine actual normal force reduction as a whole, and not to tackle issues
such as stress relaxation and creep, which are undoubtedly integral parts of the
process. The reasoning behind this was partly due to the difficulties in actually
attributing how much of an effect the various components have on normal
force reduction. Also, and equally important, for any contact or connector, the
most important parameter at the end of the day is the actual normal force
present at the interface and not the various stresses and strains within the
spring which give rise to it.

Having stated the importance of normal force, it is worth adding a

cautionary note that spring geometry can affect the process of normal force
reduction. Typical spring designs with low values of stresses and strains will
exhibit better resistance to force reduction. However this is just one of many
factors, such as spring material, that need to be addressed in future studies.

The parameters under consideration with this research were the effect
of time and temperature on the process of normal force reduction. These were
chosen as starting points because if an understanding of the effects of the

185
reduction process can be gained, then it may be feasible to incorporate this
information into an accelerated life test.

The ideal scenario would have been to produce a simple physical

model that could explain the ways in which normal force reduction is affected
by time and temperature. Having obtained this information, the next stage
would have been to investigate other parameters, such as those highlighted
above, in order to produce a universal model. However, this research
represents the first step towards this goal.

A detailed model has been proposed relating normal force to time and
temperature, based on the concept of a variable activation energy. It can be
expressed in two forms and these are given in equations (8.1) and (8.2). Due
to the complexity of the model, it has not been possible to calculate the global
parameters 'b', 'Qo' and 'K'. However, it has been possible to obtain very
good approximations for the temperature dependent parameters 'B' and
'C'. When these are used in the model it exhibits a very good fit to the
experimental data as can be seen in figures 7.9 and 7.10. In addition to the
visual evidence this is supported by very good statistical correlations which
have been determined in section 6.4.

dN
tit
. (Qo kBT
= -K.exp-
- bN) (8.1)

N = 100 + B.Ln(C) - B.ln(t + C) (8.2)

where

186
 and N is the residual normal force as a percentage of it's
initial value
t is the time in seconds
dN/dt = the rate of normal force reduction
T is the absolute temperature
Q o is the activation energy of self-diffusion
b is a constant relating the amount of stored energy to N
kB is Boltzmann's constant
K is a constant

The limitations with determining the global parameters have meant

that it has not been possible to investigate the variability of the activation
energy in any great detail. Possible explanations have been put forward but
these cannot be tested until the global parameters can be determined and
compared with standard activation energies. Problems with mathematics
required for this process, though as yet unresolved, may not be
insurmountable. The approach most likely to bear fruit, involves taking the
data set as a whole (over 6,500 measurements) and attempting to fit them to
equation (8.2). The data has been tried out on an experimental program at
Nottingham Polytechnic but did not produce any sensible results. However,
now that the data has been collected, this is an obvious avenue for future
work.

Although it was not possible to fully define the physical model, some
very interesting and useful results have been achieved. At any of the test
temperatures, it is possible to calculate the model parameters using
experimental data. This is illustrated in figure 8.1. The model is given in
equation (8.3) and is based on the parameters calculated in section 7.4 using
the least squares method. The 95% confidence interval shown has been
calculated using the method shown in reference [8.1]. It relies on two
assumptions, firstly that the normal force reduction data is normally
distributed, and secondly that the method of calculating the parameters 'B'
and 'C', shown in section 7.4, does not affect the results.

187
 N = 112 - 2.7 In(t + 85) (8.3)

The model has been extrapolated outside the range in which the data
was collected and can therefore be used to make end of life predictions of
normal force. In addition confidence levels can be determined for these
predictions. Such predictions depend on the physical model being a true
representation of the underlying processes that are affecting the normal force.

Cl)
::l 100 , , , , ,
o , ..........,....... I I I 110°C I
> 90 : -------~~~~U .... "fi;;~;;;~:::::-----------------t---------------t--------------t--
c
~()
1··...........
...
..........
..~

• 1------UU....".. ~~.;:------,
i ·.. ·......
......"..., ,.
I

----------UU.. "fi;;~;--------------1--------------_r-
I
I
I
I

-c: : ............, ...."". •• I .... ,................. : :

.~ ".1.
70 • t--------------------~---------~U
I
I

I
I
....~r.-------,--
"""'"

''''''''''''''"j.
~:-------fUU ....~r.--------i--
. . . . . ••••••• '
I

""'".......... I
..• ..

o : : I '''...........,,'' .,.......... '\""

150 • ,--------------------4----------------------4---------~,~···.4,--------....•...-
II :I II :I ....." ••""...............,:...
c !S(). t--------------------,----------------------t----------------r--------------T-~
I I I I I
rn I I I I I
C ~() . 1---------------------~----------------------~---------------1---------------~-
I I t I I
Cl) I
t
I
t i
I
t
I t
t

...o
u ~() . t--------------------1----------------------~----------------t--------------i--
I
I
Actu;'1
'fJ Data I
I
I
I
I
I
LL.. . 2 0 r--------------------t----------------------t---------------4---------------t--
c ! .•••••••• Model Prediction ! ! !
E
...
o
1()
()
,: """""""'"
I
'.
95% Confidence
I
In erval:I t
+--------------------,----------------------,----------------~--------------,--
' ,:
I
z
1 Hour 1 Day 1 Month 1 Year 10 Years
Log Time

Figure 8.1
140·C Heat Age Test Data Plus Physical Model

To predict end of life values for normal force reduction using the
variable activation energy model, would simply involve calculating the
temperature dependent parameters 'B' and 'C' from equation (8.2). Due
to the fact that these parameters vary with temperature, spring material and
contact design, they would have to be calculated with these factors set to those
required.

188
 ie. If long duration force reduction data was required for a beryllium-
copper base material contact working at 125' C with a certain spring
design, then a short duration heat age test would have to be carried out
using contact springs made from beryllium-copper to the predetermined
spring design. The amount of data that needed to be collected would
depend on the accuracy required.

Once the parameters 'B' and 'C' have been calculated, they can then
be substituted into equation (8.2) to produce a theoretical model for that
particular temperature, spring design and base material. This could then be
used to predict long term normal force reduction for that particular system.
ego with the 110'C model for the phosphor-bronze contacts used in the heat
age tests, this would predict that after 10 years, the normal force would have
reduced to 59% of it's initial value.

Equally important, this procedure allows confidence limits to be

calculated around these predictions. ego with the previous example the 95%
confidence interval for this result is 53% S NI s 65%, where NI is the
predicted normal force reduction after 10 years with the previously stated
conditions.

The duration of the heat age tests could vary from a week to a year,
depending upon the accuracy required for the results. Due to the logarithmic
nature of the process, data from one week's testing would be sufficient to
establish approximate values for the model parameters. However, for very
accurate predictions it may be necessary to obtain data for up to one year at
the test temperature. This is illustrated by examining figure 8.1. The actual
number of data points to be collected could now be optimised since the model
is known, along with the data transformations that have to be undertaken.
This would be determined by a statistician, with reference to the accuracy
required.

As mentioned previously, in addition to temperature, spring design and

base materials also play a significant part in the process of normal force

189
reduction. Although not part of this research program, investigation into the
effects of these factors would be extremely interesting. If the cause of the
variable activation energy can be determined, it may be possible to produce
a model that not only predicts the effect of time on the reduction process, but
also predicts the effect of temperature on the model parameters. This would
then only require a series of short duration elevated temperature tests for
each spring design and base material, in order to determine the parameters
such as 'K', 'b' and 'Qo' in equation (8.2). Using this information and
particularly the effect of temperature on the parameters, it would be possible
to devise an accelerated life test. In addition, future research into the effects
of different base materials and spring designs may allow these 'factors to be
incorporated into the model and thus make it truly universal.

The concept of a variable activation energy is very interesting and at

least when theorising at the atomic level, seems very plausible. The more
highly stressed and deformed a particular region is within a spring, the more
likely the individual atoms are to move to a more stable and less stressed
state. This will reduce the elastic stored energy and hence the force being
produced by deforming the spring. In addition, a small amount of permanent
set will have occurred. Since the crystal lattice in the highly stressed region is
severely deformed, then the amount of energy required by each individual
atom to move to a more stable state, will be less than if the lattice were
unstressed. As a result, the activation energy of the process will vary with the
deformation of the lattice and change as the reduction process occurs.

A difficulty that has been referred to on several occasions, concerns the

fact that the stresses and strains within the contact spring are not constant but
vary across it's width. This can only complicate the picture further. Although
this problem has been mentioned, it has not been tackled in any thorough way
with the analysis. It has merely been assumed that the overall effect will be
linear and hence not affect the results untowardly. A decision was made at the
start of the project to use such spring designs, as it was felt that they more
truly reflected those used practically.

190
8.2 FUTURE WORK

Work will continue on analysing the experimental data set with a view
to obtaining experimental values for the global parameters 'K', 'b' and
'Qo'. When these have been determined they can be compared with
parameters such as the activation energy of self-diffusion, for the material in
question. In this way in may be possible to identify the individual mechanisms
responsible for the variability of the activation energy with this phenomenon.

The next stage of the research should concentrate on investigating

factors which have not been covered with this work. The obvious starting
points would be to use other materials and different spring designs. Using
information gained from this additional research it may well be possible to
devise a universal model for the phenomena of normal force reduction, which
could be used with all spring types.

8.3 CONCLUSIONS

Normal force reduction in contact springs occurs with a logarithmic

relationship to time. Theoretically this can be accounted for by postulating
that this process is thermally activated and that the activation energy required
to drive it is variable. The variability arises from the fact that the stored
energy within the contact spring assists the process and thus lowers the
activation energy. Since the stored energy is reduced along with the normal
force, then over the course of time so the activation energy must increase.

The variable activation energy model that has been proposed can be
used to predict end of life normal force values for electrical contacts at a
specified working temperature. In addition, confidence levels in these
predictions can also be determined. Model parameters for the 10 temperatures

191
used in the heat age tests have been calculated. For other temperatures, new
short duration heat age tests would be required in order to determine the
model parameters.

A future work program has been outline. Initially this will involve
further attempts to obtain experimental values for the global model
parameters. Later it is hoped to investigate other factors affecting normal
force reduction such as base materials and spring designs. The ultimate aims
being to produce a universal model for use with all contact systems.

192
8.4 References

8.1 C. Upson and NJ. Sheth, "Statistical Design and Analysis of Engineering
Experiments", pp. 387-391, McGraw-Hill, 1973:

193
194
APPENDICES
 APPENDIX A

This appendix gives the data that has been collected during the ten heat age tests.
At the top of each page a heading gives the test letter and the temperature (in "K) at which
that particular data has been collected. Each page lists data on up to three connectors.
These are arranged in columns with the duration that the connector was in the heat age
ovens (less the warm up time) given at the top in seconds. Each individual column is sub-
divided into a further four columns. The are explained next:-

i) Ree: This gives the record number of each individual data point. It ranges from
0001 to 6150.

ii) Ref: This is a reference number which has the following meanings. The first
character is letter ranging from A to I which gives the heat age test letter (A
being the 373"K test and I being the 473"K test). This is followed by a two
digit number ranging from 01 to 14. This gives number of the connector
within the test (connector number 01 being removed from the heat age oven
first and so on). Finally there is (after a hyphen) another two digit number
ranging from 01 to 50. This gives the individual contact position of the data
point on that particular connector (see figure 4.3 for reference).

iii) INF This gives the initial normal force reading in grammes force.

iv) FNF This gives the final normal force reading in grammes force.

NB. The percentage reduction in normal force is calculated by dividing FNF by INF and
multiplying by 100.

A-I
 HEAT AGE TEST A· 373°K

TIme 3000s Time 4800s TIme 81005

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
1 A01-01149 124 51 A02-01152 124 101 A03-01177 156
2 A01-02 165 141 52 A02-02 145 114 102 A03-02 178 150
3 A01-03156 126 53 A02-03162 122 103 A03-03176 145
4 A01-04 162 131 54 A02-04 139 114 104 A03-04 178 152
5 A01-05146 120 55 A02-05161 124 105 A03-05177 147
6 A01-06 161 142 56 A02-06142 125 106 A03-06 175 152
7 A01-07143 112 57 A02-07164 136 107 A03-07178 146
8 A01-08 158 138 58 A02-08140 126 108 A03-08 177 149
9 A01-09 133 120 59 A02-09159 141 109 A03-09 178 157
10 AOl-10 154 139 60 A02-10 140 124 110 A03-10 181 160
11 AOl-11142 121 61 A02-11156 142 111 A03-11176 157
12 AOl-12 158 139 62 A02-12141 132 112 A03-12180 160
13 AOl-13 142 121 63 A02·13 155 141 113 A03-13 178 158
14 A01·14157 140 64 A02-14142 125 114 A03-14173 156
15 AOl-15139 121 65 A02-15 161 139 115 A03-15179 157
16 AOl-16 154 134 66 A02-16138 120 116 A03-16177 156
17 AOl-17 147 115 67 A02-17154 140 117 A03-17177 157
18 AOl-18 161 140 68 A02-18138 119 118 A03-18179 153
19 AOl-19150 140 69 A02-19156 138 119 A03-19176 159
20 AOl-20 159 136 70 A02-20 137 118 120 A03-20 179 153
21 AOl-21139 118 71 A02-21152 138 121 A03-21175 157
22 AOl-22159 142 72 A02-22143 125 122 A03-22 177 151
23 AOl-23 149 128 73 A02-23 157 140 123 A03-23 178 158
24 AOl-24167 99 74 A02-24140 125 124 A03-24183 156
25 AOl-25 157 96 75 A02-25148 140 125 A03-25181 149
26 AOl-26156 104 76 A02-26168 139 126 A03-26183 164
27 AOl-27164 96 77 A02-27150 119 127 A03-27168 148
28 AOl-28152 127 78 A02-28168 138 128 A03-28 180 161
29 AOl-29165 140 79 A02-29145 118 129 A03-29171 153
30 AOl-30 149 129 80 A02-30 156 137 130 A03-30 183 162
31 ,AOl-31163 132 81 A02-31 153 122 131 A03-31171 149
32 AOl-32148 129 82 A02-32159 136 132 A03-32183 160
33 AOl-33165 138 83 A02-33149 124 133 A03-33168 150
34 AOl-34149 130 84 A02-34162 134 134 A03-34 179 160
35 AOl-35169 141 85 A02-35147 113 135 A03-35169 149
36 AOl-36145 128 86 A02-36159 139 136 A03-36185 161
37 AOl-37155 136 87 A02-37148 124 137 A03-37171 147
38 AOl-38148 127 88 A02-38153 136 138 A03-38180 157
39 AOl-39163 140 89 A02-39148 125 139 A03-39169 148
40 AOl-40 150 131 90 A02-40 170 141 140 A03-40 180 159
41 AOl-41 164 142 91 A02-41 150 129 141 A03-41166 148
42 AOI-42148 133 92 A02-42163 141 142 A03-42180 158
43 AOl-43165 140 93 A02-43159 129 143 A03-43168 150
44 AOI-44 144 125 94 A02-44170 146 144 A03-44 178 156
45 AOl-45160 137 95 A02-45155 128 145 A03-45167 151
46 AOl-46148 126 96 A02-46169 141 146 A03-46179 152
47 AOl-47165 143 97 A02-47156 125 147 A03-47169 145
48 AOl-48146 131 98 A02-48170 143 148 A03-48174 155
49 AOl-49160 145 99 A02-49156 127 149 A03-49163 141
50 AOl-50 142 127 100 A02-50 168 138 150 A03-50 179 155

A-2
 HEAT AGE TEST A • 3730 K

TIme 132005 TIme 216005 TIme 360005

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
151 A04-01176 148 201 A05·01179 142 251 A06·01184 151
152 A04-02 178 134 202 A05-02177 140 252 A06-02 181 146
153 A04-03179 146 203 A05-03 176 147 253 A06-03181 153
154 A04-04 180 133 204 A05-04 176 133 254 A06-04 182 150
155 A04-05179 150 205 A05-05177 138 255 A06-05183 146
156 A04-06 185 148 206 A05-06176 138 256 A06-06 178 148
157 A04-07178 137 207 A05-07178 152 257 A06-07184 155
158 A04-OB 181 126 208 A05-08177 137 258 A06-OB 179 153
159 A04-09181 154 209 A05-09178 151 259 A06-09 182 153
160 A04-lO 183 147 210 A05·10 178 153 260 A06-10 177 154
161 A04-11178 156 211 A05-11174 153 261 A06-11180 153
162 A04-12179 153 212 A05-12177 155 262 A06-12178 153
163 A04-13 181 157 213 A05-13175 153 263 A06-13 184 152
164 A04-14183 154 214 A05-14176 153 264 A06-14178 154
165 A04-15179 159 215 A05-15177 150 265 A06-15177 153
166 A04-16183 160 216 A05-16 173 150 266 A06-16178 154
167 A04-17181 161 217 A05-17174 151 267 A06-17181 151
168 A04-18183 156 218 A05-18 178 152 268 A06-18174 151
169 A04-19 181 156 219 A05-19 179 143 269 A06-19182 151
170 A04-20 185 153 220 A05-20 180 155 270 A06-20 178 152
171 A04-21179 151 221 A05-21176 149 271 A06-21182 154
172 A04-22184 151 222 A05-22179 155 272 A06-22176 153
173 A04-23 179 141 223 A05-23 180 151 273 A06-23 183 151
174 A04-24183 149 224 A05-24183 156 274 A06-24182 157
175 A04-25 182 158 225 A05-25 181 158 275 A06-25 184 118
176 A04-26181 151 226 A05-26183 149 276 A06-26 177 130
177 A04-27163 136 227 A05-27168 146 277 A06-27183 155
178 A04-28 179 138 228 A05-28177 138 278 A06-28 174 145
179 A04-29164 137 229 A05-29168 147 279 A06-29183 154
180 A04-30 178 141 230 A05-30 180 147 280 A06-30 173 151
181 A04-31167 141 231 A05-31 166 145 281 A06-31186 158
182 A04-32177 149 232 A05-32180 150 282 A06-32172 151
183 A04-33168 147 233 A05-33167 149 283 A06-33181 157
184 A04-34179 154 234 A05-34179 153 284 A06-34169 148
185 A04-35165 149 235 A05-35167 146 285 A06-35190 157
186 A04-36179 158 236 A05-36180 158 286 A06-36166 146
187 A04-37170 152 237 A05-37 168 148 287 A06-37180 155
188 A04-38177 155 238 A05-38181 158 288 A06-38165 147
189 A04-39169 151 239 A05-39167 143 289 A06-39182 154
190 A04-40 180 155 240 A05-40 179 150 290 A06-40 168 146
191 A04-41167 151 241 A05-41170 152 291 A06-41179 152
192 A04-42179 154 242 A05-42180 157 292 A06-42161 145
193 A04-43171 150 243 A05-43168 155 293 A06-43182 155
194 A04-44 180 158 244 A05-44176 155 294 A06-44 165 144
195 A04-45170 152 245 A05-45172 152 295 A06-45181 155
196 A04-46181 153 246 A05-46183 153 296 A06-46169 147
197 A04-47171 152 247 A05-47176 153 297 A06-47175 154
198 A04-48182 160 248 A05-48177 156 298 A06-48 166 145
199 A04-49171 150 249 A05-49171 149 299 A06-49175 149
200 A04-50 177 158 250 A05-50 179 151 300 A06-50 163 146

A-3
 HEAT AGE TEST A· 373°K

TIme 864008 TIme 1080008 TIme 1728008

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec:: Ref: INF FNF
301 A07-01164 138 351 A08-0I157 130 401 A09-01154 129
302 A07-02 140 119 352 A08-02 154 125 402 A09-02 145 120
303 A07-03164 137 353 A08-03 154 134 403 A09-03155 127
304 A07-04 137 117 354 A08-04 151 124 404 A09-04 145 121
305 A07-05162 139 355 A08-05161 135 405 A09-05166 129
306 A07-06 139 116 356 A08-06146 127 406 A09-06 145 122
307 A07-07164 139 357 A08-07 160 119 407 A09-07155 124
30B A07-OB 143 121 358 AOB-08144 121 40B A09-OB 149 120
309 A07-09 163 133 359 A08-09164 138 409 A09-09167 129
310 A07-10 141 122 360 A08-1O 142 125 410 A09-10 149 133
311 A07-11159 138 361 A08-11162 136 411 A09-11159 136
312 A07-12139 123 362 A08-12147 122 412 A09-12143 127
313 A07-13 165 142 363 A08-13162 138 413 A09-13 150 133
314 "A07-14142 125 364 A08-14143 119 414 A09-14150 131
315 A07-15167 139 365 A08-15 152 134 415 A09-15164 140
316 A07-16143 124 366 A08-16 141 121 416 A09-16146 119
317 A07-17164 139 367 A08-17 166 139 417 A09-17162 141
318 A07-18138 121 368 A08-18150 123 418 A09-18146 123
319 A07-19166 139 369 A08-19 165 136 419 A09-19165 139
320 A07-20 147 125 370 A08-20 148 127 420 A09-20 147 123
321 A07-21168 125 371 A08-21 166 137 421 A09-21159 132
322 A07-22138 121 372 A08-22145 117 422 A09-22 138 lOB
323 A07-23 169 129 373 A08-23160 138 423 A09-23 154 131
324 A07-24 139 99 374 A08-24143 120 424 A09-24143 120
325 A07-25168 114 375 A08-25162 137 425 A09-25 163 138
326 A07-26 142 97 376 A08-26167 129 426 A09-26169 132
327 A07-27 167 84 377 A08-27149 114 427 A09-27154 114
328 A07-28 140 116 378 A08-28156 134 428 A09-28 168 137
329 A07-29169 129 379 A08-29150 114 429 A09-29149 112
330 A07-30 139 117 380 A08-30 168 139 430 A09-30 167 134
331 A07-31171 139 381 A08-31146 117 431 A09-31150 120
332 A07-32142 126 382 A08-32166 136 432 A09-32171 135
333 A07-33168 142 383 A08-33 154 124 433 A09-33151 119
334 A07-34142 126 384 A08-34172 136 434 A09-34165 131
335 A07-35168 145 385 A08-35150 122 435 A09-35151 111
336 A07-36142 126 386 A08-36163 139 436 A09-36171 136
337 A07-37166 143 387 A08-37145 118 437 A09-37148 120
338 A07-38142 125 388 A08-38 163 133 438 A09-38166 132
339 A07-39168 142 389 A08-39148 120 439 A09-39149 118
340 A07-40 144 126 390 A08-40 161 134 440 A09-40 168 130
341 A07-41165 140 391 A08-41149 122 441 A09-41150 123
342 A07-42143 123 392 A08-42160 133 442 A09-42167 135
343 A07-43167 141 393 A08-43151 115 443 A09-43147 117
344 A07-44 146 121 394 A08-44157 137 444 A09-44 159 125
345 A07-45165 136 395 A08-45150 123 445 A09-45145 117
346 A07-46139 119 396 A08-46 171 138 446 A09-46164 125
347 A07-47162 133 397 A08-47147 117 447 A09-47144 117
348 A07-48141 123 398 A08-48 163 134 448 A09-48161 122
349 A07-49166 134 399 A08-49 155 122 449 A09-49150 122
350 A07-50 140 123 400 A08-50 161 133 450 A09-50 164 131

A-4
 HEAT AGE TEST A· 373°K

Time 534600s TIme U10800s TIme 2488800s

Rec: ReC: INF FNF Rec: ReC: INF FNF Rec: ReC: INF FNF
451 AlO-01145 120 501 All-Ol 144 lOS 551 A12-01165 133
452 A10-02 164 123 502 All-02 162 124 552 A12-02 139 113
453 A10-03151 120 503 All-03 145 118 553 A12-03165 129
454 A10-04 169 126 504 All-04 160 136 554 A12-04 137 113
455 A10-05144 114 505 All-OS 146 121 555 A12-05162 132
456 A10-06 155 128 506 All-06155 136 556 A12-06 138 115
457 A10-07148 111 507 All-07143 118 557 A12-07160 132
458 A10-OS 156 114 50s All-08155 131 558 A12-OS 139 116
459 A10-09145 115 509 All-09147 117 559 A12-09 165 128
460 A10-10 153 123 510 All-10 163 139 560 A12-10 138 118
461 A10-11148 121 511 Al1-11148 116 561 A12-11 163 132
462 A10-12170 129 512 Al1-12152 134 562 A12-12140 112
463 A10-13 147 121 513 Al1-13147 118 563 A12-13 165 131
464 A10-14155 127 514 All-14 163 137 564 A12-14 141 117
465 A10-15 149 119 515 All-IS 142 111 565 A12-15 164 120
466 A10-16160 130 516 Al1-16 163 135 566 A12-16142 117
467 A10-17150 116 517 All-17 152 119 567 A12-17 167 129
468 AIO-l8166 129 518 All-18166 129 568 A12-18139 113
469 A10-19148 116 519 All-19 146 115 569 A12-19 162 125
470 A10-20 165 132 520 Al1-20 156 129 570 A12-20 143 116
471 A10-21147 112 521 All-21 147 118 571 A12-21164 128
472 A10-22163 133 522 All-22159 128 572 A12-22141 116
473 A10-23 153 107 523 All-23145 104 573 A12-23 168 125
474 A10-24 160 97 524 All-24160 124 574 A12-24142 116
475 A10-25 149 75 525 All-25 151 119 575 A12-25 168 125
476 A10-26 146 83 526 All-26154 110 576 A12-26 141 104
477 A10-27 160 96 527 All-27164 1U; 577 A12-27166 127
478 AIO-28 148 112 528 All-28151 99 578 A12-28 136 107
479 A10-29166 130 529 Al1-29163 122 579 A12-29164 122
480 A10-30 148 122 530 Al1-30 148 109 580 A12-30 137 107
481 A10-31155 136 531 Al1-31 167 131 581 A12-31 168 131
482 A10-32150 115 532 All-32155 122 582 A12-32138 113
483 A10-33163 124 533 All-33166 129 583 A12-33167 131
484 A10-34147 120 534 Al1-34148 109 584 A12-34139 113
485 A10-35165 122 535 Al1-35 163 131 585 A12-35167 134
486 A10-36144 118 536 All-36 152 118 586 A12-36137 112
487 A10-37167 140 537 Al1-37 165 129 587 A12-37168 131
488 A10-38147 123 538 Al1-38 148- 126 588 A12-38137 113
489 A10-39159 131 539 Al1-39168 130 589 A12-39167 133
490 A10-40 148 124 540 Al1-40 151 123 590 A12-40 138 114
491 A10-41165 137 541 Al1-41 167 131 591 A12-41167 128
492 A10-42148 122 542 Al1-42151 126 592 A12-42134 113
493 A10-43164 132 543 Al1-43 157 127 593 A12-43163 130
494 A10-44 147 115 544 A11-44 147 123 594 A12-44 139 114
495 A10-45169 128 545 Al1-45160 127 595 A12-45165 125
496 AlO-46153 118 546 Al1-46 151 126 596 A12-46135 112
497 A10-47169 134 547 Al1-47164 124 597 A12-47166 127
498 A10-48160 129 548 All-48148 123 598 A12·48141 114
499 A10-49164 134 549 Al1-49 166 128 599 AI2-49172 131
500 A10-50 152 125 550 All-50 148 122 600 A12-50 140 116

A-5
 HEAT AGE TEST A - 373°K

Time 7783200s
Rec: Ref: INF FNF
601 A13-01 155 88
602 A13-02 144 102
603 A13-03 151 117
604 A13-04 142 103
605 A13-05 150 105
606 A13-06 144 102
607 A13-07 151 114
608 A13-08 149 110
609 A13-09 161 122
610 A13-10 151 116
611 A13-11169 128
612 A13-12155 115
613 A13-13 159 128
614 A13-14 147 112
615 A13-15 159 122
616 A13-16147 110
617 A13-17165 118
618 A13-18147 109
619 A13-19 158 117
620 A13-20 149 113
621 A13-21160 121
622 A13-22 146 115
623 A13-23 175 121
624 A13-24 150 116
625 A13-25 163 121
626 A13-26 165 111
627 A13-27 150 106
628 A13-28 159 104
629 A13-29 147 106
630 A13-30 165 114
631 A13-31149 110
632 A13-32 156 115
633 A13-33 150 113
634 A13-34 166 114
635 A13-35 147 108
636 A13-36 160 116
637 A13-37 149 108
638 A13-38 162 117
639 A13-39 149 112
640 A13-40 165 117
641 A13-41148 107
642 A13-42 162 116
643 A13-43 149 106
644 A13-44 156 122
645 A13-45 143 109
646 A13-46 157 122
647 A13-47 148 109
648 A13-48 158 120
649 A13-49 149 112
650 AB-50 164 118

A-6
 HEAT AGE TEST B • 383°K

Time 3000s Time 6000s Time UOOOs

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
651 BOI-01159 151 701 B02-01162 130 751 B03-01165 139
652 BOI-02 146 129 702 B02-02 142 124 752 B03-02 139 122
653 BOI-03163 146 703 B02-03157 131 753 B03-03164 147
654 BOI-04 140 129 704 B02-04 141 127 754 B03-04 137 121
655 BOl-05167 149 705 B02-05158 140 755 B03-05160 143
656 BOI-06 145 131 706 B02-06 143 127 756 B03-06 141 122
657 BOI-07169 146 707 B02-07160 142 757 B03-07163 138
658 BOl-OB 141 128 708 B02-08144 123 758 B03-OB 136 121
659 BOI-09 164 142 709 B02-09159 133 759 B03-09162 140
660 BOI-I0 144 128 710 B02-10 139 131 760 B03-10 138 122
661 BOI-11170 143 711 B02-11152 137 761 B03-11 167 142
662 BOI-12 140 128 712 B02-12139 126 762 B03-12138 122
663 BOI-13 166 147 713 B02-13 152 134 763 B03-13 171 143
664 BOI-14 143 130 714 B02-14 137 124 764 B03-14 135 117
665 BOI-15 166 147 715 B02-15 158 137 765 B03-15 165 141
666 BOI-16 144 130 716 B02-16 138 125 766 B03-16144 124
667 BOI-17 166 147 717 B02-17 153 134 767 B03-17 166 139
668 BOI-18 141 127 718 B02-18138 124 768 B03-18139 121
669 BOI-19 169 148 719 B02-19 155 136 769 B03"19 162 139
670 BOI-20 142 127 720 B02-20 145 129 770 B03-20 137 120
671 BOI-21166 139 721 B02-21158 141 771 B03-21163 141
672 BOI-22140 125 722 B02-22137 121 772 B03-22138 119
673 BOI-23 166 141 723 B02-23 154 134 773 B03-23 164 137
674 BOI-24143 126 724 B02-24138 126 774 B03-24 141 125
675 BOI-25 166 144 725 B02-25 152 133 775 B03-25 165 141
676 BOI-26 141 125 726 B02-26139 126 776 B03-26143 126
677 BOI-27166 148 727 B02-27160 141 777 B03-27167 140
678 BOI-28138 116 728 B02-28139 123 778 B03-28 139 120
679 BOl-29167 146 729 B02-29167 145 779 B03-29165 140
680 BOl-30 145 123 730 B02-30 140 126 780 B03-30 141 116
681 BOl-31166 145 731 B02-31 163 145 781 B03-31163 141
682 BOI-32140 124 732 B02-32136 127 782 B03-32139 121
683 BOI-33168 144 733 B02-33165 146 783 B03-33169 145
684 BOI-34 141 128 734 B02-34138 126 784 B03-34139 120
685 BOI-35 171 147 735 B02-35 163 145 785 B03-35163 142
686 BOI-36136 125 736 B02-36142 123 786 B03-36139 124
687 BOI-37167 148 737 B02-37167 139 787 B03-37169 144
688 BOI-38142 125 738 B02-38143 129 788 B03-38138 124
689 BOI-39172 146 739 B02-39163 146 789 B03-39166 142
690 B0140 144 128 740 B0240142 129 790 B0340 142 121
691 B0141 170 150 741 B0241 165 150 791 B0341 169 145
692 B0142148 131 742 B0242144 125 792 B0342142 123
693 B0143163 149 743 B0243 165 146 793 B0343169 146
694 BOI-44 137 128 744 B0244145 133 794 B03-44 146 125
695 B0145 167 146 745 B0245169 146 795 B0345171 140
696 BOI-46143 131 746 B02-46139 127 796 B0346 141 122
697 B0147166 148 747 B02-47 157 147 797 B03-47166 138
698 BOI-48143 130 748 B02-48 144 133 798 B0348135 119
699 B0149 162 143 749 B02-49162 146 799 B0349168 136
700 BOl-50 142 128 750 B02-50 143 130 800 B03-50 136 123

A-7
 HEAT AGE TEST B· 383°K

TIme 24300s TIme 99000s TIme 198000s

Ree: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rei:: Ref: INF FNF
801 B04·01146 130 851 B05-01 164 134 901 B06-01164 123
802 B04-02 167 141 852 B05-02 150 118 902 B06-02 146 117
803 B04-03136 123 853 B05-03 159 131 903 B06-03155 125
804 B04-04 169 143 854 B05-04 147 123 904 B06-04 146 116
805 B04-05140 126 855 B05-05153 136 905 B06-05157 132
806 B04-06 171 150 856 B05-06147 122 906 B06-06150 111
807 B04-07142 125 857 B05-07158 138 907 B06-07156 130
808 B04-08 167 141 858 B05-08 146 115 908 B06-08 144 111
809 B04-09 145 126 859 B05-09164 129 909 B06-09155 132
810 B04-10 166 146 860 B05-10 156 126 910 B06-10 146 115
811 B04-11144 127 861 B05-11 161 135 911 B06-11 168 132
812 B04-12 169 145 862 B05-12150 122 912 B06-12150 114
813 B04·13142 124 863 B05-13 159 138 913 B06-13 164 125
814 B04-14164 141 864 B05-14 155 130 914 B06-14150 117
815 B04-15146 126 865 B05-15 162 135 915 B06·15157 127
816 B04-16166 140 866 B05-16 146 116 916 B06-16148 116
817 B04-17147 125 867 B05-17 156 134 917 B06·17 167 126
818 B04-18170 143 868 B05-18 145 121 918 B06-18154 124
819 B04-19 147 127 869 B05-19 164 136 919 B06-19 167 133
820 B04-20 167 142 870 B05-20 145 114 920 B06·20 151 116
821 B04-21141 126 871 B05-21155 134 921 B06-21 171 126
822 B04-22167 139 872 B05-22142 109 922 B06-22153 119
823 B04-23 146 125 873 B05-23 163 136 923 B06-23 174 124
824 B04-24168 141 874 B05-24157 119 924 B06-24154 117
825 B04-25 147 126 875 B05-25 162 134 925 B06-25 176 125
826 B04-26165 141 876 B05-26166 131 926 B06·26162 114
827 B04-27138 124 877 B05·27145 115 927 B06·27157 130
828 B04-28166 142 878 B05-28 163 131 928 B06-28162 126
829 B04·29140 118 879 B05-29147 107 929 B06-29152 130
830 B04-30 164 137 880 B05-30 165 131 930 B06-30 160 112
831 B04-31146 124 881 B05-31153 117 931 B06-31 150 127
832 B04-32165 140 882 B05-32164 134 932 B06-32155 113
833 B04-33140 127 883 B05-33 153 123 933 B06-33146 123
834 B04-34167 142 884 B05-34174 137 934 B06-34159 113
835 B04-35144 124 885 B05-35 150 120 935 B06-35148 119
836 B04-36172 143 886 B05-36171 128 936 B06-36153 112
837 B04-37133 123 887 B05-37154 125 937 B06-37149 128
838 B04-38170 144 888 B05-38 171 133 938 B06-38159 116
839 B04-39 141 123 889 B05-39149 124 939 B06-39147 129
840 B04-40 168 142 890 B05-40 167 140 940 B06-40 162 130
841 B04-41 143 123 891 B05-41 148 123 941 B06-41 152 114
842 B04-42171 144 892 B05-42173 129 942 B06-42167 128
843 B04-43 144 128 893 B05-43 145 120 943 B06-43146 114
844 B04-44173 137 894 B05-44 165 127 944 B06-44 156 118
845 B04-45143 124 895 B05-45 150 125 945 B06-45149 114
846 B04-46162 142 896 B05-46159 131 946 B06-46155 122
847 B04-47 141 126 897 B05-47146 117 947 B06-47146 117
848 B04-48168 147 898 B05-48 161 132 948 B06-48157 126
849 B04-49136 126 899 B05-49156 126 949 B06-49149 118
850 B04-50 168 149 900 B05-50 165 133 950 B06-50 162 126

A-8
 HEAT AGE TEST B - 383°K

Time 2827205 Time 5256005 TIme 8622005

Rec: ReC: INF FNF Rec: ReC: INF FNF Rec: ReC: INF FNF
951 B07-01155 116 1001 B08-01 165 127 1051 B09-01176 93
952 B07-02 163 120 1002 B08-02 149 115 1052 B09-02 154 77
953 B07-03153 118 1003 B08-03 167 129 1053 B09-03174 124
954 B07-04 160 123 1004 B08-04 152 114 1054 B09-04 165 118
955 B07-05148 116 1005 B08-05170 131 1055 B09-05164 132
956 B07-06 157 127 1006 B08-06149 114 1056 B09-06 154 125
957 B07-07144 114 1007 B08-07163 125 1057 B09-07172 135
958 B07-08 156 113 1008 B08-08150 114 1058 B09-08154 124
959 B07-09 149 116 1009 B08-09169 126 1059 B09-09161 130
960 B07-10 154 132 1010 B08-1O 150 106 1060 B09-10 150 118
961 B07-11154 118 1011 B08-11 169 123 1061 B09-11 160 128
962 B07-12169 127 1012 B08-12151 116 1062 B09-12151 123
963 B07-13 149 115 1013 B08-13163 121 1063 B09-13 170 133
964 B07-14162 133 1014 B08-14 149 113 1064 B09-14 151 118
965 B07-15 144 111 1015 B08-15 160 123 1065 B09-15 171 135
966 B07-16 153 135 1016 B08-16 151 114 1066 B09-16 155 119
967 B07-17145 112 1017 B08-17 168 122 1067 B09-17 175 139
968 B07-18 157 127 1018 B08-18152 118 1068 B09-18158 115
969 B07-19 148 113 1019 B08-19 180 125 1069 B09-19172 130
970 B07-20 159 135 1020 B08-20 150 118 1070 B09-20 153 117
971 B07-21147 114 1021 B08-21182 123 1071 B09-21178 130
972 B07-22160 126 1022 B08-22153 118 1072 B09-22158 117
973 B07-23 151 107 1023 B08-23174 125 1073 B09-23 162 132
974 B07-24163 132 1024 B08-24156 115 1074 B09-24 156 118
975 B07-25148 108 1025 B08-25 174 124 1075 B09-25173 138
976 B07-26152 101 1026 B08-26159 120 1076 B09-26164 133
977 B07-27161 118 1027 B08-27152 116 1077 B09-27149 120
978 B07-28147 101 1028 B08-28167 118 1078 B09-28170 127
979 B07-29158 118 1029 B08-29146 114 1079 B09-29146 114
980 B07-30 148 109 1030 B08-30 169 123 1080 B09-30 164 123
981 B07-31162 125 1031 B08-31 148 112 1081 B09-31 148 116
982 B07-32150 118 1032 B08-32158 122 1082 B09-32171 128
983 B07-33164 125 1033 B08-33 146 113 1083 B09-33144 111
984 B07-34150 115 1034 B08-34 169 121 1084 B09-34163 124
985 B07-35168 131 1035 B08-35 149 114 1085 B09-35147 117
986 B07-36153 122 1036 B08-36167 122 1086 B09-36164 127
987 B07-37177 138 1037 B08-37149 116 1087 B09-37144 116
988 B07-38157 125 1038 B08-38171 123 1088 B09-38159 125
989 B07-39166 136 1039 B08-39147 114 1089 B09-39150 121
990 B07-40 153 121 1040 B08-40 167 126 1090 B09-40 172 131
991 B07-41167 133 1041 B08-41151 118 1091 B09-41153 121
992 B07-42158 125 1042 B08-42172 129 1092 B09-42161 131
993 B07-43166 129 1043 B08-43 147 115 1093 B09-43149 118
994 B07-44 153 125 1044 B08-44 164 123 1094 B09-44 169 130
995 B07-45170 136 1045 B08-45 148 117 1095 B09-45154 121
996 B07-46153 123 1046 B08-46 166 130 1096 B09-46170 130
997 B07-47167 133 1047 B08-47 149 118 1097 B09-47153 115
998 B07-48159 123 1048 B08-48160 125 1098 B09-48172 108
999 B07-49160 136 1049 B08-49 146 117 1099 B09-49161 86
1000 B07-50 154 124 1050 B08-50 161 122 1100 B09-50 181 98

A-9
 HEAT AGE TEST B· 383°K

Time 1999440s Time 7884180s Time 8472780s

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
1101 B10-01150 106 1151 B11-01 161 112 1201 B12-01 150 97
1102 B10-02159 115 1152 B11-02 152 103 1202 B12-02 172 114
1103 B10-03155 120 1153 B11-03 162 105 1203 B12-03153 96
1104 B10-04 160 119 1154 B11-04 156 105 1204 BI2-04 164 111
1105 B10-05154 113 1155 B11-05 159 109 1205 B12-05153 100
1106 B10-06 164 126 1156 B11-06150 105 1206 BI2-06 163 117
1107 BI0-07153 110 1157 B11-07158 108 1207 B12-07156 102
l10S BIO-OS 158 107 1158 B11-08147 100 1208 BI2-OS 168 112
1109 BI0-09154 113 1159 B11-09 151 114 1209 B12-09 156 103
1110 BIO-lO 170 127 1160 B11-10 144 98 1210 B12-10 160 119
1111 BIO-11151 113 1161 B11-11 163 115 1211 BI2-11 155 103
1112 BIO-12 171 127 1162 Bl1-12 148 100 1212 B12-12168 121
1113 BIO-13 151 112 1163 Bl1-13 153 118 1213 B12-13 158 106
1114 BIO-14 172 124 1164 Bl1-14 143 102 1214 B12-14 176 116
1115 BIO-15 150 117 1165 Bl1-15 153 120 1215 B12-15 154 103
1116 BIO-16 176 133 1166 Bl1-16 148 101 1216 BI2-16168 116
1117 BIO-17 156 116 1167 Bl1-17 160 111 1217 B12-17 150 106
1118 BIO-18 169 135 1168 Bl1-18 149 103 1218 B12-18163 114
1119 BIO-19 159 118 1169 Bl1-19 155 111 1219 B12-19 155 107
1120 BI0-20 163 127 1170 Bl1-20 148 100 1220 B12-20 158 112
1121 BI0-21154 117 1171 Bl1-21 155 114 1221 B12-21156 106
1122 BI0-22167 128 1172 Bl1-22 151 101 1222 B12-22 157 105
1123 BIO-23 155 117 1173 Bl1-23 163 117 1223 BI2-23 151 114
1124 BI0-24173 124 1174 Bl1-24 153 100 1224 B12-24 168 114
1125 BI0-25152 117 1175 Bl1-25 167 116 1225 BI2-25 156 109
1126 BI0-26146 112 1176 Bl1-26 162 115 1226 B12-26 155 106
1127 BI0-27174 125 1177 Bl1-27148 99 1227 B12-27170 112
1128 BIO-28 160 114 1178 Bl1-28 158 106 1228 B12-28156 104
1129 BI0-29 171 120 1179 Bl1-29 147 94 1229 B12-29170 112
1130 BI0-30 152 112 1180 Bl1-30 160 105 1230 B12-30 158 107
1131 BI0-31169 124 1181 Bl1-31146 94 1231 B12-31 168 115
1132 BI0-32151 113 1182 Bl1-32 163 109 1232 B12-32157 111
1133 BI0-33165 124 1183 Bl1-33 146 97 1233 B12-33178 113
1134 BI0-34153 113 1184 Bl1-34 159 106 1234 B12-34 159 107
1135 BI0-35165 124 1185 Bl1-35 146 94 1235 B12-35 164 114
1136 B10-36150 112 1186 Bl1-36 163 114 1236 B12-36 155 103
1137 BI0-37161 119 1187 Bl1-37146 94 1237 BI2-37171 110
1138 BI0-38149 114 1188 Bl1-38 165 110 1238 B12-38 155 106
1139 BI0-39165 122 1189 Bl1-39 145 99 1239 B12-39 162 114
1140 B10-40 150 115 1190 Bl1-40 152 105 1240 B12-40 151 102
1141 BI0-41167 125 1191 Bl1-41 152 98 1241 B12-41166 107
1142 B10-42150 114 1192 Bl1-42 165 109 1242 B12-42155 102
1143 BI0-43162 115 1193 Bl1-43 147 105 1243 B12-43176 110
1144 BI0-44147 114 1194 Bl1-44 168 111 1244 B12-44 151 102
1145 BI0-45168 122 1195 Bl1-45 153 98 1245 B12-45 163 112
1146 BI0-46152 115 1196 Bl1-46166 114 1246 B12-46153 104
1147 BI0-47159 118 1197 Bl1-47 149 97 1247 B12-47169 114
1148 BI0-48147 114 1198 Bl1-48173 114 .1248 B12-48 151 102
1149 BI0-49154 120 1199 Bl1-49 157 101 1249 B12-49162 114
1150 BI0-50 148 110 1200 Bl1-50 168 120 1250 B12-50 154 105

A-lO
 HEAT AGE TEST C· 393°K

Time 30005 TIme 48005 Time 81005

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
1251 C01·01 161 127 1301 C02·Ol 152 131 1351 C03·01148 107
1252 C01-02 146 115 1302 C02-02 150 116 1352 C03-02 153 129
1253 C01·03 166 132 1303 C02-03 153 128 1353 C03-03142 113
1254 C01-04 145 117 1304 C02-04 149 122 1354 C03-04 157 130
1255 C01-05159 139 1305 C02-05154 131 1355 C03-05143 118
1256 C01-06 143 114 1306 C02-06 141 121 1356 C03-06 150 135
1257 C01-07 162 138 1307 C02-07152 130 1357 C03-07141 118
1258 C01-08 142 129 1308 C02-08154 127 1358 C03-08159 136
1259 C01-09164 142 1309 C02-09159 142 1359 C03-09140 124
1260 C01-10 150 122 1310 C02-10 146 121 1360 C03-10 164 136
1261 C01-11 170 142 1311 C02-11 160 122 1361 C03-11 149 123
1262 COl-12 149 129 1312 C02-12150 125 1362 C03-12168 141
1263 COl-13 170 147 1313 C02-13 156 122 1363 C03-13 147 125
1264 COl-14 149 129 1314 C02-14 144 118 1364 C03-14164 143
1265 COl-15 168 141 1315 C02-15 158 130 1365 C03-15160 135
1266 COl-16 150 127 1316 C02-16 145 122 1366 C03·16166 144
1267 COl-17 174 144 1317 C02-17 167 129 1367 C03-17164 137
1268 COl-18 154 127 1318 C02-18 153 121 1368 C03-18167 142
1269 COl-19 183 146 1319 C02-19 165 128 1369 C03·19150 128
1270 COl-20 151 130 1320 C02-20 152 124 1370 C03-20 171 138
1271 COl-21 178 149 1321 C02-21 171 135 1371 C03-21154 127
1272 COl-22154 127 1322 C02-22153 126 1372 C03-22175 141
1273 COI-23 173 149 1323 C02-23 168 135 1373 C03-23 161 132
1274 COl-24157 130 1324 C02-24 155 131 1374 C03-24175 142
1275 COI-25 176 141 1325 C02-25 166 130 1375 C03-25 156 122
1276 COl-26162 131 1326 C02-26166 133 1376 C03-26155 121
1277 COl-27154 117 1327 C02-27155 124 1377 C03-27168 125
1278 COI-28 160 116 1328 C02-28160 125 1378 C03-28163 125
1279 COI-29 145 118 1329 C02-29147 121 1379 C03-29170 134
1280 COl-30 158 123 1330 C02-30 153 123 1380 C03-30 152 125
1281 COl-31 149 121 1331 C02-31 146 119 1381 C03-31162 125
1282 COl-32 155 129 1332 C02-32150 125 1382 C03-32 151 122
1283 COl-33 149 122 1333 C02-33147 127 1383 C03-33164 126
1284 COl-34 155 130 1334 C02-34155 127 1384 C03-34147 121
1285 COl-35 143 120 1335 C02-35147 123 1385 C03-35160 134
1286 COl-36 155 125 1336 C02-36152 128 1386 C03-36150 124
1287 COI-37 143 120 1337 C02-37146 124 1387 C03-37164 137
1288 COI-38147 128 1338 C02-38158 133 1388 C03-38152 122
1289 COI-39 145 130 1339 C02-39140 119 1389 C03-39166 137
1290 COI-40 155 131 1340 C02-40 155 134 1390 C03-40 152 125
1291 COI-41 140 125 1341 C02-41 143 122 1391 C03-41163 135
1292 COl-42149 128 1342 C02-42153 132 1392 C03-42148 125
1293 COl-43134 114 1343 C02-43 141 116 1393 C03-43 164 136
1294 COl-44 149 131 1344 C02-44 159 136 1394 C03-44146 122
1295 COl-45 150 124 1345 C02-45 146 124 1395 C03-45162 132
1296 COl-46 155 130 1346 C02-46161 133 1396 C03-46149 122
1297 COl-47140 119 1347 C02-47148 122 1397 C03-47164 135
1298 COl-48 156 130 1348 C02-48164 139 1398 C03-48145 120
1299 COl-49143 118 1349 C02-49148 122 1399 C03-49165 142
1300 COl-50 154 137 1350 C02-50 158 135 1400 C03-50 152 131

A-ll
 HEAT AGE TEST C • 393°K

Time 132005 Time 216005 TIme 360005

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
1401 C04-01153 116 1451 C05·01159 117 1501 C06-01149 108
1402 C04-02 155 127 1452 C05·02 155 118 1502 C06-02 159 131
1403 C04·03 145 109 1453 C05·03 164 126 1503 C06-03147 115
1404 C04.04 158 126 1454 C05·04 150 124 1504 C06.04 158 129
1405 C04·05144 118 1455 C05·05162 131 1505 C06·05151 117
1406 C04·06 170 138 1456 C05·06149 125 1506 C06-06 161 129
1407 C04·07153 120 1457 C05·07163 128 1507 C06·07142 119
1408 C04·08 167 139 1458 C05·08154 125 1508 C06·08157 131
1409 C04·09151 122 1459 C05·09163 130 1509 C06·09148 120
1410 C04·lO 166 137 1460 C05·10 143 118 1510 C06·10 151 128
1411 C04·11146 118 1461 C05·11152 135 1511 C06·11141 113
1412 C04·12164 141 1462 C05·12 145 118 1512 C06·12154 132
1413 C04·13 147 120 1463 C05·13 160 136 1513 C06·13145 121
1414 C04·14163 138 1464 C05·14 149 124 1514 C06·14156 134
1415 C04·15150 123 1465 C05·15 161 135 1515 C06·15144 119
1416 C04·16 161 132 1466 C05·16 153 120 1516 C06·16155 129
1417 C04·17150 121 1467 C05·17 166 139 1517 C06·17142 118
1418 C04·18165 137 1468 C05·18156 122 1518 C06·18160 127
1419 C04·19143 120 1469 C05·19 169 140 1519 C06·19134 120
1420 C04·20 160 131 1470 C05·20 152 109 1520 C06·20 165 137
1421 C04·21142 122 1471 C05·21 169 132 1521 C06·21152 122
1422 C04·22158 134 1472 C05·22148 114 1522 C06·22168 138
1423 C04·23154 120 1473 C05·23168 138 1523 C06·23 162 131
1424 C04·24162 130 1474 C05·24154 124 1524 C06·24164 135
1425 C04·25154 127 1475 C05·25159 138 1525 C06·25 155 128
1426 C04·26150 120 1476 C05·26 160 112 1526 C06·26158 118
1427 C04·27167 132 1477 C05·27149 111 1527 C06·27166 126
1428 C04·28150 124 1478 C05·28167 134 1528 C06·28142 111
1429 C04·29169 130 1479 C05·29142 112 1529 C06·29156 113
1430 C04·30 152 119 1480 C05·30 159 129 1530 C06·30 145 111
1431 C04·31163 131 1481 C05·31 153 115 1531 C06·31159 122
1432 C04·32156 127 1482 C05·32163 135 1532 C06·32144 114
1433 C04·33163 133 1483 C05·33144 114 1533 C06·33159 121
1434 C04·34157 124 1484 C05·34162 122 1534 C06·34145 112
1435 C04·35164 134 1485 C05·35 146 108 1535 C06·35161 129
1436 C04·36156 127 1486 C05·36165 135 1536 C06·36146 122
1437 C04·37165 136 1487 C05·37149 117 1537 C06·37159 130
1438 C04·38153 130 1488 C05·38160 132 1538 C06·38146 118
1439 C04·39166 138 1489 C05·39144 114 1539 C06·39160 132
1440 C04-40 157 135 1490 C05·40 155 130 1540 C06·40 145 121
1441 C04-41169 134 1491 C05·41 149 120 1541 C06-41158 131
1442 C04-42152 121 1492 C05-42155 132 1542 C06-42147 118
1443 C04-43169 136 1493 C05-43139 113 1543 C06-43156 125
1444 C04-44155 129 1494 C05·44164 131 1544 C06-44 141 114
1445 C04-45166 140 1495 C05·45142 120 1545 C06-45160 137
1446 C04-46154 126 1496 C05-46 156 127 1546 C06-46146 115
1447 C04-47164 139 1497 C05-47 139 117 1547 C06-47158 131
1448 C04·48149 120 1498 C05·48163 136 1548 C06-48146 119
1449 C04-49162 132 1499 C05·49137 114 1549 C06-49161 132
1450 C04·50 147 117 1500 C05·50 158 128 1550 C06·50 152 118

A·12
 HEAT AGE TEST C • 393°K

Time 864005 Time 1080005 Time 1728005

Rec: ReC: INF FNF Rec: ReC: INF FNF Rec: ReC: INF FNF
1551 C07·01155 116 1601 C08·01150 110 1651 C09·01148 103
1552 C07·02 145 108 1602 C08·02 154 127 1652 C09·02 158 127
1553 C07-03157 130 1603 C08·03 148 121 1653 C09-03155 115
1554 C07-04 147 116 1604 COB-04 152 127 1654 C09-04 172 131
1555 C07-05151 125 1605 C08-05148 118 1655 C09-05156 111
1556 C07-06 144 114 1606 C08-06 161 130 1656 C09-06 167 134
1557 C07·07152 128 1607 C08-07154 118 1657 C09-07152 113
1558 C07-OB 145 108 1608 C08-08167 130 1658 C09-OB 165 130
1559 C07-09 157 124 1609 C08-09150 122 1659 C09-09151 121
1560 C07-10 148 115 1610 C08-10 170 135 1660 C09-10 170 129
1561 C07-11155 128 1611 C08-11139 117 1661 C09-11148 120
1562 C07-12148 116 1612 C08-12 166 133 1662 C09-12169 135
1563 C07-13 168 133 1613 C08-13 148 115 1663 C09-13 149 117
1564 C07-14155 118 1614 C08-14 168 134 1664 C09-14173 133
1565 C07-15 167 126 1615 C08-15 140 119 1665 C09-15156 123
1566 C07-16157 120 1616 C08-16164 135 1666 C09-16168 131
1567 C07-17163 132 1617 C08-17 145 119 1667 C09-17 141 116
1568 C07-18 151 115 1618 C08-18 165 132 1668 C09-18166 128
1569 C07-19162 138 1619 C08-19152 120 1669 C09-19147 117
1570 C07-20 151 113 1620 C08-20 173 129 1670 C09-20 164 126
1571 C07-21 158 138 1621 C08-21 148 116 1671 C09-21145 119
1572 C07-22 152 119 1622 C08-22168 123 1672 C09-22170 132
1573 C07-23 159 125 1623 C08-23 145 115 1673 C09-23 144 117
1574 C07-24144 116 1624 C08-24 160 129 1674 C09-24165 126
1575 C07-25164 124 1625 C08-25143 114 1675 C09-25 148 124
1576 C07-26156 134 1626 C08-26150 122 1676 C09-26139 98
1577 C07-27152 110 1627 C08-27171 128 1677 C09-27157 113
1578 C07-28 158 109 1628 C08-28 153 115 1678 C09-28 144 109
1579 C07-29147 108 1629 C08-29165 124 1679 C09-29157 111
1580 C07-30 158 121 1630 C08-30 154 118 1680 C09-30 138 103
1581 C07-31 149 111 1631 C08-31 163 122 1681 C09-31158 108
1582 C07-32159 115 1632 C08-32150 115 1682 C09-32145 106
1583 C07-33146 121 1633 C08-33164 121 1683 C09-33158 115
1584 C07-34155 122 1634 C08-34145 113 1684 C09-34144 105
1585 C07-35145 119 1635 C08-35 158 122 1685 C09-35161 121
1586 C07-36154 120 1636 C08-36153 116 1686 C09-36144 106
1587 C07-37143 126 1637 C08-37159 124 1687 C09-37164 124
1588 C07-38154 118 1638 C08-38150 118 1688 C09-38144 113
1589 C07-39143 114 1639 C08-39161 128 1689 C09-39164 121
1590 C07-40 149 122 1640 C08-40 150 119 1690 C09-40 145 114
1591 C07-41139 112 1641 C08-41 163 128 1691 C09-41165 120
1592 C07-42153 113 1642 C08-42145 111 1692 C09-42150 114
1593 C07-43144 117 1643 C08-43 167 128 1693 C09-43167 126
1594 C07-44 154 115 1644 C08-44153 116 1694 C09-44147 114
1595 C07-45145 116 1645 C08-45162 128 1695 C09-45166 122
1596 C07-46153 120 1646 C08-46152 116 1696 C09-46143 110
1597 C07-47144 114 1647 C08-47156 127 1697 C09-47158 120
1598 C07-48153 127 1648 C08-48148 120 1698 C09-48148 118
1599 C07-49150 111 1649 C08-49162 128 1699 C09-49163 123
1600 C07-50 149 121 1650 C08-50 150 115 1700 C09-50 143 113

A-13
 HEAT AGE TEST C· 393°K

TIme 5346005 Time UI0800s TIme 24888005

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
1701 CI0-01157 101 1751 Cl1·01145 99 1801 C12-01147 97
1702 C10-02 150 114 1752 Cl1·02 153 113 1802 C12·02 151 106
1703 C10-03163 111 1753 Cl1·03 139 99 1803 C12-03153 95
1704 C10-04 148 106 1754 Cl1·04 149 106 1804 C12·04 153 110
1705 C10-05159 108 1755 Cl1-05147 105 1805 C12·05145 100
1706 C10-06147 109 1756 Cl1-06 161 110 1806 C12·06 162 112
1707 C10-07169 110 1757 Cl1-07144 104 1807 C12-07140 110
170B C10-OB 146 110 1758 Cl1-08160 113 1808 C12-OB 167 114
1709 C10-09168 118 1759 Cl1-09 141 100 1809 C12-09 147 96
1710 C10-10 150 108 1760 Cl1-10 159 114 1810 C12-10 163 112
1711 C10-11 170 115 1761 Cl1-11 143 98 1811 C12-11152 97
1712 C10-12 147 109 1762 Cl1-12 160 118 1812 C12-12 168 111
1713 C10-13 166 122 1763 Cl1-13 146 103 1813 C12-13 155 99
1714 C10-14147 108 1764 Cl1-14 164 116 1814 C12-14 173 113
1715 C10-15170 111 1765 Cl1-15 148 104 1815 C12-15 158 112
1716 C10-16 150 108 1766 Cl1-16 165 122 1816 C12-16 162 114
1717 ClO-17 165 113 1767 Cl1·17 152 108 1817 C12-17 154 100
1718 C10-18 150 110 1768 Cl1-18170 118 1818 C12-18 177 115
1719 C10-19 164 113 1769 Cl1-19 150 106 1819 C12-19 158 105
1720 C10-20 143 109 1770 Cl1-20 171 119 1820 C12-20 172 118
1721 C10-21 165 114 1771 Cl1-21148 108 1821 C12-21 156 105
1722 C10-22147 108 1772 Cl1-22163 112 1822 C12-22175 116
1723 C10-23 160 110 1773 Cl1-23 151 108 1823 C12-23 162 104
1724 C10-24 141 60 1774 Cl1-24 166 119 1824 C12-24174 124
1725 C10-25164 86 1775 Cl1-25151 108 1825 C12-25 156 105
1726 C10-26168 97 1776 Cl1-26146 99 1826 C12-26150 95
1727 C10-27152 74 1777 Cl1-27 156 103 1827 C12·27165 104
1728 C10-28172 119 1778 Cl1-28 142 92 1828 C12-28 146 95
1729 C10-29154 117 1779 Cll·29154 107 1829 C12-29163 103
1730 C10-30 166 112 1780 Cll-30 146 98 1830 C12-30 144 98
1731 C10-31 151 112 1781 Cll-31 153 107 1831 C12-31 162 105
1732 C10-32164 118 1782 Cl1-32148 107 1832 C12-32144 95
1733 C10-33150 115 1783 Cl1-33158 108 1833 C12-33159 106
1734 C10-34157 113 1784 Cll-34 142 101 1834 C12·34147 99
1735 C10-35150 116 1785 Cl1-35 162 109 1835 C12-35162 108
1736 C10-36163 120 1786 Cll-36 145 102 1836 C12·36147 101
1737 C10-37153 116 1787 Cl1-37156 114 1837 C12-37159 104
1738 C10-38 164 121 1788 Cll-38 144 104 1838 C12-38142 97
1739 C10-39145 109 1789 Cll-39158 114 1839 C12-39159 102
1740 CI0-40 160 133 1790 Cll-40 146 105 1840 C12-40 143 97
1741 C10-41 149 119 1791 Cl1-41 161 118 1841 C12-41 162 107
1742 C10-42168 125 1792 Cl1-42147 108 1842 C12-42149 100
1743 C10-43150 118 1793 Cl1-43 167 121 1843 C12-43164 106
1744 C10-44 159 122 1794 Cl1-44 151 110 1844 C12-44 146 98
1745 C10-45155 117 1795 Cl1-45 159 125 1845 C12-45 161 111
1746 CI0-46158 118 1796 Cl1-46 149 111 1846 C12-46150 98
1747 C10-47151 125 1797 Cl1-47168 119 1847 C12-47169 109
1748 C10-48156 121 1798 Cl1-48 148 114 1848 C12-48 151 102
1749 C10-49152 117 1799 Cl1-49 168 127 1849 CI2-49172 114
1750 CI0-50 162 114 1800 Cl1-50 156 118 1850 C12-50 146 101

A-14
 HEAT AGE TEST C • 393°K

Time 77832005
Rec: Ref: INF FNF
1851 C13-01 146 83
1852 C13-02 158 93
1853 C13-03 151 87
1854 C13-04 157 95
1855 C13-05 144 89
1856 C13-06 162 93
1857 C13-07 147 85
1858 C13-OS 168 100
1859 C13-09 148 87
1860 C13-10 164 94
1861 C13-11 149 85
1862 C13-12 164 92
1863 C13-13 157 85
1864 C13-14 161 95
1865 C13-15 149 81
1866 C13-16 159 94
1867 C13-17 154 87
1868 C13-18 162 94
1869 C13-19 145 80
1870 C13-20 164 95
1871 C13-21 151 86
1872 C13-22 165 94
1873 C13-23 145 83
1874 C13-24 169 95
1875 C13-25 147 88
1876 C13-26 149 88
1877 C13-27 162 88
1878 C13-28 144 79
1879 C13-29 161 91
1880 C13-30 149 88
1881 C13-31 162 89
1882 C13-32 149 88
1883 C13-33 165 99
1884 C13-34 151 87
1885 C13-35 163 99
1886 C13-36 148 90
1887 C13-37 164 101
1888 C13-38 150 92
1889 C13-39 162 100
1890 C13-40 153 91
1891 C13-41 161 97
1892 C13-42 145 89
1893 C13-43 159 95
1894 C13-44 146 91
1895 C13-45 154 88
1896 C13-46 148 90
1897 C13-47 156 92
1898 C13-48 144 90
1899 C13-49 152 91
1900 C13-50 142 73

A-15
 HEAT AGE TEST D· 403°K

Time 30005 Time 60005 Time 120005

Ree: Ref: INF FNF Ree: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
1901 001·01149 119 1951 002-01166 129 2001 003-01152 129
1902 001·02 162 123 1952 002·02 149 121 2002 003·02 152 116
1903 001-03 151 129 1953 002·03 160 136 2003 003-03158 134
1904 001·04 160 130 1954 002-04 147 115 2004 003-04 147 112
1905 001-05153 132 1955 002-05164 133 2005 003-05158 130
1906 001-06 162 138 1956 002-06 150 123 2006 003-06 145 119
1907 001-07155 129 1957 002-07159 134 2007 003-07153 119
1908 001-08 159 142 1958 002-08148 128 2008 003-08 148 120
1909 001-09149 126 1959 002-09168 137 2009 003-09159 139
1910 001-10 158 130 1960 002-10150 128 2010 003-10 142 115
1911 001-11153 139 1961 002-11170 138 2011 003-11155 134
1912 001-12 163 141 1962 002-12147 121 2012 003-12147 120
1913 001-13 149 128 1963 002-13169 137 2013 003-13 155 137
1914 001-14 155 140 1964 002-14155 124 2014 003-14140 120
1915 001-15147 127 1965 002-15 165 137 2015 003-15160 131
1916 001-16165 135 1966 002-16157 126 2016 003-16148 120
1917 001-17 148 131 1967 002-17162 136 2017 003-17 162 138
1918 001-18158 136 1968 002-18 160 126 2018 003-18149 123
1919 001-19 153 136 1969 002-19 173 132 2019 003-19163 129
1920 001-20167 141 1970 002·20153 127 2020 003-20149 122
1921 001-21142 129 1971 002-21169 129 2021 003-21163 134
1922 001-22154 155 1972 002-22150 126 2022 003-22146 123
1923 001-23 157 130 1973 002-23 168 134 2023 003-23 168 134
1924 001-24152 142 1974 002-24150 123 2024 003·24143 119
1925 001-25146 131 1975 002-25159 131 2025 003-25 163 128
1926 001-26143 116 1976 002-26162 135 2026 003-26150 124
1927 001-27162 135 1977 002-27149 120 2027 003-27156 115
1928 001-28 153 116 1978 002-28163 125 2028 003-28 144 126
1929 001-29156 141 1979 D02-29 146 -118 2029 003-29156 116
1930 001-30150 117 1980 D02-30 163 130 2030 003-30142 126
1931 001-31 160 142 1981 D02-31147 117 2031 D03-31158 116
1932 DOl-32149 122 1982 D02-32165 125 2032 D03-32157 126
1933 D01-33169 137 1983 D02-33146 121 2033 D03-33144 119
1934 001-34 151 118 1984 D02-34162 128 2034 D03-34160 124
1935 001-35159 137 1985 D02-35150 123 2035 003-35153 122
1936 001-36153 120 1986 D02-36163 130 2036 003-36173 131
1937 DOI-37155 136 1987 D02-37149 122 2037 D03-37150 122
1938 001-38151 124 1988 D02-38165 135 2038 D03-38170 140
1939 001"39162 135 1989 D02-39150 124 2039 003-39154 123
1940 DOI-40 152 122 1990 D02-40 171 142 2040 D03-40 165 142
1941 001-41 164 136 1991 D02-41147 123 2041 D03-41 151 119
1942 001-42156 123 1992 D02-42168 133 2042 D03-42174 135
1943 001-43171 138 1993 D02-43 151 123 2043 003-43156 118
1944 DOI-44 156 127 1994 D02-44163 131 2044 D03-44169 143
1945 DOl-45163 147 1995 D02-45 151 125 2045 D03-45158 127
1946 001-46155 122 1996 D02-46164 134 2046 D03-46167 136
1947 001-47 170 129 1997 D02-47150 124 2047 D03-47153 126
1948 DOl-48154 133 1998 D02-48160 142 2048 D03-48164 136
1949 DOI-49167 127 1999 D02-49150 126 2049 003-49155 128
1950 DOl-50 150 125 2000 D02-50 160 140 2050 D03-50 159 133

A-16
 HEAT AGE TEST D. 403°K

TIme 24300s TIme 990005 TIme 1980008

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
2051 004·01153 118 2101 005·01162 126 2151 006-01155 110
2052 004-02 163 126 2102 005-02 153 117 2152 006-02 176 124
2053 004-03150 122 2103 005-03 161 125 2153 006-03157 111
2054 004-04 159 131 2104 005-04 152 124 2154 006-04 168 123
2055 004-05149 117 2105 005-05176 126 2155 006-05155 110
2056 004-06 163 134 2106 005-06153 116 2156 006-06 169 118
2057 004-07155 120 2107 005-07159 128 2157 006-07154 106
2058 004-08 159 135 2108 005·08154 117 2158 006·08158 124
2059 004·09152 117 2109 005-09166 130 2159 006-09151 106
2060 004-10169 136 2110 005-10 151 110 2160 006-10175 126
2061 004-11149 119 2111 005-11 161 122 2161 006-11 151 108
2062 004-12l66 132 2112 005-12150 117 2162 006-12174 116
2063 004-13 151 125 2113 005-13 167 126 2163 006-13 149 110
2064 004-14167 136 2114 005·14 153 114 2164 006-14160 114
2065 004-15155 120 2115 005·15167 127 2165 006-15141 103
2066 004-16169 136 2116 005-16156 118 2166 006-16162 120
2067 004-17156 123 2117 005-17 163 125 2167 006-17149 107
2068 004-18172 139 2118 005-18 147 111 2168 006-18158 120
2069 004-19153 123 2119 005-19 169 121 2169 006-19146 103
2070 004-20167 132 2120 005-20155 125 2170 006-20159 120
2071 004-21149 117 2121 005-21155 118 2171 006-21146 108
2072 004-22161 133 2122 005-22150 113 2172 006-22157 115
2073 004·23 150 119 2123 005·23167 128 2173 006·23 147 99
2074 004-24155 131 2124 005-24149 120 2174 006-24156 112
2075 004·25141 116 2125 005-25164 128 2175 006-25 146 103
2076 004·26150 117 2126 005-26166 119 2176 006-26148 113
2077 004·27165 125 2127 005-27148 111 2177 006-27159 106
2078 004-28154 117 2128 005-28164 127 2178 006-28 141 114
2079 004-29158 123 2129 005-29144 108 2179 006-29162 112
2080 004-30151 118 2130 005-30166 124 2180 006-30146 105
2081 004-31163 120 2131 005-31 149 114 2181 006-31159 113
2082 004-32149 120 2132 005-32166 119 2182 006-32153 106
2083 004-33154 121 2133 005-33148 111 2183 006-33153 110
2084 004-34149 119 2134 005-34 165 116 2184 006-34146 108
2085 004-35166 127 2135 005-35152 114 2185 006-35158 112
2086 004-36146 116 2136 005-36168 124 2186 006-36148 106
2087 004-37159 122 2137 005-37150 113 2187 006-37159 119
2088 004-38148 118 2138 005-38165 123 2188 006-38140 105
2089 004-39162 129 2139 005-39150 115 2189 006-39152 110
2090 004-40146 119 2140 005-40164 118 2190 006-40150 112
2091 004-41164 124 2141 005-41148 117 2191 006-41155 122
2092 004-42151 123 2142 005-42 171 126 2192 006-42146 107
2093 004-43164 128 2143 005-43149 114 2193 006-43166 113
2094 004-44 149 116 2144 005-44166 127 2194 006-44 151 108
2095 004-45163 129 2145 005-45149 117 2195 006-45156 119
2096 004-46148 110 2146 005-46157 125 2196 006-46147 111
2097 004-47155 130 2147 005-47150 116 2197 006-47166 123
2098 004-48148 121 2148 005-48157 129 2198 006-48152 115
2099 004-49158 132 2149 005-49148 115 2199 006-49171 125
2100 004-50147 119 2150 005-50165 128 2200 006-50153 113

A-17
 HEAT AGE TEST D· 403°K

TIme 2827205 TIme 5256005 TIme 8622005

Rec: ReC: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
2201 007-01 152 98 2251 008·01157 116 2301 009-01151 90
2202 007-02 160 115 2252 008·02 156 108 2302 009-02 153 100
2203 007-03 154 101 2253 008·03 173 119 2303 009·03155 103
2204 007-04 163 110 2254 008-04 152 111 2304 009-04 155 103
2205 007-05 153 97 2255 008-05177 113 2305 009-05157 103
2206 007-06 162 113 2256 008-06157 107 2306 009-06 149 97
2207 007·07 148 99 2257 008-07172 111 2307 009-07157 109
2208 007·08 163 118 2258 008-08153 106 2308 009-08 150 100
2209 007-09 148 107 2259 008-09177 111 2309 009-09 166 104
2210 007-10162 117 2260 008-10156 101 2310 009-10146 101
2211 007·11148 106 2261 008-11170 110 2311 009-11156 111
2212 007-12158 120 2262 008-12 147 98 2312 009-12150 102
2213 007·13 149 108 2263 008-13 165 108 2313 009-13 154 102
2214 007-14158 113 2264 008-14 150 99 2314 009-14151 101
2215 007-15 150 110 2265 008-15 157 108 2315 009-15 161 104
2216 007-16157 111 2266 008-16 147 98 2316 009-16 151 100
2217 007-17152 109 2267 008-17 164 106 2317 009-17172 106
2218 007·18161 107 2268 008-18 146 100 2318 009-18 151 99
2219 007-19152 111 2269 008-19 157 110 2319 009-19166 114
2220 007-20165 114 2270 008-20145 102 2320 009-20152 103
2221 007-21151 113 2271 008-21 155 105 2321 009·21170 105
2222 007-22157 110 2272 008-22147 100 2322 009-22155 103
2223 007-23 147 101 2273 008-23166 111 2323 009-23 158 113
2224 007-24 170 86 2274 008-24148 103 2324 009-24146 100
2225 007-25 156 82 2275 008-25165 107 2325 009-25 156 109
2226 007-26 146 76 2276 008-26 158 100 2326 009-26152 105
2227 007-27 161 74 2277 008-27 142 96 2327 009-27143 98
2228 007-28 148 94 2278 008-28161 104 2328 009-28 154 100
2229 007-29168 103 2279 008-29 142 99 2329 009-29 143 97
2230 007-30150 103 2280 008-30146 104 2330 009-30 150 99
2231 007-31167 103 2281 008-31 140 99 2331 009-31144 97
2232 007-32154 104 2282 008-32154 101 2332 009-32159 101
2233 007-33162 107 2283 008-33 142 98 2333 009-33139 94
2234 007-34148 106 2284 008-34160 106 2334 009-34156 103
2235 007-35166 112 2285 008-35 145 100 2335 009-35 144 98
2236 007-36149 105 2286 008-36 163 107 2336 009-36152 104
2237 007-37159 118 2287 008-37143 99 2337 009-37146 99
2238 007-38143 106 2288 008-38152 108 2338 009-38157 103
2239 007-39153 113 2289 008-39 140 97 2339 009-39141 96
2240 00740142 103 2290 008-40157 108 2340 00940162 106
2241 00741159 116 2291 00841 144 98 2341 00941147 102
2242 00742147 105 2292 008-42158 107 2342 009-42156 110
2243 00743158 113 2293 008-43140 102 2343 00943148 104
2244 007-44 147 103 2294 00844153 116 2344 009-44 159 107
2245 00745160 115 2295 008-45147 103 2345 00945146 103
2246 00746 143 96 2296 008-46 156 107 2346 00946158 107
2247 00747151 110 2297 008-47148 104 2347 00947145 100
2248 00748142 102 2298 00848158 113 2348 00948159 111
2249 00749161 116 2299 008-49147 100 2349 00949 146 93
2250 007·50 143 99 2300 008-50163 110 2350 009-50153 96

A-18
 HEAT AGE TEST D • 403°K

Time 19994405 Time 78841805 Time 84727805

Ree: Ree: INF FNF Rec: Ree: INF FNF Ree: Ree: INF FNF
2351 D1Q.Ol 154 88 2401 Dl1-Ol 163 80 2451 D12-01 154 70
2352 D10-02 159 95 2402 Dl1-02 147 70 2452 D12-02 162 75
2353 DI0-03 152 89 2403 Dl1-03 162 84 2453 D12-03153 69
2354 DIO-04 166 99 2404 D11-04 150 67 2454 DI2-04 167 81
2355 D10-05 153 97 2405 D11-05 159 82 2455 Dl2-05146 71
2356 DIO-06 161 98 2406 Dl1-06 144 69 2456 D12-06 158 77
2357 D10-07 135 61 2407 Dl1-07 145 74 2457 D12-07146 75
2358 D10-08 162 100 2408 D11-08 146 74 2458 D12-08 160 81
2359 D10-09 155 88 2409 D11-09 150 78 2459 D12-09143 65
2360 D10-10 128 73 2410 D11-10 147 72 2460 D12-10 164 75
2361 D10-11155 97 2411 D11-11 151 77 2461 DI2-11 145 74
2362 DIO-12 159 98 2412 Dl1-12 142 74 2462 D12-12163 78
2363 DIO-13 154 93 2413 Dl1-13 157 77 2463 DI2-13 145 74
2364 DI0-14 165 99 2414 011-14 145 80 2464 D12-14 165 77
2365 DIO-15 153 89 2415 011-15 150 80 2465 D12-15 153 65
2366 DI0-16 165 98 2416 011-16 149 76 2466 D12-16 160 79
2367 DI0-17 160 98 2417 Dl1-17 164 79 2467 D12·17 140 64
2368 D10-18 174 99 2418 Dl1-18 153 79 2468 D12-18 162 80
2369 D10-19 151 94 2419 011-19 155 83 2469 D12-19 146 67
2370 DI0-20 161 96 2420 011-20 148 74 2470 D12-20 165 81
2371 DI0-21 159 95 2421 011-21 157 78 2471 D12-21 144 67
2372 D10-22 165 96 2422 DI1-22 148 75 2472 D12-22163 80
2373 D10-23 164 97 2423 011-23 166 79 2473 DI2-23 153 70
2374 DI0-24169 103 2424 011-24 152 77 2474 D12-24158 79
2375 DI0-25154 102 2425 011-25 162 81 2475 D12-25 154 78
2376 010-26 147 85 2426 011-26 156 78 2476 D12-26145 68
2377 DI0-27 157 90 2427 011-27 148 70 2477 D12-27166 74
2378 DI0-28 143 87 2428 011-28 162 78 2478 D12-28141 67
2379 DI0-29 159 94 2429 011-29 146 70 2479 D12·29154 76
2380 D10-30 146 90 2430 011-30 161 80 2480 Dl2-30 144 68
2381 DI0-31157 92 2431 011-31 150 72 2481 D12-31155 71
2382 DI0-32 140 85 2432 011-32163 82 2482 D12-32145 66
2383 D10-33 157 96 2433 011-33 150 75 2483 D12-33159 71
2384 DI0-34 140 89 2434 011-34 166 81 2484 D12-34 140 66
2385 DI0-35 161 95 2435 011-35 150 76 2485 D12-35153 75
2386 DI0-36 145 87 2436 011-36 161 81 2486 D12-36 142 70
2387 DI0-37 159 93 2437 011-37 144 71 2487 D12-37154 74
2388 D10-38 137 86 2438 011-38161 82 2488 D12-38 141 68
2389 DI0-39 158 94 2439 011-39 147 79 2489 D12-39153 73
2390 010-40 142 88 2440 D11-40 159 83 2490 D12-40 140 67
2391 DI0-41 158 91 2441 011-41 150 75 2491 D12-41 160 74
2392 DI0-42 137 87 2442 011-42161 91 2492 D12-42 136 72
2393 DI0-43 165 95 2443 011-43 144 73 2493 D12-43149 76
2394 DI0-44 131 87 2444 011-44 166 82 2494 D12-44143 73
2395 DI0-45 159 97 2445 011-45 149 73 2495 D12-45 152 77
2396 DI0-46 144 88 2446 011-46 161 82 2496 D12-46143 72
2397 D10-47 158 97 2447 011-47145 75 2497 D12-47155 77
2398 DI0-48 137 85 2448 011-48 157 83 2498 D12-48 142 74
2399 DI0-49 156 99 2449 011-49 155 75 2499 D12-49153 74
2400 D10-50 149 87 2450 011-50 160 83 2500 012-50 147 74

A-19
 HEAT AGE TEST E ·413°K

TIme 30005 Time 48005 TIme 81005

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
2501 E01-Ol146 117 2551 E02·01160 130 2601 E03-01147 114
2502 E01-02 157 135 2552 E02-02 151 117 2602 E03-02 155 119
2503 E01-03150 125 2553 E02-03159 127 2603 E03-03141 109
2504 E01-04 157 134 2554 E02-04 150 119 2604 E03-04 153 115
2505 E01-05145 116 2555 E02-05161 126 2605 E03-05141 109
2506 E01-06 154 124 2556 E02-06149 118 2606 E03-06 153 122
2507 E01-07144 116 2557 E02-07160 131 2607 E03-07146 111
250B EOl-OB 151 129 2558 E02-08145 114 2608 E03-08151 121
2509 E01-09138 114 2559 E02-09169 132 2609 E03-09 144 110
25lO EOl-lO 150 129 2560 E02-10 148 119 2610 E03-10 160 125
2511 E01-11 139 115 2561 E02-11164 128 2611 E03-11 151 115
2512 EOl-12 148 128 2562 E02-12 149 116 2612 E03-12160 129
2513 EOl-13 142 114 2563 E02-13 160 133 2613 E03-13 151 117
2514 EOl-14 152 129 2564 E02-14 148 119 2614 E03-14169 135
2515 EOl-15 140 112 2565 E02-15 160 135 2615 E03-15149 120
2516 EOl-16 149 126 2566 E02-16 149 122 2616 E03-16164 131
2517 EOl-17 141 114 2567 E02-17 157 126 2617 E03-17155 121
2518 EOl-18 154 119 2568 E02-18 145 118 2618 E03-18166 131
2519 EOl-19 139 113 2569 E02-19 158 125 2619 E03-19 151 121
2520 EOl-20 156 129 2570 E02-20 145 118 2620 E03-20 166 132
2521 EOl-21144 115 2571 E02-21 162 136 2621 E03-21152 116
2522 EOl-22156 127 2572 E02-22146 118 2622 E03-22162 133
2523 EOl-23 149 121 2573 E02-23 158 135 2623 E03-23 149 112
2524 EOl-24 166 133 2574 E02-24149 122 2624 E03-24 162 126
'2525 EOl-25 142 113 2575 E02-25165 132 2625 E03-25149 110
2526 EOl-26154 126 2576 E02-26168 130 2626 E03-26150 lOB
2527 EOl-27172 128 2577 E02-27143 114 2627 E03-27159 123
2528 EOl-28 152 121 2578 E02-28161 127 2628 E03-28 143 lOB
2529 EOl-29165 130 2579 E02-29144 116 2629 E03-29165 122
2530 EOl-30 154 116 2580 E02-30 157 127 2630 E03-30 142 107
2531 EOl-31 168 127 2581 E02-31 146 111 2631 E03-31170 127
2532 EOl-32144 119 2582 E02-32163 126 2632 E03-32150 lOB
2533 EOl-33171 129 2583 E02-33145 119 2633 E03-33160 118
2534 EOl-34147 116 2584 E02-34167 132 2634 E03-34153 118
2535 EOl-35 163 132 2585 E02-35143 114 2635 E03-35169 133
2536 EOl-36 148 114 2586 E02-36 165 127 2636 E03-36150 119
2537 EOl-37 167 136 2587 E02-37149 118 2637 E03-37169 133
2538 EOl-38142 116 2588 E02-38165 136 2638 E03-38155 123
2539 EOl-39 160 130 2589 E02-39149 116 2639 E03-39167 123
2540 EOl-40 145 114 2590 E02-40 163 130 2640 E03-40 153 121
2541 EOl-41 162 131 2591 E02-41 157 123 2641 E03-41168 133
2542 EOl-42150 120 2592 E02-42176 137 2642 E03-42150 122
2543 EOl-43168 136 2593 E02-43150 120 2643 E03-43166 129
2544 E01M 150 124 2594 E02-44169 137 2644 E03-44153 125
2545 EOl-45169 139 2595 E02-45 152 124 2645 E03-45162 129
2546 EOl-46149 123 2596 E02-46175 142 2646 E03-46150 122
2547 EOl-47 161 138 2597 E02-47 152 125 2647 E03-47163 129
2548 EOl-48150 125 2598 E02-48 171 135 2648 E03-48154 123
2549 EOI-49 165 135 2599 E02-49150 124 2649 E03-49163 135
2550 EOl-50 152 123 2600 E02-50 171 135 2650 E03-50 146 121

A-20
 HEAT AGE TEST E • 413°K

TIme 13800s TIme 20400s TIme 36000s

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
2651 E04·01 156 107 2701 E05·01169 122 2751 E06·01149 99
2652 E04-02 151 105 2702 E05-02 149 104 2752 E06·02 158 113
2653 E04-03157 120 2703 E05-03160 119 2753 E06-03148 100
2654 E04-04 149 lOB 2704 E05·04 147 109 2754 E06-04 156 121
2655 E04-05157 120 2705 E05-05164 122 2755 E06-05148 101
2656 E04-06 151 111 2706 E05-06 141 105 2756 E06-06 157 120
2657 E04-07154 122 2707 E05-07150 118 2757 E06-07144 lOB
2658 E04-OB 146 107 2708 E05-08138 102 2758 E06-OB 157 119
2659 E04-09154 120 2709 E05-09161 118 2759 E06-09146 105
2660 E04-10 150 111 2710 E05-10 145 108 2760 E06-10 157 120
2661 E04-11155 123 2711 E05-11 155 116 2761 E06-11149 111
2662 E04-12 151 113 2712 E05-12 142 104 2762 E06-12164 122
2663 E04-13 158 126 2713 E05-13 159 121 2763 E06-13 152 118
2664 E04-14 150 113 2714 E05-14 147 109 2764 E06-14159 123
2665 E04-15 157 122 2715 E05-15 165 122 2765 E06-15149 112
2666 E04-16148 114 2716 E05-16 148 108 2766 E06-16 157 121
2667 E04-17156 124 2717 E05-17154 124 2767 E06-17 149 115
2668 E04-18148 113 2718 E05-18 146 109 2768 E06-18154 114
2669 E04-19 154 120 2719 E05-19 159 117 2769 E06-19148 113
2670 E04-20 147 114 2720 E05-20 147 115 2770 E06-20 155 116
2671 E04·21153 113 2721 E05-21158 113 2771 E06-21148 112
2672 E04-22152 117 2722 E05-22147 109 2772 E06-22153 118
2673 E04-23 154 119 2723 E05-23 162 115 2773 E06-23144 109
2674 E04-24146 113 2724 E05-24147 107 2774 E06-24158 124
2675 E04-25155 120 2725 E05-25 159 110 2775 E06-25149 114
2676 E04-26170 117 2726 E05-26 163 115 2776 E06-26147 105
2677 E04-27156 112 2727 E05-27147 105 2777 E06-27164 110
2678 E04-28 162 115 2728 E05-28169 105 2778 E06-28 148 lOB
2679 E04-29150 111 2729 E05-29144 107 2779 E06-29164 115
2680 E04-30 164 120 2730 E05-30 168 115 2780 E06-30 158 111
2681 E04-31147 113 2731 E05-31 160 111 2781 E06-31164 118
2682 E04-32166 115 2732 E05-32171 123 2782 E06-32152 106
2683 E04-33144 113 2733 E05-33 158 114 2783 E06-33165 115
2684 E04-34164 125 2734 E05-34171 117 2784 E06-34147 108
2685 E04-35150 119 2735 E05-35152 111 2785 E06-35157 101
2686 E04-36165 133 2736 E05-36 163 127 2786 E06-36146 106
2687 E04-37153 117 2737 E05-37156 114 2787 E06-37161 116
2688 E04·38170 132 2738 E05-38169 121 2788 E06-38148 111
2689 E04-39152 118 2739 E05-39 149 115 2789 E06-39164 118
2690 E04-40 162 130 2740 E05-40 166 123 2790 E06-40 153 113
2691 E04-41156 120 2741 E05-41 151 110 2791 E06-41167 120
2692 E04-42171 130 2742 E05-42 165 122 2792 E06-42153 111
2693 E04-43158 123 2743 E05-43 151 112 2793 E06-43165 120
2694 E04-44 174 128 2744 E05-44155 123 2794 E06-44 154 118
2695 E04-45154 122 2745 E05-45150 113 2795 E06-45169 123
2696 E04-46168 131 2746 E05-46157 120 2796 E06-46153 111
2697 E04-47155 121 2747 E05-47143 105 2797 E06-47167 122
2698 E04-48170 134 2748 E05-48 159 125 2798 E06-48154 112
2699 E04-49155 122 2749 E05-49 146 105 2799 E06-49167 122
2700 E04-50 164 125 2750 E05-50 158 125 2800 E06-50 151 109

A-21
 HEAT AGE TEST E· 413°K

TIme 747005 Time 966005 Time 1794005

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
2801 E07·01162 89 2851 E08-01 153 lOB 2901 E09-01149 103
2802 E07-02 153 105 2852 EOB-02 167 117 2902 E09-02 164 114
2803 E07-03161 116 2853 E08-03 151 100 2903 E09-03 148 97
2804 E07-04 151 107 2854 EOB-04 161 113 2904 E09-04 157 107
2805 E07-05168 114 2855 E08-05 147 104 2905 E09-05150 93
2806 E07-06 151 105 2856 E08-06159 118 2906 E09-06 167 109
2807 E07-07160 117 2857 E08-07152 103 2907 E09-07151 96
280B E07-OB 142 100 2858 E08-08159 115 2908 E09-08160 lOB
2809 E07-09 158 113 2859 E08-09148 101 2909 E09-09152 105
2810 E07-10 140 101 2860 E08-1O 166 114 2910 E09-10 155 110
2811 E07-11155 110 2861 E08-11 149 103 2911 E09-ll 150 104
2812 E07-12146 103 2862 E08-12171 115 2912 E09-12 155 112
2813 E07-13 155 117 2863 E08-13 149 107 2913 E09-13 148 103
2814 E07-14 145 103 2864 E08-14 158 115 2914 E09-14 157 110
2815 E07-15 154 114 2865 E08-15 145 103 2915 E09-15 145 104
2816 E07-16 143 104 2866 E08-16 153 114 2916 E09-16 160 113
2817 E07-17 153 110 2867 E08-17 141 99 2917 E09-17 146 103
2818 E07-18 143 102 2868 E08-18152 107 2918 E09-18164 109
2819 E07-19 155 112 2869 E08-19 140 100 2919 E09-19146 103
2820 E07-20 137 102 2870 E08-20 153 107 2920 E09-20 160 109
2821 E07-21 155 108 2871 E08-21143 104 2921 E09-21142 98
2822 E07-22144 105 2872 E08-22150 107 2922 E09-22160 107
2823 E07-23 166 112 2873 E08-23142 102 2923 E09-23 140 100
2824 E07-24144 109 2874 E08-24152 112 2924 E09-24157 106
2825 E07-25167 114 2875 E08-25 140 99 2925 E09-25 148 99
2826 E07-26169 113 2876 E08-26 151 103 2926 E09-26148 104
2827 E07-27152 106 2877 E08-27173 112 2927 E09-27167 107
2828 E07-28 169 116 2878 E08-28153 104 2928 E09-28 151 97
2829 E07-29150 104 2879 E08-29167 110 2929 E09-29166 102
2830 E07-30 171 112 2880 E08-30 149 104 2930 E09-30 147 98
2831 E07-31150 105 2881 E08-31 167 115 2931 E09-31163 104
2832 E07-32167 113 2882 E08-32155 101 2932 E09-32143 94
2833 E07-33148 105 2883 E08-33167 116 2933 E09-33159 102
2834 E07-34163 116 2884 E08-34 150 107 2934 E09-34 151 101
2835 E07-35149 106 2885 E08-35 168 105 2935 E09-35172 113
2836 E07-36169 123 2886 E08-36 156 104 2936 E09-36150 100
2837 E07-37156 lOB 2887 E08-37 161 112 2937 E09-37174 110
2838 E07-38166 116 2888 E08-38144 107 2938 E09-38155 106
2839 E07-39150 108 2889 E08-39165 114 2939 E09-39172 115
2840 E07-40 167 116 2890 E08-40 145 104 2940 E09-40 153 101
2841 E07-41145 108 2891 E08-41 167 115 2941 E09-41 169 109
2842 E07-42164 119 2892 E08-42151 105 2942 E09-42155 106
2843 E07-43145 105 2893 E08-43 165 109 2943 E09-43172 106
2844 E07-44 166 117 2894 E08-44143 104 2944 E09-44 157 104
2845 E07-45144 107 2895 E08-45166 114 2945 E09-45165 111
2846 E07-46158 118 2896 E08-46 149 105 2946 E09-46149 98
2847 E07-47149 107 2897 E08-47164 118 2947 E09-47166 109
2848 E07-48166 116 2898 E08-48148 106 2948 E09-48154 105
2849 E07-49152 100 2899 E08-49166 116 2949 E09-49168 110
2850 E07-50 157 93 2900 E08-50 144 105 2950 E09-50 154 100

A-22
 HEAT AGE TEST E. 413°K

Time 440400s Time U14100s Time 2841420s

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
2951 EI0-01142 86 3001 Ell·01160 92 3051 E12·01 169 72
2952 E10-02 153 102 3002 Ell-02 151 85 3052 E12-02 160 72
2953 ElO-03145 87 3003 Ell-03 175 94 3053 E12-03166 81
2954 E10-04 158 100 3004 Ell-04 154 87 3054 E12-04 149 72
2955 E10-05147 88 3005 Ell-05 175 102 3055 E12-05162 79
2956 E10-06 155 100 3006 Ell-06153 84 3056 E12-06 148 72
2957 E10-07152 92 3007 Ell-07164 97 3057 El2-07158 79
2958 E10-08 159 99 3008 Ell-08156 88 3058 E12-08144 67
2959 E10-09149 94 3009 Ell-09162 94 3059 E12-09158 78
2960 E10-1O 161 102 3010 Ell-10 151 89 3060 E12·10 146 64
2961 E10-ll 149 93 3011 Ell-ll 170 100 3061 E12-ll 161 81
2962 E10-12 166 95 3012 Ell-12 148 84 3062 E12-12 147 69
2963 E10-13 152 95 3013 Ell-13 163 97 3063 E12-13 155 77
2964 E10-14 159 100 3014 Ell-14 153 85 3064 E12-14 146 67
2965 E10-15 154 94 3015 Ell-15 164 100 3065 E12-15 152 76
2966 E10-16 163 101 3016 Ell-16 145 80 3066 E12-16 145 67
2967 E10-17 153 94 3017 Ell-17 160 95 3067 E12-17 165 79
2968 E10-18 161 99 3018 Ell-18 150 86 3068 E12·18 147 69
2969 E10-19 156 94 3019 Ell-19 156 93 3069 E12·19 160 76
2970 E10-20 158 98 3020 Ell-20 142 84 3070 E12·20 149 71
2971 E10-21 152 97 3021 Ell-21 159 95 3071 E12-21 164 76
2972 E10-22159 104 3022 Ell-22147 87 3072 E12-22150 67
2973 E10-23 150 97 3023 Ell-23 163 84 3073 E12-23 160 76
2974 E10-24 164 101 3024 Ell-24 148 83 3074 E12-24145 71
2975 E10-25 147 93 3025 Ell-25 159 93 3075 E12-25163 65
2976 E10-26 156 97 3026 Ell-26 156 94 3076 E12-26162 73
2977 E10-27 170 101 3027 Ell-27 148 80 3077 E12-27149 63
2978 E10-28 149 92 3028 Ell-28159 87 3078 E12-28 162 75
2979 E10-29 174 100 3029 Ell-29150 80 3079 E12·29145 68
2980 E10-30 154 94 3030 Ell-30 164 92 3080 E12-30 164 75
2981 E10-31 167 88 3031 Ell-31 150 82 3081 E12-31 142 66
2982 E10-32151 91 3032 Ell-32 160 89 3082 E12·32 166 69
2983 E10-33167 99 3033 Ell-33 150 81 3083 E12·33148 68
2984 E10-34 153 91 3034 Ell-34 165 88 3084 E12·34164 74
2985 E10-35 162 96 3035 Ell-35 149 81 3085 E12·35143 66
2986 E10-36148 90 3036 Ell-36 169 88 3086 E12-36164 73
2987 E10-37165 92 3037 Ell-37 151 84 3087 E12-37149 70
2988 E10-38 150 90 3038 Ell-38 167 91 3088 E12·38160 74
2989 E10-39 170 101 3039 Ell-39 151 81 3089 E12-39 145 68
2990 E1Q.40 147 91 3040 Ell-40 166 89 3090 E12-40 165 69
2991 E1Q.41 159 100 3041 Ell-41 151 81 3091 E12-41142 66
2992 E1Q.42152 89 3042 Ell-42 166 90 3092 E12-42163 72
2993 E1Q.43164 98 3043 Ell-43 149 80 3093 E12-43146 68
2994 EIQ.44 141 89 3044 Ell-44163 89 3094 El2-44167 74
2995 E1Q.45 171 100 3045 Ell-45 153 82 3095 E12-45148 69
2996 E1Q.46 148 91 3046 Ell-46 167 89 3096 E12-46153 71
2997 E1Q.47165 97 3047 Ell-47 153 82 3097 E12-47146 70
2998 E1Q.48 150 92 3048 Ell-48 169 87 3098 E12-48168 77
2999 EIQ.49168 100 3049 Ell-49 154 84 3099 E12-49152 71
3000 El0-50 153 94 3050 Ell-50 167 91 3100 E12-50 165 71

A-23
 HEAT AGE TEST F. 423°K

Time 30005 Time 90005 Time 243005

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
3101 F01-01 138 107 3151 F02-01 132 91 3201 F03·01132 67
3102 F01-02 127 95 3152 F02-02 143 105 3202 F03-02 137 91
3103 F01-03137 103 3153 F02-03132 97 3203 F03-03125 90
3104 F01-04 128 96 3154 F02-04 140 105 3204 F03-04 134 96
3105 F01-05138 105 3155 F02-05135 99 3205 F03-05126 90
3106 F01-06 124 94 3156 F02-06143 106 3206 F03-06 135 100
3107 F01-07138 104 3157 F02-07132 96 3207 F03-07124 86
310B F01-OB 128 99 3158 F02-08140 109 3208 F03-OB 138 106
3109 F01-09133 111 3159 F02-09134 102 3209 F03-09120 87
3110 F01-10 125 98 3160 F02-10 145 113 3210 F03-10 132 97
3111 F01-11 135 112 3161 F02-11 131 99 3211 F03-11 125 88
3112 FOl-12 130 102 3162 F02-12140 114 3212 F03-12132 104
3113 FOl-13 138 113 3163 F02-13 132 99 3213 F03-13 124 86
3114 FOl-14 135 108 3164 F02-14 138 112 3214 F03-14134 107
3115 FOl-15 138 116 3165 F02-15134 103 3215 F03-15 127 89
3116 FOl-16 134 103 3166 F02-16 136 102 3216 F03-16135 105
3117 FOl-17 138 117 3167 F02-17 133 95 3217 F03-17 122 89
3118 FOl-18 132 104 3168 F02-18136 100 3218 F03-18144 105
3119 FOl-19 139 115 3169 F02-19129 98 3219 F03-19 128 92
3120 FOl-20 131 102 3170 F02-20 132 108 3220 F03-20 132 102
3121 FOl-21 136 114 3171 F02-21 131 97 3221 F03-21 125 86
3122 FOl-22132 104 3172 F02-22130 99 3222 F03-22134 98
3123 FOl-23 139 110 3173 F02-23129 96 3223 F03-23 123 88
3124 FOl-24 129 99 3174 F02-24136 99 3224 F03-24134 102
3125 FOl-25 135 110 3175 F02-25128 96 3225 F03-25 128 92
3126 FOl-26 143 108 3176 F02-26133 101 3226 F03-26134 91
3127 FOl-27 134 102 3177 F02-27139 98 3227 F03-27137 102
3128 FOl-28 144 109 3178 F02-28132 99 3228 F03-28 129 93
3129 FOl-29 131 101 3179 F02-29143 102 3229 F03-29138 97
3130 F01-30 155 111 3180 F02-30 132 99 3230 F03-30 127 92
3131 FOl-31 133 101 3181 F02-31 140 96 3231 F03-31 143 101
3132 FOl-32137 104 3182 F02-32133 102 3232 F03-32132 96
3133 FOl-33 133 101 3183 F02-33 140 100 3233 F03-33 141 102
3134 FOl-34 145 105 3184 F02-34 130 99 3234 F03-34132 97
3135 FOl-35 128 98 3185 F02-35 140 103 3235 F03-35140 102
3136 FOl-36137 108 3186 F02-36131 102 3236 F03-36130 96
3137 FOl-37 130 101 3187 F02-37 147 103 3237 F03-37147 103
3138 FOl-38 145 110 3188 F02-38 131 100 3238 F03-38133 95
3139 FOl-39130 101 3189 F02-39137 110 3239 F03-39 141 106
3140 FOl-40 143 106 3190 F02-40 134 104 3240 F03-40 133 98
3141 FOl-41 133 101 3191 F02-41 142 112 3241 F03-41146 110
3142 FOl-42148 109 3192 F02-42136 104 3242 F03-42139 101
3143 F01-43135 100 3193 F02-43 141 106 3243 F03-43148 108
3144 FOl-44 146 113 3194 F02-44133 104 3244 F03-44 136 99
3145 FOl-45133 103 3195 F02-45 150 111 3245 F03-45 153 107
3146 FOl-46138 106 3196 F02-46134 103 3246 F03-46135 99
3147 FOl-47136 105 3197 F02-47155 106 3247 F03-47152 109
3148 FOl-48138 107 3198 F02-48137 106 3248 F03-48139 101
3149 FOl-49132 107 3199 F02-49140 110 3249 F03-49 155 103
3150 F01-50 145 108 3200 F02-50 139 106 3250 F03-50 138 101

A-24
 HEAT AGE TEST F • 423°K

TIme 612005 Time 1008005 Time 1620005

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
3251 F04·01140 87 3301 F05·01 144 86· 3351 F06-01129 66
3252 F04-02 134 85 3302 F05-02 131 77 3352 F06-02 136 77
3253 F04-03139 89 3303 F05-03135 85 3353 F06-03128 68
3254 F04-04 133 93 3304 F05-04 133 82 3354 F06-04 137 81
3255 F04-05137 87 3305 F05-05133 85 3355 F06-05134 75
3256 F04-06 129 86 3306 F05-06130 75 3356 F06-06 139 74
3257 F04-07134 84 3307 F05-07138 89 3357 F06-07129 74
3258 F04-OS 132 83 3308 F05-08131 83 3358 F06-OS 137 80
3259 F04-09 138 87 3309 F05-09140 89 3359 F06-09128 76
3260 F04-10 133 85 3310 F05-10 130 82 3360 F06-10 141 79
3261 F04-11136 88 3311 F05-11 138 89 3361 F06-11129 79
3262 F04-12129 83 3312 F05-12134 84 3362 F06-12143 79
3263 F04-13 138 91 3313 F05-13 137 88 3363 F06-13 133 76
3264 F04-14132 86 3314 F05-14 133 83 3364 F06-14 135 77
3265 F04-15133 89 3315 F05-15 139 85 3365 F06-15 131 75
3266 F04-16133 87 3316 F05-16 136 84 3366 F06-16136 79
3267 F04-17139 92 3317 F05-17 141 87 3367 F06-17 131 74
3268 F04-18131 87 3318 F05-18 130 82 3368 F06-18135 81
3269 F04-19 141 96 3319 F05-19 139 84 3369 F06-19133 77
3270 F04-20 131 86 3320 F05-20 132 80 3370 F06-20 141 81
3271 F04-21 144 99 3321 F05-21 140 86 3371 F06-21128 75
3272 F04-22136 87 3322 F05-22136 83 3372 F06-22144 77
3273 F04-23 151 94 3323 F05-23 136 82 3373 F06-23 129 76
3274 F04-24134 86 3324 F05-24134 83 3374 F06-24139 85
3275 F04-25 151 101 3325 F05-25138 86 3375 F06-25130 78
3276 F04-26134 83 3326 F05-26 141 83 3376 F06-26133 77
3277 F04-27129 79 3327 F05-27132 82 3377 F06-27144 76
3278 F04-28135 86 3328 F05-28136 85 3378 F06-28 131 77
3279 F04-29129 82 3329 F05-29130 82 3379 F06-29144 78
3280 F04-30 139 84 3330 F05-30 139 87 3380 F06-30 136 81
3281 F04-31 127 80 3331 F05-31133 83 3381 F06-31 136 80
3282 F04-32138 86 3332 F05-32 143 84 3382 F06-32130 80
3283 F04-33 131 79 3333 F05-33132 82 3383 F06-33135 77
3284 F04-34 131 84 3334 F05-34138 84 3384 F06-34 131 79
3285 F04-35130 83 3335 F05-35 132 81 3385 F06-35140 89
3286 F04-36137 86 3336 F05-36 144 88 3386 F06-36133 80
3287 F04-37129 86 3337 F05-37 133 82 3387 F06-37141 79
3288 F04-38139 85 3338 F05-38' 140 90 3388 F06-38128 77
3289 F04-39131 84 3339 F05-39139 87 3389 F06·39143 79
3290 F04-40 139 89 3340 F05-40 141 95 3390 F06-40 133 79
3291 F04-41 134 85 3341 F05-41138 87 3391 F06-41139 79
3292 F04-42136 89 3342 F05-42142 91 3392 F06-42131 79
3293 F04-43133 83 3343 F05-43 143 90 3393 F06-43135 80
3294 F04-44 142 89 3344 F05-44142 90 3394 F06-44 131 78
3295 F04-45135 87 3345 F05-45 136 85 3395 F06-45 139 80
3296 F04-46141 88 3346 F05-46 144 94 3396 F06-46130 79
3297 F04-47134 89 3347 F05-47 138 92 3397 F06-47133 82
3298 F04-48141 94 3348 F05-48153 92 3398 F06-48129 79
3299 F04-49132 90 3349 F05-49139 86 3399 F06-49136 82
3300 F04-50 137 88 3350 F05-50 144 93 3400 F06-50 134 73

A-25
 HEAT AGE TEST F - 423°K

Time 270180s Time 349200s Time 741600s

Ree: Ref: INF FNF Ree: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
3401 F07-01143 75 3451 F08-01 138 75 3501 F09-01128 54
3402 F07-02 145 77 3452 F08-02 132 72 3502 F09-02 121 47
3403 F07-03137 74 3453 F08-03137 94 3503 F09-03130 57
3404 F07-04 145 78 3454 F08-04 132 76 3504 F09-04 118 51
3405 F07-05135 73 3455 FOB-OS 138 78 3505 F09-05122 57
3406 F07-06 137 73 3456 F08-06135 76 3506 F09-06 119 51
3407 F07-07131 72 3457 F08-07139 75 3507 F09-07126 55
340B F07-08 136 74 3458 F08-08133 71 350B F09-08 122 51
3409 F07-09134 73 3459 F08-09140 77 3509 F09-09125 58
3410 F07-10 140 75 3460 F08-10 137 72 3510 F09-10 119 50
3411 F07-11136 72 3461 F08-11 145 74 3511 F09-11130 57
3412 F07-12 153 75 3462 F08-12126 66 3512 F09-12117 55
3413 F07-13 136 75 3463 F08-13 138 75 3513 F09-13 123 56
3414 F07-14 143 82 3464 F08-14 129 69 3514 F09-14 119 51
3415 F07-15 132 74 3465 F08-15 141 72 3515 F09-15 126 57
3416 F07-16 139 82 3466 F08-16 132 68 3516 F09-16116 51
3417 F07-17133 71 3467 F08-17 137 74 3517 F09-17127 56
3418 F07-18 141 79 3468 F08-18 129 69 3518 F09-18116 50
3419 F07-19 135 73 3469 F08-19 137 73 3519 F09-19 134 58
3420 F07-20 139 81 3470 F08-20 130 66 3520 F09-20 120 49
3421 F07-21132 72 3471 F08-21 145 70 3521 F09-21 136 58
3422 F07-22139 74 3472 F08-22 126 68 3522 F09-22119 48
3423 F07-23 133 71 3473 F08-23 128 73 3523 F09-23 135 57
3424 F07-24140 80 3474 F08-24124 63 3524 F09-24115 47
3425 F07-25 129 69 3475 F08-25 141 70 3525 F09-25135 57
3426 F07-26135 73 3476 F08-26138 68 3526 F09-26118 53
3427 F07-27 141 76 3477 F08-27 131 71 3527 F09-27138 61
3428 F07-28 130 70 3478 F08-28 141 70 3528 F09-28 118 52
3429 F07-29143 76 3479 F08-29128 69 3529 F09-29135 58
3430 F07-30 133 73 3480 F08-30 141 74 3530 F09-30 117 51
3431 F07-31137 76 3481 F08-31 126 68 3531 F09-31 136 60
3432 F07-32135 72 3482 F08-32137 75 3532 F09-32117 50
3433 F07-33142 80 3483 F08-33 128 68 3533 F09-33133 58
3434 F07-34135 73 3484 F08-34 140 72 3534 F09-34117 51
3435 F07-35 141 76 3485 F08-35 127 69 3535 F09-35134 58
3436 F07-36135 74 3486 F08-36 146 74 3536 F09-36117 54
3437 F07-37 141 76 3487 F08-37 131 69 3537 F09-37138 58
3438 F07-38130 76 3488 F08-38 139 74 3538 F09-38117 54
3439 F07-39 141 83 3489 F08-39 130 72 3539 F09-39136 59
3440 F07-40 131 73 3490 F08-40 140 72 3540 F09-40 121 54
3441 F07-41 147 78 3491 F08-41130 71 3541 F09-41 136 59
3442 F07-42133 76 3492 F08-42136 75 3542 F09-42120 53
3443 F07-43140 75 3493 F08-43135 70 3543 F09-43131 59
3444 F07-44 128 73 3494 F08-44137 73 3544 F09-44 117 54
3445 F07-45140 79 3495 F08-45 129 70 3545 F09-45 141 59
3446 F07-46131 79 3496 F08-46139 76 3546 F09-46126 56
3447 F07-47146 80 3497 F08-47132 77 3547 F09-47133 59
3448 F07-48130 83 3498 F08-48 138 88 3548 F09-48 122 53
3449 F07-49140 82 3499 F08-49 132 74 3549 F09-49 136 60
3450 F07-50 133 78 3500 F08-50 138 80 3550 F09-50 123 55

A-26
 HEAT AGE TEST F • 423°K

Time 1203000s TIme 2043480s Time 3296220s

Ree: Ree: INF FNF Ree: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
3551 FI0-0l 125 51 3601 F11·01137 43 3651 F12-01139 43
3552 FI0-02 138 56 3602 F11·02 138 54 3652 F12-02 137 42
3553 FI0-03134 54 3603 F11·03 132 45 3653 FI2·03137 44
3554 FIO-04 141 54 3604 F11-04 142 46 3654 F12-04 136 37
3555 FI0-05 129 49 3605 F11-05 133 42 3655 FI2-05136 41
3556 FIO-06 140 57 3606 F11-06 140 45 3656 F12-06 137 38
3557 FI0-07127 50 3607 F11-07 129 40 3657 F12-07137 42
3558 F10-08 140 54 3608 F11-08 134 43 3658 F12-OS 137 36
3559 F10-09 131 50 3609 F11-09127 41 3659 F12-09 143 43
3560 FIO-lO 136 55 3610 F11·10 136 42 3660 F12·10 136 39
3561 FIO-11 127 51 3611 F11·ll 123 40 3661 F12·11138 42
3562 F10-12 136 51 3612 F11·12 130 46 3662 F12-12 137 41
3563 FIO-13 133 52 3613 F11·13 127 38 3663 F12-13 138 43
3564 FI0-14 140 54 3614 Fll-14 132 43 3664 F12-14 135 40
3565 FI0-15 130 51 3615 Fl1-15 126 38 3665 F12-15 140 42
3566 FI0-16 138 57 3616 Fl1-16 135 44 3666 F12-16 138 38
3567 FIO-17 131 52 3617 Fll-17 123 35 3667 F12-17 139 44
3568 F10-18 136 51 3618 Fl1-18 131 48 3668 F12-18136 38
3569 F10-19 134 52 3619 Fl1-19 130 40 3669 F12-19 134 43
3570 F10-20 135 53 3620 Fl1-20 137 47 3670 F12-20 134 37
3571 FI0-21 133 52 3621 Fll-21128 40 3671 F12-21 134 43
3572 F10-22134 49 3622 Fl1-22137 42 3672 F12-22135 38
3573 F10-23 129 49 3623 Fl1-23 130 38 3673 FI2-23 137 43
3574 F10-24139 51 3624 Fl1-24135 44 3674 FI2·24133 36
3575 FI0-25 129 48 3625 Fll-25 131 42 3675 F12-25127 38
3576 F10-26 135 54 3626 Fll-26129 42 3676 F12-26 126 28
3577 FI0-27140 48 3627 Fll-27 144 41 3677 F12·27 136 37
3578 FIO-28 133 51 3628 F11·28127 42 3678 F12c28 127 33
3579 FI0-29 136 57 3629 Fll-29 131 41 3679 FI2-29136 38
3580 F10-30 131 52 3630 Fll-30 129 42 3680 F12-30 131 33
3581 FI0-31 141 58 3631 Fll-31 134 44 3681 F12-31 138 38
3582 F10-32138 54 3632 Fl1-32128 42 3682 F12-32129 32
3583 FI0-33 136 48 3633 Fl1-33 138 43 3683 F12-33 136 37
3584 F10-34 131 52 3634 Fl1-34 132 43 3684 F12-34129 33
3585 F10-35139 51 3635 Fl1-35 135 42 3685 F12-35 137 35
3586 F10-36 131 52 3636 Fl1-36 128 45 3686 F12-36129 37
3587 FI0-37 147 56 3637 Fl1-37143 41 3687 F12-37 135 36
3588 FI0-38 127 50 3638 Fl1-38130 49 3688 F12-38 130 36
3589 FI0-39138 48 3639 Fl1-39 137 42 3689 F12·39 139 38
3590 FI0-40 126 51 . 3640 Fll-40 136 45 3690 F12-40 128 35
3591 FI0-41 134 52 3641 Fl1-41 140 47 3691 F12-41 141 37
3592 FI0-42134 52 3642 Fll-42134 47 3692 FI2-42128 35
3593 FI0-43137 51 3643 Fl1-43 141 42 3693 F12-43 140 38
3594 FI0-44 131 50 3644 Fl1-44134 44 3694 F12-44 128 34
3595 F10-45132 52 3645 Fl1-45 146 47 3695 F12-45 141 37
3596 FI0-46128 53 3646 Fl1-46 136 48 3696 F12-46 130 37
3597 FI0-47134 55 3647 Fll-47 139 44 3697 F12-47 137 39
3598 FI0-48 131 53 3648 Fll-48 135 48 3698 FI2-48136 39
3599 FI0-49133 56 3649 Fll-49 147 46 3699 F12-49 141 37
3600 FI0-50 132 53 3650 Fll-50 128 50 3700 F12-50 143 41

A-27
 HEAT AGE TEST G • 433 0 K

Time 3000s Time 5400s Time 8100s

Ree: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Ree: Ref: INF FNF
3701 G01-01 159 125 3751 G02·01175 130 3801 G03-01151 112
3702 G01-02 181 133 3752 G02-02 150 116 3802 G03-02 173 126
3703 G01-03157 123 3753 G02-03174 131 3803 G03-03149 108
3704 G01-04 183 133 3754 G02-04 150 116 3804 G03-04 170 125
3705 G01-05 154 115 3755 G02-05171 128 3805 G03-05154 116
3706 G01-06 183 134 3756 G02·06151 117 3806 G03-06 177 126
3707 G01-07155 119 3757 G02-07173 129 3807 G03-07153 112
370S G01-OS 184 139 3758 G02-08151 117 380S G03-08180 122
3709 G01-09 155 121 3759 G02-09172 126 3809 G03-09150 113
3710 G01·10 179 130 3760 G02-lO 149 116 3810 G03-10 173 128
3711 GOl-11155 120 3761 G02-11170 128 3811 G03-11151 115
3712 GOl-12181 135 3762 G02-12149 113 3812 G03-12176 128
3713 GOl-13 157 120 3763 G02-13 169 129 3813 G03-13 152 113
3714 GOl-14 182 138 3764 G02-14 146 113 3814 G03-14173 130
3715 G01-15 157 121 3765 G02-15 173 128 3815 G03-15152 114
3716 GOl-16 180 133 3766 G02-16 151 118 3816 G03-16178 131
3717 GOl-17 156 121 3767 G02-17 176 130 3817 G03-17 160 109
3718 GOl-18 181 134 3768 G02-18 152 115 3818 G03-18175 130
3719 GOl-19 155 117 3769 G02·19176 126 3819 G03-19151 113
3720 GOl-20 181 136 3770 G02·20 148 112 3820 G03-20 174 130
3721 GOl-21 154 117 3771 G02-21174 128 3821 G03-21150 111
3722 GOl-22 186 135 3772 G02-22153 118 3822 G03-22178 130
3723 GOl-23 153 116 3773 G02-23174 128 3823 G03-23 146 110
3724 GOl-24181 130 3774 G02-24154 114 3824 G03-24172 126
3725 GOl-25 154 118 3775 G02-25168 127 3825 G03-25153 115
3726 GOl-26173 133 3776 G02-26148 112 3826 G03-26177 129
3727 GOl-27159 117 3777 G02-27169 122 3827 G03-27154 112
3728 GOl-28175 129 3778 G02-28145 112 3828 G03-28 179 130
3729 GOl-29158 118 3779 G02-29168 122 3829 G03-29148 111
3730 G01-30 167 130 3780 G02-30 147 115 3830 G03-30 177 127
3731 GOl-31 154 119 3781 G02-31 165 125 3831 G03-31148 113
3732 GOl-32 170 130 3782 G02-32144 107 3832 G03-32178 130
3733 GOl-33153 125 3783 G02-33 161 123 3833 G03-33150 109
3734 GOl-34171 131 3784 G02-34 141 111 3834 G03-34 177 126
3735 GOl-35152 121 3785 G02-35158 124 3835 G03-35147 112
3736 GOl-36176 133 3786 G02-36144 117 3836 G03-36174 128
3737 GOl-37157 126 3787 G02-37166 122 3837 G03-37145 116
3738 GOl-38177 135 3788 G02-38142 113 3838 G03"38173 127
3739 G01-39160 122 3789 G02-39167 124 3839 G03-39147 107
3740 GOl-40 181 136 3790 G02-40 150 113 3840 G03-40 175 125
3741 GOl-41 156 116 3791 G02-41 166 125 3841 G03-41163 109
3742 GOl-42174 134 3792 G02-42 151 112 3842 G03-42176 124
3743 GOl-43152 116 3793 G02-43157 121 3843 G03-43150 lOS
3744 GOl-44 180 133 3794 G02-44146 114 3844 G03-44179 129
3745 GOl-45 151 116 3795 G02-45162 124 3845 G03-45144 110
3746 GOl-46175 133 3796 G02-46144 111 3846 G03-46170 126
3747 GOl-47151 122 3797 G02-47167 123 3847 G03-47149 109
3748 GOl-48174 133 3798 G02-48144 114 3848 G03-48166 123
3749 GOI-49151 115 3799 G02-49158 119 3849 G03-49147 107
3750 GOl-50 173 134 3800 G02-50 149 113 3850 G03-50 166 122

A-28
 HEAT AGE TEST G • 433 0 K

TIme 14400s Time 21600s Time 36000s

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
3851 G04-01175 119 3901 G05-01152 104 3951 G06-01 152 98
3852 G04-02 148 107 3902 G05-02 174 117 3952 G06-02 178 112
3853 G04-03 175 120 3903 G05-03148 101 3953 G06-03154 100
3854 G04-04 150 106 3904 G05-04 175 115 3954 G06-04 175 112
3855 G04-05 175 119 3905 G05-05155 101 3955 G06-05 151 98
3856 G04-06 149 107 3906 G05-06177 118 3956 G06-06 180 115
3857 G04-07 182 115 3907 G05-07148 103 3957 G06-07 148 90
3858 G04-OB 150 107 3908 G05-08177 117 3958 G06-08182 103
3859 G04-09 179 123 3909 G05-09155 104 3959 G06-09 151 98
3860 G04-10 153 109 3910 G05-1O 174 117 3960 G06-10 177 113
3861 G04-11 181 124 3911 G05-11 148 101 3961 G06-11 149 97
3862 G04-12150 107 3912 G05-12 174 117 3962 G06-12179 114
3863 G04-13 180 124 3913 G05-13 147 103 3963 G06-13 151 96
3864 G04-14153 107 3914 G05-14 173 115 3964 G06-14177 112
3865 G04-15179 123 3915 G05-15 147 100 3965 G06-15 151 96
3866 G04-16150 107 3916 G05-16 172 115 3966 G06-16175 109
3867 G04-17183 126 3917 G05-17 149 102 3967 G06-17 148 95
3868 G04-18155 109 3918 G05-18 165 110 3968 G06-18176 111
3869 G04-19181 124 3919 G05-19 149 102 3969 G06-19161 97
3870 G04-20 157 108 3920 G05-20 170 114 3970 G06-20 175 108
3871 G04-211B4 126 3921 G05-21 148 100 3971 G06-21 146 96
3872 G04-22151 109 3922 G05-22 151 102 3972 G06-22175 108
3873 G04-23 181 124 3923 G05-23 147 99 3973 G06-23 163 96
3874 G04-24 150 106 3924 G05-24154 102 3974 G06-24177 109
3875 G04-25 180 123 3925 G05-25 140 94 3975 G06-25145 95
3876 G04-26152 108 3926 G05-26 177 118 3976 G06-26171 110
3877 G04-27173 120 3927 G05-27149 102 3977 G06-27144 94
3878 G04-28 149 106 3928 G05-28175 119 3978 G06-28175 111
3879 G04-29171 125 3929 G05-29144 105 3979 G06-29145 96
3880 G04-30 153 109 3930 G05-30 181 119 3980 G06-30 174 107
3881 G04-31176 121 3931 G05-31 144 100 3981 G06-31 147 94
3882 G04-32153 111 3932 G05-32175 118 3982 G06-32174 lOB
3883 G04-33171 122 3933 G05-33 151 102 3983 G06-33 149 97
3884 G04-34146 110 3934 G05-34177 118 3984 G06-34174 112
3885 G04-35168 123 3935 G05-35 150 104 3985 G06-35 148 97
3886 G04-36152 107 3936 G05-36179 116 3986 G06-36176 111
3887 G04-37178 122 3937 G05-37 153 103 3987 G06-37 146 98
3888 G04-38159 108 3938 G05-38 175 119 3988 G06-38173 109
3889 G04-39 177 123 3939 G05-39150 104 3989 G06-39 149 98
3890 G04-40 150 109 3940 G05-40 169 116 3990 G06-40 173 109
3891 G04-41175 119 3941 G05-41154 103 3991 G06-41 143 96
3892 G04-42152 107 3942 G05-42177 116 3992 G06-42171 113
3893 G04-43163 122 3943 G05-43156 104 3993 G06-43153 95
3894 G04-44151 105 3944 G05-44171 111 3994 G06-44172 115
3895 G04-45 180 122 3945 G05-45150 103 3995 G06-45 150 99
3896 G04-46148 108, 3946 G05-46176 109 3996 G06-46173 106
3897 G04-47177 118 3947 G05-47152 101 3997 G06-47145 95
3898 G04-48155 107 3948 G05-48178 118 . 3998 G06-48174 108
3899 G04-49175 116 3949 G05-49144 102 3999 G06-49 153 .98
3900 G04-50 149 105 3950 G05-50 175 112 4000 G06-50 178 115

A-29
 HEAT AGE TEST G - 433'K

Time 729905 TIme 981605 Time 2572805

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
4001 G07-01 149 90 4051 G08-01 181 98 4101 G09-01 149 78
4002 G07-02 169 101 4052 G08-02 150 83 4102 G09-02 175 80
4003 G07-03 147 86 4053 GOB-03 179 97 4103 G09-03 148 92
4004 G07-04 174 100 4054 G08-04 151 82 4104 G09-04 171 lOB
4005 G07-05 148 86 4055 G08-05 175 98 4105 G09-o5 149 77
4006 G07-06 173 98 4056 G08-06 145 81 4106 G09-06 175 88
4007 G07-07 153 88 4057 G08-07 175 97 4107 G09-o7 149 77
4008 G07-08 170 96 4058 G08-08 151 84 4108 G09-o8 171 85
4009 G07-09 150 87 4059 G08-09 175 93 4109 G09-o9 151 92
4010 G07-10 171 100 4060 G08-10 147 80 4110 G09-1O 175 89
4011 G07-11 148 88 4061 G08-11 178 97 4111 G09-11 150 78
4012 G07-12 174 101 4062 G08-12 153 84 4112 G09-12 172 88
4013 G07-13 149 87 4063 G08-13 179 95 4113 G09-13 150 74
4014 G07-14 174 101 4064 G08-14 150 81 4114 G09-14 172 83
4015 G07-15151 91 4065 G08-15 175 91 4115 G09-15 151 74
4016 G07-16 172 101 4066 G08-16 151 82 4116 G09-16 171 83
4017 G07-17 150 91 4067 G08-17 174 95 4117 G09-17 149 74
4018 G07-18 177 101 4068 G08-18 150 81 4118 G09-18 172 81
4019 G07-19 149 88 4069 G08-19 175 93 4119 G09-19 148 79
4020 G07-20 181 102 4070 G08-20 153 84 4120 G09-2o 169 81
4021 G07-21 148 88 4071 G08-21 172 92 4121 G09-21 148 75
4022 G07-22 175 103 4072 G08-22 154 83 4122 G09-22 169 83
4023 G07-23 148 88 4073 G08-23 176 92 4123 G09-23 147 74
4024 G07-24 176 101 4074 G08-24 148 81 4124 G09-24 173 77
4025 G07-25 150 94 4075 G08-25 175 94 4125 G09-25 151 75
4026 G07-26 173 98 4076 G08-26 152 84 4126 G09-26 171 85
4027 G07-27 148 97 4077 G08-27 173 94 4127 G09-27 145 71
4028 G07-28 167 97 4078 G08-28 153 86 4128 G09-28 173 83
4029 G07-29 158 92 4079 G08-29 177 96 4129 G09-29 146 71
4030 G07-30 169 96 4080 G08-3o 149 83 4130 G09-3o 177 88
4031 G07-31 147 91 4081 G08-31 169 94 4131 G09-31 147 71
4032 G07-32 170 100 4082 G08-32 148 80 4132 G09-32 174 88
4033 G07-33 144 86 4083 G08-33 174 91 4133 G09-33 150 74
4034 G07-34 168 97 4084 G08-34 147 84 4134 G09-34 179 87
4035 G07-35 150 85 4085 G08-35 174 97 4135 G09-35 147 71
4036 G07-36 172 97 4086 G08-36 148 83 4136 G09-36 175 84
4037 G07-37 139 87 4087 G08-37 171 97 4137 G09-37 149 85
4038 G07-38 172 97 4088 G08-38 144 85 4138 G09-38 171 83
4039 G07-39 145 91 4089 G08-39 170 94 4139 G09-39 153 89
4040 G07-40 175 99 4090 G08-4o 150 82 4140 G09-40 172 90
4041 G07-41 137 86 4091 G08-41172 97 4141 G09-41 150 71
4042 G07-42 169 99 4092 G08-42 149 92 4142 G09-42 169 86
4043 G07-43 144 86 4093 G08-43 173 91 4143 G09-43 153 75
4044 G07-44 175 102 4094 G08-44 144 87 4144 G09-44 172 94
4045 G07-45 150 87 4095 G08-45 175 99 4145 G09-45 147 82
4046 G07-46 175 104 4096 G08-46 151 86 4146 G09-46 175 89
4047 G07-47 145 89 4097 G08-47 174 98 4147 G09-47 143 76
4048 G07-48 174 104 4098 G08-48 147 87 4148 G09-48 171 92
4049 G07-49 144 92 4099 G08-49 169 90 4149 G09-49 157 66
4050 G07-50 173 107 4100 G08-5o 147 85 4150 G09-5o 164 68

A-3D
 HEAT AGE TEST G· 433°K

Time 4452005 TIme 11376005 TIme 21600005

Rec: Ree: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ree: INF FNF
4151 GlO-01 172 74 4201 Gll-01 175 59 4251 G12-01 178 42
4152 G10-02 159 70 4202 Gll-02 148 54 4252 G12-02 149 32
4153 GlO-03 172 71 4203 Gl1-03 172 57 4253 Gl2-03 177 43
4154 GlO-04 155 64 4204 Gl1-04 152 47 4254 Gl2-04 145 34
4155 GlO-05 180 72 4205 Gl1-05 176 54 4255 Gl2-05 170 44
4156 G10-06 155 61 4206 Gll-06 146 52 4256 G12-06 147 34
4157 GlO-07177 70 4207 Gl1-07 176 54 4257 Gl2-07 173 42
4158 GlO-OS 156 66 4208 Gl1-08 151 52 4258 G12-08 151 40
4159 GlO-09 176 73 4209 Gl1-09179 55 4259 G12-09 172 41
4160 G10-1O 153 64 4210 Gl1-10 150 49 4260 G12-10 149 38
4161 G10-11 175 70 4211 Gl1-11 171 53 4261 G12-11 172 41
4162 G10-12 151 64 4212 Gll-12 148 48 4262 G12-12 146 34
4163 GlO-13 176 72 4213 Gl1-13 176 53 4263 G12-13 172 41
4164 G10-14 151 64 4214 Gl1-14 149 50 4264 G12-14 151 36
4165 GlO-15 177 71 4215 Gl1-15 172 53 4265 G12-15 174 41
4166 GlO-16 155 63 4216 Gl1-16 149 51 4266 Gl2-16 152 35
4167 GlO-17 172 68 4217 Gl1-17 177 57 4267 G12-17 173 41
4168 G10-18 151 64 4218 Gl1-18 154 51 4268 G12-18 149 33
4169 G10-19179 72 4219 Gl1-19 173 55 4269 G12-19 174 40
4170 Gl0-20 152 64 4220 Gl1-20 147 44 4270 G12-20 149 31
4171 Gl0-21 176 71 4221 Gl1-21 174 54 4271 G12-21 176 41
4172 Gl0-22 153 62 4222 Gl1-22 150 45 4272 G12-22 145 32
4173 G10-23 173 69 4223 Gll-23 178 57 4273 G12-23 177 40
4174 G 10-24 153 60 4224 Gl1-24 151 45 4274 G12-24 148 31
4175 Gl0-25 178 65 4225 Gll-25 182 53 4275 G12-25 176 46
4176 G 10-26 155 60 4226 Gl1-26141 49 4276 Gl2-26 150 38
4177 Gl0-27 172 65 4227 Gl1-27173 50 4277 Gl2-27 180 40
4178 GlO-28 144 60 4228 Gl1-28 146 47 4278 GI2-28 147 37
4179 GI0-29171 69 4229 Gl1-29 175 53 4279 G 12-29 175 43
4180 Gl0-30 146 60 4230 Gl1-30 152 55 4280 G 12-30 153 39
4181 GI0-31 169 70 4231 Gll-31178 54 4281 Gl2-31 184 38
4182 GI0-32 146 61 4232 Gll-32144 58 4282 G12-32 148 38
4183 GI0-33 178 70 4233 Gll-33 174 52 4283 G12-33 175 36
4184 Gl0-34 148 62 4234 Gl1-34 146 48 4284 G12-34 145 37
4185 GI0-35 174 73 4235 Gll-35 174 52 4285 Gl2-35 177 45
4186 Gl0-36 149 62 4236 Gl1-36148 48 4286 Gl2-36 152 40
4187 GI0-37 173 71 4237 G 11-37 177 53 4287 G 12-37 176 40
4188 Gl0-38 145 61 4238 Gl1-38 151 48 4288 G12-38 143 39
4189 Gl0-39 171 72 4239 G 11-39 169 56 4289 G12-39 165 41
4190 Gl0-40 147 68 4240 Gl1-40 147 49 4290 G12-40 151 37
4191 Gl0-41 169 71 4241 Gl1-41 178 56 4291 G12-41 178 41
4192 Gl0-42 156 64 4242 Gl1-42151 52 4292 G12-42 147 37
4193 Gl0-43 175 71 4243 Gl1-43 174 51 4293 G 12-43 179 43
4194 GlO-44 146 70 4244 Gl1-44 151 52 4294 G12-44151 41
4195 GI0-45 178 68 4245 Gl1-45 176 56 4295 Gl2-45 181 41
4196 Gl0-46 146 62 4246 Gl1-46 150 51 4296 Gl2-46 147 39
4197 GI0-47 172 69 4247 Gl1-47 172 53 4297 Gl2-47 172 39
4198 GlO-48 158 64 4248 Gl1-48144 51 4298 Gl2-48153 38
4199 Gl0-49 174 68 4249 Gl1-49176 56 4299 Gl2-49171 36
4200 Gl0-50 144 62 4250 Gl1-50 149 53 4300 G12-50 149 19

A-31
 HEAT AGE TEST H. 443°K

TIme 3000s TIme 9000s TIme 24300s

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
4301 H01·01140 101 4351 H02·01 132 85 4401 H03·01 140 83
4302 H01-02 139 108 4352 H02·02 138 87 4402 H03·02 132 79
4303 H01·03 137 101 4353 H02·03 130 84 4403 H03·03 138 89
4304 H01-04 137 101 4354 H02·04 135 88 4404 H03·04 127 76
4305 H01-05135 100 4355 H02·05125 85 4405 H03·05 137 86
4306 H01-06 134 100 4356 H02·06 138 88 4406 H03·Q6 127 77
4307 H01-07 139 99 4357 H02·07 130 81 4407 H03·07135 85
4308 H01-08 138 100 4358 H02·08 137 84 4408 H03·Q8 135 80
4309 H01-09 137 99 4359 H02·09125 81 4409 H03·Q9 135 80
4310 HOl·10 135 105 4360 H02·lO 136 86 4410 H03·1O 140 80
4311 H01·11135 100 4361 H02·11123 81 4411 H03·11133 85
4312 HOl·12137 100 4362 H02·12 132 87 4412 H03·12 133 79
4313 H01·13 137 99 4363 H02·13 123 82 4413 H03·13 134 80
4314 H01·14 135 98 4364 H02·14 134 88 4414 H03·14 134 79
4315 H01·15 138 99 4365 H02·15 125 84 4415 H03·15 132 82
4316 H01·16139 101 4366 H02·16 135 87 4416 H03·16 134 79
4317 H01·17 140 99 4367 H02·17 124 86 4417 H03·17 134 83
4318 H01·18 136 104 4368 H02·18 136 87 4418 H03·18133 79
4319 H01·19137 102 4369 H02·19 123 80 4419 H03·19 136 82
4320 H01·20 135 100 4370 H02·20 135 86 4420 H03·20 133 77
4321 H01·21 137 98 4371 H02·21 125 80 4421 H03·21 134 86
4322 H01·22 137 98 4372 H02·22 136 85 4422 H03·22 127 75
4323 H01·23 138 98 4373 H02·23 121 79 4423 H03·23 139 83
4324 H01·24 133 95 4374 H02·24 137 88 4424 H03·24 128 75
4325 H01·25 137 101 4375 H02·25 126 84 4425 H03·25 135 84
4326. H01·26138 100 4376 H02·26 140 89 4426 H03·26 137 81
4327 H01·27 126 89 4377 H02·27 129 81 4427 H03·27 137 76
4328 H01·28 135 97 4378 H02·28141 86 4428 H03·28 137 77
4329 H01·29 127 88 4379 H02·29 128 80 4429 H03·29 136 79
4330 H01·30 139 98 4380 H02·30 139 88 4430 H03·30 133 79
4331 H01·31 125 89 4381 H02·31 126 79 4431 H03·31 134 79
4332 H01·32 135 99 4382 H02·32 138 85 4432 H03·32 136 80
4333 H01·33 126 87 4383 H02·33 127 81 4433 H03·33 140 77
4334 H01·34 140 98 4384 H02·34 141 88 4434 H03·34 138 83
4335 H01·35 126 89 4385 H02·35 137 83 4435 H03·35 136 78
4336 H01·36 137 98 4386 H02·36 138 88 4436 H03·36 137 83
4337 H01·37 127 92 4387 H02·37 129 82 4437 H03·37 139 80
4338 HOl·38 135 98 4388 H02·38 138 85 4438 H03·38 136 80
4339 H01·39 130 93 4389 H02·39 128 85 4439 H03·39 140 79
4340 HOl-40 139 98 4390 H02·40 141 87 4440 H03-40 132 74
4341 H01·41 127 88 4391 H02-41 127 81 4441 H03-41 136 78
4342 H01·42 138 104 4392 H02-42 137 88 4442 H03-42 134 82
4343 HOl-43 130 91 4393 H02-43 128 81 4443 H03-43135 82
4344 HOl-44 139 99 4394 H02-44 142 87 4444 H03-44 138 80
4345 HOl-45 138 94 4395 H02-45 128 82 4445 H03-45 138 82
4346 HOl-46 137 98 4396 H02-46 141 89 4446 H03-46131 74
4347 HOl-47 125 93 4397 H02·47 138 90 4447 H03-47 142 81
4348 HOl-48 137 99 4398 H02-48 140 88 4448 H03-48 130 77
4349 HOl-49 128 91 4399 H02·49 140 90 4449 H03-49140 84
4350 H01·50 139 101 4400 H02·50 140 89 4450 H03·50 128 74

A·32
 HEAT AGE TEST H - 443°K

Time 61200s Time 100800s Time 162000s

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
4451 H04-01 145 72 4501 H05-01 136 63 4551 H06-01 133 51
4452 H04-02 141 70 4502 H05-02 135 59 4552 H06-02 135 56
4453 H04-03 138 71 4503 H05-03 137 63 4553 H06-03 125 53
4454 H04-04 139 68 4504 H05-04 135 61 4554 H06-04 135 56
4455 H04-05 137 69 4505 H05-05 134 66 4555 H06-05131 54
4456 H04-06 135 65 4506 H05-06 134 58 4556 H06-06 139 59
4457 H04-07 137 70 4507 H05-07 126 56 4557 H06-07 123 53
4458 H04-08 135 69 4508 H05-08131 55 4558 H06-OB 139 58
4459 H04-09 135 64 4509 H05-09 123 60 4559 H06-09 133 56
4460 H04-10 141 67 4510 H05-10 135 59 4560 H06-10 135 55
4461 H04-11 134 69 4511 H05-11 125 57 4561 H06-11 136 56
4462 H04-12 135 68 4512 H05-12 136 59 4562 H06-12135 52
4463 H04-13 134 70 4513 H05-13 133 60 4563 H06-13 133 56
4464 H04-14 139 72 4514 H05-14 133 58 4564 H06-14135 53
4465 H04-15 132 69 4515 H05-15 122 56 4565 H06-15 136 53
4466 H04-16 138 66 4516 H05-16135 61 4566 H06-16 139 52
4467 H04-17 133 69 4517 H05-17 124 59 4567 H06-17 133 58
4468 H04-18 133 63 4518 H05-18 135 60 4568 H06-18 136 53
4469 H04-19 134 69 4519 H05-19 128 55 4569 H06-19 138 53
4470 H04-20 125 61 4520 H05-20 134 58 4570 H06-20 135 53
4471 H04-21 134 70 4521 H05-21 135 63 4571 H06-21135 52
4472 H04-22 123 65 4522 H05-22 133 60 4572 H06-22 138 57
4473 H04-23 135 69 4523 H05-23 129 61 4573 H06-23 136 55
4474 H04-24 121 62 4524 H05-24 137 61 4574 H06-24 137 59
4475 H04-25 138 71 4525 H05-25 128 64 4575 H06-25 137 57
4476 H04-26 140 68 4526 H05-26 143 64 4576 H06-26 136 51
4477 H04-27 134 64 4527 H05-27 129 55 4577 H06-27135 55
4478 H04-28 137 67 4528 H05-28 137 60 4578 H06-28 134 50
4479 H04-29 137 66 4529 H05-29 134 60 4579 H06-29135 55
4480 H04-30 142 69 4530 H05-30 136 61 4580 H06-30 129 45
4481 H04-31 134 65 4531 H05-31 137 61 4581 H06-31 141 52
4482 H04-32 137 67 4532 H05-32 135 60 4582 H06-32 129 46
4483 H04-33 137 62 4533 H05-33 136 59 4583 H06-33 135 51
4484 H04-34 137 66 4534 H05-34 138 62 4584 H06-34 140 51
4485 H04-35 140 66 4535 H05-35 137 64 4585 H06-35 138 55
4486 H04-36 139 66 4536 H05-36 137 65 4586 H06-36 128 49
4487 H04-37 138 53 4537 H05-37 137 61 4587 H06-37141 54
4488 H04-38 136 55 4538 H05-38 136 63 4588 H06-38 128 48
4489 H04-39 139 60 4539 H05-39 137 61 4589 H06-39 134 52
4490 H04-40 140 72 4540 H05-40 136 63 4590 H06-40 128 53
4491 H04-41 139 63 4541 H05-41 136 61 4591 H06-41135 50
4492 H04-42 141 68 4542 H05-42 137 64 4592 H06-42125 52
4493 H04-43 140 67 4543 H05-43 137 65 4593 H06-43 134 56
4494 H04-44 137 66 4544 H05-44 139 64 4594 H06-44 124 53
4495 H04-45 141 63 4545 H05-45 138 64 4595 H06-45 135 57
4496 H04-46 139 69 4546 H05-46 137 63 4596 H06-46 125 52
4497 H04-47 137 64 4547 H05-47 133 56 4597 H06-47136 52
4498 H04-48 138 65 4548 H05-48 139 59 4598 H06-48 125 53
4499 H04-49 139 70 4549 H05-49 129 54 4599 H06-49 137 57
4500 H04-50 129 69 4550 H05-50 137 59 4600 H06-50 125 53

A-33
 HEAT AGE TEST H • 443°K

Time 2701808 Time 3492005 Time 7416008

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
4601 H07'()1 133 47 4651 H08·01 137 56 4701 H09'()l 135 39
4602 H07-02 137 50 4652 H08·02 133 55 4702 H09·02 128 29
4603 H07'()3 137 54 4653 H08·03 135 54 4703 H09'()3 143 34
4604 H07-04 135 55 4654 H08·04 134 51 4704 H09-04 126 36
4605 H07'()5 132 55 4655 H08·05 127 50 4705 H09·05 131 45
4606 H07-06 136 51 4656 H08·06 136 49 4706 H09-06 125 33
4607 H07'()7 132 53 4657 H08·07 121 49 4707 H09'()7 134 34
4608 H07·08 133 54 4658 H08·08 131 45 4708 H09'()8 132 37
4609 H07·09 134 54 4659 H08·09 125 40 4709 H09·09 135 34
4610 H07·10 136 57 4660 H08·10 131 36 4710 H09·10 135 40
4611 H07·11 136 53 4661 H08·11 125 46 4711 H09·11 135 37
4612 H07·12 133 52 4662 H08·12 134 43 4712 H09·12 133 42
4613 H07·13 133 52 4663 H08·13 124 36 4713 H09·13 136 32
4614 H07·14 125 45 4664 H08·14 134 37 4714 H09·14 134 38
4615 H07·15 137 46 4665 H08·15 129 41 4715 H09·15135 34
4616 H07·16 129 48 4666 H08·16 134 40 4716 H09·16 132 32
4617 H07·17 135 50 4667 H08·17 131 42 4717 H09·17 133 38
4618 H07·18 124 41 4668 H08·18 135 39 4718 H09·18131 33
4619 H07·19 130 49 4669 H08·19 125 43 4719 H09·19 133 37
4620 H07·20 126 41 4670 H08·20 134 38 4720 H09·20 134 35
4621 H07·21 136 54 4671 H08·21 124 39 4721 H09·21 133 39
4622 H07·22 126 47 4672 H08·22 135 41 4722 H09·22 136 37
4623 H07·23 135 51 4673 H08·23 126 39 4723 H09·23 132 34
4624 H07·24 126 44 4674 H08·24 134 51 4724 H09·24135 35
4625 H07-25 136 52 4675 H08-25 127 38 4725 H09-25 133 32
4626 H07·26 138 52 4676 H08-26 133 41 4726 H09·26 132 29
4627 H07·27 125 41 4677 H08-27 136 40 4727 H09-27 133 31
4628 H07-28 137 46 4678 H08-28 134 42 4728 H09-28 131 34
4629 H07-29 135 46 4679 H08-29 135 40 4729 H09-29 130 34
4630 H07-30 134 50 4680 H08-30 124 40 4730 H09-30 127 30
4631 H07-31 132 48 4681 H08-31 133 43 4731 H09-31 135 34
4632 H07-32 138 51 4682 H08-32 122 38 4732 H09-32 127 30
4633 H07·33 131 49 4683 H08-33 132 42 4733 H09-33 134 41
4634 H07-34 140 48 4684 H08-34 126 41 4734 H09-34 125 30
4635 H07-35 125 48 4685 H08-35 134 43 4735 H09-35 134 32
4636 H07-36 135 51 4686 H08-36 131 40 4736 H09-36 122 31
4637 H07-37 126 51 4687 H08-37 137 40 4737 H09-37 137 31
4638 H07-38 136 50 4688 H08-38 126 38 4738 H09-38 126 28
4639 H07-39 133 47 4689 H08-39 137 43 4739 H09-39 136 31
4640 H07-40 137 50 4690 H08-40 130 40 4740 H09-40 126 27
4641 H07-41 123 43 4691 H08-41 136 45 4741 H09-41 135 32
4642 . H07-42 135 49 4692 H08-42 127 40 4742 H09-42 126 30
4643 H07-43 132 48 4693 H08-43 137 45 4743 H09-43 136 33
4644 H07-44 135 50 4694 H08-44 123 41 4744 H09-44 126 32·
4645 H07-45 135 48 4695 H08-45 136 43 4745 H09-45 135 32
4646 H07-46 137 51 4696 H08-46 124 43 4746 H09-46 136 40
4647 H07-47 133 50 4697 H08-47 137 45 4747 H09-47 135 34
4648 H07-48 135 49 4698 H08-48 136 49 4748 H09-48 128 35
4649 H07-49 136 48 4699 H08-49 138 53 4749 H09-49 138 43
4650 H07-50 133 54 4700 H08-50 135 45 4750 H09-50 128 28

A-34
 HEAT AGE TEST H - 443°K

Time 1203000s Time 2043480s Time 3296220s

Ree: Ref: INF FNF Ree: Ref: INF FNF Ree: Ref: INF FNF
4751 HlO-01 134 39 4801 H11-01 139 36 4851 H12-01 135 30
4752 H10-02 122 29 4802 H11-02 137 13 4852 Hl2-02 137 19
4753 H10-03 134 38 4803 H11-03 138 26 4853 H12-03 136 . 15
4754 H10-04 134 33 4804 H11-04 136 23 4854 H12-04 138 18
4755 H10-05 134 45 4805 H11-05 139 29 4855 H12-05134 15
4756 H10-06 125 24 4806 H11-06 132 24 4856 H12-06 135 10
4757 H10-07 134 35 4807 H11-07 144 29 4857 H12-07134 16
4758 H10-OB 134 33 4808 H11-08 137 30 4858 H12-08 136 9
4759 H10-09 133 29 4809 H11-09 137 22 4859 H12-09 134 19
4760 H10-10 132 25 4810 H11-10 134 15 4860 H12-1O 134 10
4761 H10-11 135 40 4811 H11-11 133 26 4861 H12-11 132 16
4762 H10-12 126 28 4812 Hl1-12 132 20 4862 H12-12135 8
4763 H10-13 135 41 4813 Hl1-13 135 17 4863 H12-13 130 9
4764 H10-14 125 37 4814 Hl1-14133 15 4864 H12-14 129 15
4765 H10-15 135 31 4815 Hl1-15133 16 4865 H12-15128 18
4766 H10-16 123 31 4816 Hl1-16 132 12 4866 H12-16130 17
4767 H10-17 137 36 4817 Hl1-17 133 18 4867 H12-17129 11
4768 H10-18 124 32 4818 Hl1-18 134 21 4868 H12-18132 18
4769 H10-19 133 36 4819 Hl1-19 133 21 4869 H12-19126 10
4770 H10-20 130 23 4820 Hll-20 131 16 4870 H12-20 128 12
4771 H10-21135 31 4821 Hl1-21 135 18 4871 H12-21128 16
4772 H10-22 136 27 4822 Hl1-22133 15 4872 H12-22133 14
4773 H10-23 134 34 4823 Hl1-23 131 16 4873 H12-23 133 17
4774 H10-24 135 29 4824 Hl1-24134 11 4874 H12-24132 15
4775 H10-25 136 36 4825 Hl1-25135 17 4875 H12-25 132 15
4776 H10-26 130 24 4826 Hll-26137 16 4876 H12-26122 12
4777 H10-27 132 27 4827 Hl1-27124 15 4877 H12-27134 10
4778 H10-28 125 20 4828 Hl1-28135 17 4878 H12-28123 17
4779 H10-29 132 22 4829 Hl1-29126 15 4879 H12-29135 16
4780 H10-30 128 27 4830 Hll-30 135 14 4880 H12-30 124 11
4781 H10-31133 24 4831 Hl1-31 123 17 4881 H12-31 133 21
4782 H10-32 123 22 4832 Hl1-32134 15 4882 H12-32132 10
4783 H10-33 136 25 4833 Hll-33123 14 4883 H12-33134 15
4784 H10-34 124 24 4834 Hll-34 138 15 4884 Hl2-34128 13
4785 H10-35 132 30 4835 Hl1-35125 18 4885 H12-35134 13
4786 H10-36 125 22 4836 Hl1-36136 15 4886 H12-36126 11
4787 H10-37 135 33 4837 Hl1-37 127 20 4887 H12-37136 15
4788 H10-38 126 22 4838 Hl1-38 136 20 4888 H12-38128 9
4789 H10-39 137 27 4839 Hl1-39 132 32 4889 H12-39134 13
4790 H10-40 135 29 4840 Hl1-40 137 20 4890 H12-40 126 7
4791 H10-41134 26 4841 Hll-41 127 23 4891 H12-41137 12
4792 H10-42 124 26 4842 Hl1-42138 16 4892 H12-42125 10
4793 H10-43 138 30 4843 Hl1-43 128 22 4893 H12-43140 15
4794 H10-44 126 ·31 4844 Hl1-44135 21 4894 H12-44 125 10
4795 H10-45 137 34 4845 Hl1-45 127 17 4895 H12-45136 16
4796 H10-46 134 25 4846 Hl1-46139 15 4896 H12-46128 9
4797 H10-47 134 38 4847 Hl1-47125 27 4897 H12-47140 11
4798 HI0-48 136 33 4848 Hl1-48136 18 4898 H12-48126 8
4799 H10-49 138 27 4849 Hl1-49 127 24 4899 H12-49 140 20
4800 Hl0-50 126 32 4850 Hl1-50 136 18 4900 H12-50 125 14

A-35
 HEAT AGE TEST I • 453°K

TIme 36005 TIme 45005 TIme 66005

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
4901 101-01 195 129 4951 102-01 163 106 5001 103-01160 98
4902 101-02 171 109 4952 102-02 188 114 5002 103-02 185 94
4903 101-03 191 118 4953 102-03 163 103 5003 103-03 158 103
4904 101-04 163 105 4954 102-04 186 116 5004 103-04 190 121
4905 101-05 186 122 4955 102-05 158 101 5005 103-05 157 104
4906 101-06 168 106 4956 102-06 193 120 5006 103-06 179 113
4907 101-07 192 119 4957 102·07 163 102 5007 103-07158 100
4908 101-08 163 106 4958 102-08 186 119 5008 103-08 179 110
4909 101-09 191 115 4959 102-09157 102 5009 103-09 159 103
4910 101·10 161 109 4960 102·10 183 115 5010 103-10 184 112
4911 101-11 186 113 4961 102-11 161 103 5011 103-11 159 97
4912 101-12 163 101 4962 102·12 185 116 5012 103-12 183 111
4913 101·13 187 119 4963 102-13 161 102 5013 103-13 158 97
4914 101-14 162 107 4964 102-14 192 117 5014 103-14 180 109
4915 101-15 185 118 4965 102-15 165 107 5015 103-15 157 95
4916 101-16 155 102 4966 102·16 187 119 5016 103-16 185 109
4917 101-17 189 118 4967 102-17 161 104 5017 103-17 157 94
4918 101-18 156 105 4968 102-18 188 115 5018 103-18 183 108
4919 101-19 190 115 4969 102-19 165 105 5019 103-19 153 94
4920 101-20 158 101 4970 102-20189 113 5020 103-20183 105
4921 101-21 189 119 4971 102-21 164 101 5021 103-21 155 92
4922 101-22 160 107 4972 102-22 189 111 5022 103-22 177 104
4923 101-23 188 119 4973 102-23 165 102 5023 103-23 150 93
4924 101-24 162 103 4974 102-24 185 113 5024 103-24 171 99
4925 101-25 193 120 4975 102-25 166 99 5025 103-25 156 91
4926 101-26 154 102 4976 102-26 177 121 5026 103-26 179 112
4927 101-27 180 117 4977 102-27 156 101 5027 103-27 160 95
4928 101-28 154 111 4978 102-28 186 114 5028 103-28 184 110
4929 101-29 184 119 4979 102-29 155 100 5029 103-29155 92
4930 101-30 160 99 4980 102-30 186 107 5030 103-30 181 107
4931 101-31 181 109 4981 102-31 156 95 5031 103-31 160 95
4932 101-32 160 106 4982 102-32182 113 5032 103-32 185 113
4933 101-33 183 120 4983 102-33 159 103 5033 103-33 158 99
4934 101·34 156 108 4984 102-34 184 113 5034 103-34 189 111
4935 101-35 186 123 4985 102-35 164 102 5035 103-35 160 105
4936 101-36 158 108 4986 102-36 189 117 5036 103-36184 115
4937 101-37 179 122 4987 102-37 159 102 5037 103-37160 100
4938 101-38 157 105 4988 102-38 185 116 5038 103-38190 110
4939 101-39 184 113 4989 102-39 158 101 5039 103-39159 101
4940 101-40 162 107 4990 102-40 189 115 5040 103-40189 114
4941 101-41 189 119 4991 102-41 157 97 5041 103-41 168 100
4942 101-42 158 104 4992 102-42194 121 5042 103-42 181 109
4943 101-43 189 121 4993 102-43 157 102 5043 103-43 155 98
4944 101-44 162 105 4994 102-44 185 120 5044 103-44 178 113
4945 101-45 183 116 4995 102-45 151 98 5045 103-45 157 103
4946 101-46 164 109 4996 102-46 194 119 5046 103-46 184 114
4947 101-47 188 115 4997 102-47 156 100 5047 103-47 158 105
4948 101-48 159 106 4998 102-48 193 118 5048 103-48 186 117
4949 101-49 191 117 4999 102-49 153 99 5049 103-49 159 91
4950 101-50 152 107 5000 102-50 186 117 5050 103-50 188 99

A-36
 HEAT AGE TEST I. 4S3°K

TIme 9900s Time 14400s Time 21600s

Ree: ReC: INF FNF Ree: Ref: INF FNF Ree: Ref: INF FNF
5051 104-01 153 88 5101 105-01 185 101 5151 106-01 159 82
5052 104-02 182 92 5102 105-02 153 94 5152 106-02 181 93
5053 104-03 155 92 5103 105·03 189 98 5153 106-03 156 73
5054 104-04 183 104 5104 105-04 160 86 5154 106·04 192 95
5055 104-05 159 91 5105 105-05 190 99 5155 106-05 162 80
5056 104-06 188 104 5106 105-06 157 87 5156 106-06 190 94
5057 104·07 151 92 5107 105-07 185 99 5157 106-07 161 78
5058 104-08 190 102 5108 105-08 163 86 5158 106-08 185 91
5059 104-09 164 90 5109 105-09 187 100 5159 106·09 160 81
5060 104-10 188 100 5110 105-10 161 90 5160 106·10 184 88
5061 104·11 153 89 5111 105-11 185 100 5161 106·11 156 80
5062 104-12 181 104 5112 105·12 163 92 5162 106-12 189 90
5063 104-13 158 90 5113 105-13 186 99 5163 106-13 161 81
5064 104-14 181 102 5114 105-14 162 84 5164 106·14 182 87
5065 104·15 156 90 5115 105-15 182 96 5165 106-15 167 82
5066 104·16 183 102 5116 105-16 158 86 5166 106-16 183 88
5067 104-17 160 89 5117 105-17 186 97 5167 106·17 161 82
5068 104-18 185 104 5118 105-18 155 82 5168 106·18 184 87
5069 104-19 160 90 5119 105-19 182 98 5169 106-19 159 79
5070 104-20 191 102 5120 105-20 157 87 5170 106-20 183 89
5071 104-21 160 91 5121 105-21 184 97 5171 106-21 159 81
5072 104-22178 99 5122 105-22 157 84 5172 106-22181 88
5073 104·23 155 90 5123 105-23 182 99 5173 106·23 160 82
5074 104-24182 98 5124 105-24162 84 5174 106-24 184 88
5075 104·25 157 88 5125 105-25 185 94 5175 106-25 162 78
5076 104-26168 100 5126 105-26150 84 5176 106-26 187 90
5077 104-27157 94 5127 105-27 180 94 5177 106·27 155 80
5078 104-28 178 94 5128 105-28 157 84 5178 106-28 185 91
5079 104-29179 89 5129 105-29182 101 5179 106·29 155 80
5080 104-30 177 96 5130 105-30 153 81 5180 106·30 187 96
5081 104-31 169 90 5131 105-31 187 99 5181 106-31 159 84
5082 104-32179 95 5132 105·32 158 87 5182 106-32 180 88
5083 104-33 155 92 5133 105-33 180 100 5183 106-33 154 82
5084 104-34 177 102 5134 105-34 155 86 5184 106-34 187 93
5085 104·35 154 86 5135 105-35 183 99 5185 106-35 155 83
5086 104-36 177 102 5136 105-36 152 80 5186 106·36 190 95
5087 104-37 159 91 5137 105-37 185 101 5187 106·37 159 84
5088 104-38 180 101 5138 105-38 153 83 5188 106-38 188 95
5089 104-39 151 97 5139 105-39 185 101 5189 106-39 154 79
5090 104-40179 102 5140 105-40 155 88 5190 106-40 195 95
5091 104-41 149 89 5141 105-41 185 97 5191 106-41 154 80
5092 104-42174 101 5142 105-42 155 83 5192 106-42185 88
5093 104-43 155 89 5143 105-43 187 100 5193 106-43 162 79
5094 104-44 178 105 5144 105-44 154 88 5194 106-44 185 95
5095 104-45 148 91 5145 105-45 185 102 5195 106·45 158 79
5096 104-46 180 104 5146 105-46 155 87 5196 106-46 190 92
5097 104-47 154 96 5147 105-47 187 98 5197 106-47159 76
5098 104-48 177 104 5148 105-48 149 89 5198 106-48 181 92
5099 104-49 160 88 5149 105-49 184 102 5199 106-49 162 78
5100 104·50 178 95 5150 105-50 149 93 5200 106-50 188 94

A-37
 HEAT AGE TEST I - 4S3°K

Time 288005 Time 432005 Time 777305

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
5201 107-01 194 87 5251 108-01 163 69 5301 109-01 183 69
5202 107-02 164 76 5252 108-02 187 79 5302 109-02 158 62
5203 107-03195 89 5253 108-03 161 71 5303 109·03 186 68
5204 107-04 168 74 5254 108·04 185 79 5304 109·04 160 58
5205 107-05 194 87 5255 108-05 163 69 5305 109·05 182 67
5206 107-06 163 75 5256 108-06 195 74 5306 109·06 164 58
5207 107-07 194 87 5257 108-07 163 68 5307 109-07 182 68
5208 107-08 164 74 5258 108·08183 77 5308 109-08 156 54
5209 107-09 184 86 5259 108-09 155 67 5309 109-09 186 66
5210 107-10 158 73 5260 108·10 177 76 5310 109·10 159 56
5211 107·11 188 88 5261 108·11 161 69 5311 109·11 188 62
5212 107-12 163 75 5262 108·12 182 77 5312 109-12 155 56
5213 107·13 189 91 5263 108-13 156 70 5313 109·13 185 65
5214 107·14 159 74 5264 108·14 186 76 5314 109·14 162 55
5215 107·15 187 84 5265 108·15 159 67 5315 109·15 184 64
5216 107·16 158 73 5266 108-16 177 77 5316 109·16163 54
5217 107·17 189 87 5267 108·17 163 66 5317 109·17 184 64
5218 107·18 160 75 5268 108-18 181 75 5318 109·18 157 53
5219 107·19 191 89 5269 108·19 157 68 5319 109·19 184 65
5220 107·20162 73 5270 108·20 182 75 5320 109·20159 57
5221 107·21 189 88 5271 108·21 156 67 . 5321 109·21 182 67
5222 107·22155 76 5272 108·22 180 72 5322 109-22 159 58
5223 107·23 189 88 5273 108-23 157 66 5323 109-23 184 60
5224 107·24156 74 5274 108-24184 78 5324 109-24 156 55
5225 107·25 191 87 5275 108-25 155 65 5325 109·25 191 66
5226 107·26153 70 5276 108·26 189 77 5326 109·26 150 58
5227 107·27185 86 5277 108·27 150 68 5327 109-27 190 67
5228 107·28160 75 5278 108·28 186 80 5328 109-28 155 59
5229 107-29183 86 5279 108·29 154 67 5329 109·29 191 68
5230 107·30149 69 5280 108-30 184 81 5330 109·30156 60
5231 107-31 180 84 5281 108-31 151 64 5331 109-31 188 62
5232 107-32 151 73 5282 108·32 182 72 5332 109·32156 55
5233 107·33 185 83 5283 108·33 156 65 5333 109·33 188 60
5234 107·34 156 71 5284 108·34 184 88 5334 109-34159 61
5235 107-35 185 84 5285 108·35 155 70 5335 109·35 187 70
5236 107-36 158 66 5286 108·36 182 83 5336 109·36 151 57
5237 107·37 185 80 5287 108·37 154 69 5337 109·37190 65
5238 107·38 152 73 5288 108·38 180 83 5338 109·38 154 61
5239 107-39 181 83 5289 108·39 156 68 5339 109·39182 67
5240 10740 154 81 5290 108·40 178 85 5340 10940157 61
5241 10741 186 86 5291 108·41 165 67 5341 10941 188 72
5242 10742154 74 5292 108-42 187 83 5342 10942 161 60
5243 10743 186 81 5293 108·43 152 67 5343 10943 188 68
5244 107-44 159 67 5294 10844 188 82 5344 109-44 160 61
5245 10745 185 90 5295 108-45 152 74 5345 10945 181 69
5246 10746 159 75 5296 108·46 187 86 5346 10946 157 58
5247 10747 186 86 5297 108·47 162 70 5347 10947190 68
5248 10748156 85 5298 108·48 186 85 5348 10948 162 62
5249 10749 187 79 5299 10849 157 71 5349 109-49 186 64
5250 107·50 158 75 5300 108-50 185 84 5350 109-50 159 60

A-38
 HEAT AGE TEST I • 453°K

Time 111630s Time 165690s Time 199800s

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Ree: Ref: INF FNF
5351 110-01 159 63 5401 111·01 185 62 5451 112·01 181 57
5352 110-02 193 64 5402 111-02 150 51 5452 112-02 158 49
5353 110-03 159 59 5403 111·03 186 58 5453 112·03 183 57
5354 110-04 191 66 5404 111·04 153 61 5454 112-04 156 47
5355 110-05 162 59 5405 111-05 186 63 5455 112-05 180 55
5356 110-06 185 62 5406 111·06 156 50 5456 112-06 161 45
5357 110-07 158 63 5407 111-07 188 58 5457 112-07 178 48
5358 110-08 186 61 5408 111-08 157 54 5458 112-08 159 43
5359 110-09 160 54 5409 111-09 184 58 5459 112-09 178 45
5360 110-10 187 63 5410 111-10 154 47 5460 112-10 158 42
5361 110-11 158 55 5411 111-11 180 55 5461 112-11177 49
5362 110-12 187 62 5412 111-12 152 52 5462 112-12 159 43
5363 110-13 158 57 5413 111·13 179 55 5463 112-13 178 47
5364 110-14 182 61 5414 111-14 152 47 5464 112-14 157 42
5365 110-15 158 53 5415 111·15 181 52 5465 112-15 178 46
5366 110-16 183 61 5416 111-16 155 48 5466 112-16 162 42
5367 110-17 158 52 5417 111-17 183 50 5467 112-17 173 47
5368 110-18 186 59 5418 111-18 157 47 5468 112-18 159 39
5369 110-19 157 49 5419 111·19 186 54 5469 112-19 179 46
5370 110-20 185 57 5420 111-20 157 46 5470 112-20158 40
5371 110-21 155 50 5421 I11-21 187 54 5471 112-21 178 41
5372 110-22186 58 5422 111-22 162 46 5472 112·22 161 39
5373 110-23 158 50 5423 111-23 186 43 5473 112-23 176 42
5374 110-24185 58 5424 111-24 160 30 5474 112-24 158 42
5375 110-25 157 47 5425 111-25 184 39 5475 112-25 179 41
5376 110-26187 57 5426 111-26 143 31 5476 112·26 160 43
5377 110-27154 50 5427 111-27 172 23 5477 112-27 188 48
5378 110-28 183 61 5428 111-28 144 39 5478 112·28 158 43
5379 110-29162 53 5429 111-29173 55 5479 112-29 191 46
5380 110-30184 59 5430 111-30 150 45 5480 112-30156 44
5381 110-31 151 51 5431 111·31 175 54 5481 112-31 186 46
5382 110-32 183 57 5432 111·32 156 46 5482 112-32164 45
5383 110-33 153 50 5433 I11-33 178 50 5483 112-33184 40
5384 110-34 181 58 5434 111-34 148 46 5484 112-34 158 45
5385 110-35 158 54 5435 111-35 178 50 5485 112-35 184 48
5386 110-36187 59 5436 111-36 152 47 5486 112-36 158 41
5387 110-37 161 52 5437 111-37 174 52 5487 112-37 183 46
5388 110-38182 59 5438 Ill·38 156 49 5488 112·38 159 46
5389 110-39 161 56 5439 111-39 177 53 5489 112-39 185 46
5390 110-40 188 61 5440 111-40 156 50 5490 112-40156 50
5391 110-41 163 48 5441 111-41 178 53 5491 112-41 188 50
5392 110-42190 61 5442 111~42 150 51 5492 112-42 157 52
5393 110-43 156 52 5443 111-43 174 52 5493 112-43 186 50
5394 110-44 190 60 5444 111-44 154 56 5494 112-44 160 58
5395 110-45 153 56 5445 111-45 179 58 5495 112-45 188 50
5396 110-46186 58 5446 111-46 145 47 5496 112-46166 52
5397 110-47158 48 5447 111-47 174 54 5497 112-47188 52
5398 110-48 189 59 5448 I11-48 155 48 5498 112-48 158 55
5399 110-49 156 57 5449 111-49 179 64 5499 112-49 185 50
5400 110-50 175 62 5450 111-50 145 62 5500 112-50 156 54

A-39
 HEAT AGE TEST 1 - 453°K

TIme 453990s TIme 603000s

Rec:: Rer: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
5501 113-01171 35 5551 114-01 161 29
5502 113-02 186 28 5552 114-02 175 30
5503 113-03 164 30 5553 114-03 160 25
5504 113-04 182 31 5554 114-04 177 32
5505 113-05 159 25 5555 114-05 157 27
5506 113-06 193 35 5556 114-06 183 31
5507 113-07167 26 5557 114-07 157 23
5508 113-08 185 29 5558 114-08 176 27
5509 113-09167 31 5559 114-09 161 24
5510 113-10 184 28 5560 114-10 178 24
5511 113-11 157 28 5561 114-11 155 23
5512 113-12 185 41 5562 114-12 177 26
5513 113-13 159 28 5563 114-13 154 21
5514 113-14 189 31 5564 114-14 176 25
5515 113-15 156 27 5565 114-15 157 25
5516 113-16 188 40 5566 114-16 177 24
5517 113-17 157 28 5567 114-17 156 19
5518 113-18 185 34 5568 114-18 178 29
5519 113-19 158 39 5569 114-19 155 24
5520 113-20 181 35 5570 114-20182 28
5521 113-21 158 30 5571 114-21 154 22
5522 113-22180 35 5572 114-22 177 31
5523 113-23 158 30 5573 114-23 156 19
5524 113-24187 31 5574 114-24 180 30
5525 113-25 162 30 5575 114-25 156 20
5526 113-26189 33 5576 114-26 169 26
5527 113-27152 22 5577 114-27 156 26
5528 113-28 184 35 5578 114-28 158 27
5529 113-29 158 31 5579 114-29 153 22
5530 113-30 181 33 5580 114-30 169 32
5531 113-31 152 24 5581 114-31 153 24
5532 113-32 183 35 5582 114-32 167 24
5533 113-33 154 31 5583 114-33 150 27
5534 113-34 185 37 5584 114-34 166 27
5535 113-35 155 32 5585 114-35 158 23
5536 113-36 181 35 5586 114-36 173 36
5537 113-37 156 29 5587 114-37 144 26
5538 113-38184 46 5588 114-38 171 34
5539 113-39 156 25 5589 114-39 155 22
5540 113-40188 40 5590 114-40 171 28
5541 113-41 159 25 5591 114-41 158 22
5542 113-42189 36 5592 114-42 175 26
5543 113-43 146 33 5593 114-43 155 24
5544 113-44 189 43 5594 114-44170 24
5545 113-45 155 25 5595 114-45 144 23
5546 113-46 183 34 5596 114-46 169 25
5547 113-47 156 27 5597 114-47 155 26
5548 113-48 190 37 5598 114-48 176 30
5549 113-49 159 28 5599 114-49 155 24
5550 113-50188 35 5600 114-50 173 24

A-40
 HEAT AGE TEST J. 473°K

Time 36008 Time 45008 Time 66008

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
5601 J01-01 176 123 5651 J02·01182 116 5701 J03-01 179 115
5602 J01·02 190 119 5652 J02-02 189 127 5702 J03-02 168 89
5603 J01·03 166 119 5653 J02·03 165 112 5703 J03-03 175 107
5604 J01-04 188 123 5654 J02-04 187 121 5704 J03-04 158 86
5605 J01-05 163 111 5655 J02-05158 109 5705 J03-05 178 98
5606 J01-06 185 122 5656 J02-06185 125 5706 103-06 153 86
5607 J01-07168 110 5657 J02-07158 110 5707 J03-07 178 94
5608 J01-08 193 112 5658 J02-08186 128 5708 J03-08 166 84
5609 J01-09 165 107 5659 J02-09 165 115 5709 J03-09 175 92
5610 J01-10 186 119 5660 J02-10 190 129 5710 J03-10 160 83
5611 J01-11 162. 105 5661 J02-11 162 115 5711 J03-11 176 93
5612 JOl-12 188 120 5662 J02-12187 130 5712 J03-12159 82
5613 JOl-13 164 110 5663 J02-13 167 114 5713 103-13 180 98
5614 JOl-14 188 126 5664 J02-14 192 129 5714 J03-14 164 83
5615 JOl-15 170 116 5665 J02-15 160 113 5715 J03-15 173 93
5616 JOl-16 194 124 5666 J02-16 192 132 5716 J03-16 164 82
5617 JOl-17 168 114 5667 J02-17 162 115 5717 J03-17 177 93
5618 JOl-18 188 125 5668 J02-18 188 129 5718 J03-18 155 80
5619 JOl-19 167 115 5669 J02-19 159 114 5719 J03-19 164 91
5620 JOl-20 187 125 5670 J02-20 190 131 5720 J03-20 147 79
5621 JOl-21 171 113 5671 J02-21160 115 5721 J03-21169 93
5622 JOl-22 188 117 5672 J02-22189 136 5722 J03-22 145 75
5623 JOl-23 166 110 5673 J02-23 167 122 5723 J03-23 153 74
5624 JOl-24 187 114 5674 J02-24 188 141 5724 J03-24 142 59
5625 JOl-25 164 119 5675 J02-25 165 124 5725 J03-25 162 82
5626 JOl-26189 129 5676 J02-26 178 116 5726 J03-26161 102
5627 J01·27 159 102 5677 J02-27159 109 5727 J03-27186 88
5628 JOl-28 187 122 5678 J02-28 181 118 5728 J03-28 158 83
5629 JOl-29 159 106 5679 J02-29 161 106 5729 J03-29182 109
5630 JOl-30 188 121 5680 J02-30 177 113 5730 J03-30 162 95
5631 JOl-31 160 108 5681 J02-31 160 104 5731 J03-31 185 107
5632 J01·32 188 119 5682 J02-32178 114 5732 J03-32158 92
5633 JOl-33 159 105 5683 J02-33 156 103 5733 J03-33 189 111
5634 JOl-34184 121 5684 J02-34183 113 5734 J03-34 155 90
5635 J01·35 159 102 5685 J02-35 157 101 5735 J03-35 188 108
5636 JOl-36 183 114 5686 J02-36 188 114 5736 J03-36 160 94
5637 J01·37163 104 5687 J02-37 163 102 5737 J03-37184 108
5638 JOl-38 182 112 5688 J02-38 181 115 5738 J03-38 156 92
5639 JOl-39 154 103 5689 J02-39 165 108 ~739 J03-39184 107
5640 JOl-40 185 116 5690 J02-40 181 120 5740 J03-40 156 94
5641 JOl-41 162 102 5691 J02-41 160 105 5741 J03-41 188 107
5642 JOl-42182 115 5692 J02-42182 114 5742 J03-42158 94
5643 JOl-43 161 97 5693 J02-43 161 106 5743 J03-43 183 106
5644 JOl-44 199 113 5694 J02-44 190 117 5744 J03-44 158 93
5645 JOl-45 164 106 5695 J02-45162 101 5745 J03-45 190 110
5646 JOl-46 191 106 5696 J02-46 186 114 5746 J03-46 160 103
5647 JOl-47163 105 5697 J02-47158 100 5747 J03-47188 114
5648 JOl-4896 114 5698 J02-48 190 116 5748 J03-48 161 104
5649 JOl-4959 102 5699 J02-49156 100 5749 J03-49 189 113
5650 JOl-50 85 117 5700 J02-50 197 109 5750 J03-50 158 99

A-41
 HEAT AGE TEST J • 473°K

TIme l0020s TIme 14400s TIme 21600s

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
5751 J04·01194 105 5801 J05-01 156 97 5851 J06-01 196 91
5752 J04.02 166 92 5802 J05-02 172 102 5852 J06-02 171 87
5753 J04-03 190 98 5803 J05-03 157 99 5853 J06-03 186 88
5754 J04-04 169 88 5804 J05-04 171 100 5854 J06-04 170 82
5755 J04-05 186 97 5805 J05·05 165 102 5855 J06-05 185 82
5756 J04-06 166 87 5806 J05-06168 97 5856 J06-06 159 76
5757 J04-07 183 92 5807 J05·07161 92 5857 J06-07 174 80
5758 J04-08 157 88 5808 J05·08171 95 5858 J06-08 168 73
5759 J04-09 185 93 5809 J05-09 156 94 5859 J06-09176 77
5760 J04-10 170 85 5810 J05-10 173 98 5860 J06-10 160 71
5761 J04·11183 91 5811 J05-11 156 88 5861 J06-11 177 75
5762 J04-12 171 85 5812 J05-12 174 99 5862 J06-12 160 69
5763 J04·13 191 94 5813 J05-13 162 93 5863 J06-13 182 74
5764 J04-14 171 87 5814 J05·14 174 92 5864 J06-14 159 70
5765 J04-15 184 88 5815 J05-15 157 88 5865 J06-15 173 74
5766 J04-16164 81 5816 J05-16 174 93 5866 J06-16 162 71
5767 J04·17 185 91 5817 J05-17 157 86 5867 J06-17 174 76
5768 J04-18 160 83 5818 J05-18 173 91 5868 J06·18 158 74
5769 J04-19 183 87 5819 J05-19 159 90 5869 J06·19 179 73
5770 J04-20 159 80 5820 J05-20 174 91 5870 J06-20 160 68
5771 J04-21 185 90 5821 J05-21 158 84 5871 J06-21 181 70
5772 J04-22 164 82 5822 J05-22 176 91 5872 J06-22 159 66
5773 J04-23 185 90 5823 J05-23 159 90 5873 J06-23 180 70
5774 J04·24153 83 5824 J05-24 173 87 5874 J06·24 160 69
5775 J04-25 183 89 5825 J05-25158 95 5875 J06·25 176 73
5776 J04-26160 91 5826 J05-26182 92 5876 J06-26 166 67
5777 J04-27186 100 5827 J05-27 159 81 5877 J06-27 188 69
5778 J04-28 158 86 5828 J05-28 184 93 5878 J06-28 168 62
5779 J04-29187 99 5829 J05·29162 83 5879 J06-29 185 71
5780 J04-30 155 89 5830 J05-30 188 93 5880 J06-30 160 66
5781 J04-31 186 101 5831 J05-31 161 79 5881 J06-31 183 71
5782 J04·32155 87 5832 J05-32192 93 5882 J06-32162 72
5783 J04-33 187 99 5833 J05-33 159 80 5883 J06-33 183 73
5784 J04-34158 88 5834 J05-34185 93 5884 J06-34 162 65
5785 J04-35 186 101 5835 J05-35 156 83 5885 J06-35 184 66
5786 J04-36158 90 5836 J05-36 187 97 5886 J06-36 162 65
5787 J04-37182 99 5837 J05-37 166 84 5887 J06-37186 69
5788 J04-38 162 90 5838 J05-38 194 94 5888 J06-38161 67
5789 J04-39 186 100 5839 J05-39 160 85 5889 J06-39184 70
5790 J04-40 161 94 5840 105-40187 97 5890 106-40156 67
5791 J04-41 189 103 5841 J05-41 160 84 5891 J06-41 181 75
5792 J04-42158 94 5842 J05-42 186 92 5892 J06-42157 69
5793 J04-43 186 101 5843 J05-43 163 83 5893 J06-43 182 72
5794 J04-44 169 95 5844 J05-44 186 101 5894 J06-44 162 72
5795 J04-45 191 103 5845 J05-45 165 86 5895 J06-45 182 75
5796 J04-46162 97 5846 J05-46 191 103 5896 J06-46 158 73
5797 J04-47193 106 5847 J05-47 161 88 5897 J06-47 187 77
5798 J04-48 167 97 5848 J05-48 191 100 5898 J06-48155 76
5799 J04·49 190 109 5849 J05-49 161 91 5899 J06-49 190 78
5800 J04·50 162 98 5850 J05-50 199 96 5900 J06-50 159 77

A-42
 HEAT AGE TEST J - 473°K

TIme 324005 TIme 468005 TIme 756005

Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
5901 J07-01 176 99 5951 J08-01 185 93 6001 109-01 192 88
5902 J07-02 187 99 5952 JOS-02 170 78 6002 109-02 167 75
5903 J07-03172 83 5953 JOS-03 183 81 6003 109-03187 65
5904 J07-04 182 88 5954 JOS-04 162 77 6004 109-04 159 66
5905 J07-05 169 86 5955 JOS-05 179 77 6005 J09-05182 67
5906 J07-06 183 87 5956 J08-06167 77 6006 J09-06 163 61
5907 J07-07 161 83 5957 J08-07 183 78 6007 J09-07188 76
5908 J07-08 184 91 5958 J08-08164 75 6008 J09-08 169 57
5909 J07-09 160 85 5959 108-09 174 72 6009 J09-09 187 61
5910 J07-10 180 91 5960 108-10 166 72 6010 J09-10 162 58
5911 J07-11 166 83 5961 108-11 182 67 6011 J09-11 184 77
5912 J07-12 178 88 5962 108-12 167 62 6012 J09-12 164 62
5913 J07-13 166 81 5963 J08-13 170 68 6013 J09-13 189 63
5914 J07-14 184 88 5964 J08-14 165 60 6014 J09-14 161 56
5915 J07-15 168 84 5965 J08-15 180 67 6015 J09-15 182 59
5916 J07-16183 93 5966 J08-16 164 65 6016 109-16 163 59
5917 J07-17 165 83 5967 J08-17 177 66 6017 J09-17 189 60
5918 J07-18 181 91 5968 J08-18 161 66 6018 J09-18 162 58
5919 J07-19 165 84 5969 J08-19 177 66 6019 J09-19 189 58
5920 J07-20 186 93 5970 J08-20 162 66 6020 J09-20 163 58
5921 J07-21 163 83 5971 J08-21 175 68 6021 J09-21 188 61
5922 J07-22182 90 5972 J08-22171 61 6022 J09-22164 49
5923 J07-23 162 80 5973 J08-23 176 62 6023 J09-23 185 59
5924 J07-24187 94 5974 J08-24166 59 6024 J09-24 159 47
5925 J07-25 164 94 5975 J08-25 181 71 6025 J09-25 191 67
5926 J07-26185 88 5976 J08-26162 61 6026 J09-26 159 87
5927 J07-27161 70 5977 J08-27180 57 6027 J09-27 173 69
5928 J07-28 186 87 5978 J08-28 161 58 6028 J09-28 160 69
5929 J07-29165 78 5979 J08-29 183 62 6029 J09-29 174 72
5930 J07-30 183 81 5980 J08-30 161 60 6030 J09-30 158 61
5931 J07-31 162 75 5981 J08-31 187 61 6031 J09-31 175 59
5932 J07-32184 84 5982 J08-32160 63 6032 J09-32 159 55
5933 J07-33 163 76 5983 J08-33 188 61 6033 J09-33 175 52
5934 J07-34 191 85 5984 J08-34 163 58 6034 J09-34 157 61
5935 J07-35 165 76 5985 108-35 183 62 6035 J09-35 173 64
5936 J07-36189 81 5986 108-36 158 62 6036 J09-36 162 53
5937 J07-37164 74 5987 J08-37 185 62 6037 J09-37 179 56
5938 J07-38 183 81 5988 J08-38 158 68 6038 J09-38162 52
5939 J07-39 167 73 5989 108-39 189 63 6039 J09-39 175 60
5940 J07-40 187 81 5990 J08-40 156 68 6040 J09-40 156 52
5941 J07-41 167 73 5991 J08-41 185 68 6041 J09-41 171 58
5942 J07-42191 81 5992 J08-42 164 73 6042 J09-42167 90
5943 J07-43 164 75 5993 J08-43 184 73 6043 J09-43 185 65
5944 J07-44 191 83 5994 J08-44 160 62 6044 J09-44 162 59
5945 J07-45 166 83 5995 J08-45 192 77 6045 J09-45 183 78
5946 J07-46188 84 5996 J08-46 164 70 6046 J09-46 164 61
5947 J07-47162 86 5997 J08-47 189 74 6047 J09-47 190 60
5948 J07-48188 86 5998 J08-48 162 86 6048 J09-48 163 51
5949 J07-49 166 83 5999 J08-49 184 73 6049 J09-49183 53
5950 J07-50 186 82 6000 J08-50 166 86 6050 J09-50 162 54

A-43
 HEAT AGE TEST J - 473°K

TIme 111600s TIme 169590s

Rec:: Ref: INF FNF Rec: Ref: INF FNF
6051 110-01 169 68 6101 111-01 188 41
6052 110-02 191 93 6102 111-02 163 35
6053 110-03 171 79 6103 111-03 189 43
6054 110-04 190 73 6104 111-04 163 32
6055 110-05 163 68 6105 111-05 189 36
6056 110-06 190 73 6106 111-06 167 45
6057 110-07167 66 6107 111-07 186 36
6058 110-08 190 65 6108 111-08163 25
6059 110-09 167 64 6109 111-09192 37
6060 110-10189 65 6110 111-10 163 25
6061 110-11164 62 6111 111-11 184 38
6062 110-12 187 59 6112 111-12 169 23
6063 110-13 163 58 6113 111-13 194 32
6064 110-14 186 58 6114 111-14 157 20
6065 110-15 163 50 6115 111-15 184 25
6066 110-16 184 61 6116 111-16 161 27
6067 110-17 164 64 6117 111-17 187 25
6068 110-18 185 51 6118 111-18 165 27
6069 110-19 160 53 6119 111-19 182 36
6070 110-20186 53 6120 111-20 156 18
6071 JI0-21164 49 6121 111-21 184 26
6072 JI0-22 178 47 6122 111-22 160 22
6073 JIO-23 162 47 6123 JII-23 184 25
6074 JI0-24 177 50 6124 111-24 157 27
6075 JIO-25 163 52 6125 111-25 186 30
6076 JI0-26187 54 6126 111-26 155 23
6077 JI0-27158 35 6127 111-27 179 18
6078 JIO-28 186 45 6128 111-28 158 23
6079 JI0-29 159 35 6129 111-29 179 18
6080 JI0-30 185 36 6130 111-30 158 21
6081 JI0-31 160 36 6131 111-31 182 25
6082 JI0-32187 39 6132 111-32164 23
6083 JI0-33 163 37 6133 111-33 183 24
6084 JI0-34 185 42 6134 111-34 163 28
6085 JI0-35 165 45 6135 111-35 183 21
6086 JI0-36183 41 6136 111-36 165 29
6087 JI0-37158 39 6137 111-37 182 30
6088 JI0-38180 42 6138 111-38 162 24
6089 JI0-39158 41 6139 JII-39 183 22
6090 JI0-40 179 42 6140 111-40 162 39
6091 JI0-41 159 42 6141 111-41 179 32
6092 JI0-42188 45 6142 111-42 162 25
6093 JI0-43 157 41 6143 JII-43 174 23
6094 JI0-44 187 44 6144 111-44162 33
6095 JI0-45 154 41 6145 111-45 189 34
6096 JI0-46178 44 6146 111-46 160 29
6097 JI0-47157 44 6147 111-47185 29
6098 JI0-48 182 48 6148 111-48 163 34
6099 JI0-49159 45 6149 111-49 183 41
6100 JIO-50 178 40 6150 JII-50 162 37

A-44
 APPENDIXB

This appendix gives the data collected from two investigative tests that
have been carried out in addition to the main heat age tests. These are the Effect
of Insertion/Withdrawal Cycling on contact normal force, and the Effect of Stress
Levels on contact normal force reduction. The data format for these tests is
detailed next:-

1) Effect of Insertion/Withdrawal Cycling (Page B-2)

The data is listed in seven columns. The first labelled PN gives the
individual contact pin number within the connector (see figure 4.3). The
next column labelled IR gives the initial reading of normal force, measured
in grammes force. Each of the remaining five columns is headed by a
number (1,3,5,10,20), this gives the number of insertion/withdrawal cycles
that have been made prior to normal force reading listed in that particular
column. Once again the reading is expressed in grammes force.

At the bottom of each data column the average (Avg:) and the
standard deviation (S.D.:) for the fifty reading is given.

2) Effect of Stress on Normal Force Reduction (Page B-3)

The data is listed in two entitled Unmated and Mated. Each block
has four columns. The first labelled PN gives the individual contact pin
number within the connector (see figure 4.3). The next two labelled INF
and FNF give the initial and final normal force measurements respectively
(expressed in grammes force). The last column labelled % gives the final
reading of normal force expressed as a percentage of the initial value.

At the bottom of each data column the average (Avg:) and the
standard deviation (S.D.:) for the fifty reading is given.

B-1
 InsertionfWithdrawal Test Results

PN IR 1 3 5 10 20
1 163 156 145 145 132 126
2 169 156 145 144 119 115
3 168 149 133 134 132 122
4 171 156 145 141 134 123
5 164 143 128 126 128 123
6 169 152 138 137 130 127
7 168 146 135 130 125 128
8 155 150 132 132 130 129
9 165 143 135 135 128 128
10 158 147 141 140 134 135
11 167 152 145 143 142 141
12 150 141 137 135 130 129
13 164 150 142 141 139 140
14 164 148 144 142 140 140
15 162 146 142 138 137 135
16 167 153 147 144 146 143
17 165 147 142 142 141 134
18 165 152 148 144 140 135
19 161 143 138 132 126 126
20 165 151 149 144 141 140
21 162 138 132 125 124 123
22 167 153 147 148 138 141
23 166 145 144 136 135 133
24 156 143 139 136 99 100
25 162 150 148 139 110 114
26 165 159 151 147 122 119
27 164 148 141 135 111 109
28 175 160 150 148 139 132
29 165 147 139 131 130 129
30 169 156 148 141 137 130
31 167 148 139 136 126 125
32 170 158 146 141 137 137
33 167 147 136 132 129 124
34 169 157 146 141 141 132
35 166 149 139 135 132 133
36 157 145 143 137 130 132
37 169 158 153 152 143 143
38 170 156 149 147 141 139
39 169 151 148 146 142 142
40 170 161 152 152 147 144
41 167 153 145 146 141 142
42 170 157 154 152 149 147
43 170 146 139 138 136 134
44 167 153 148 150 145 146
45 171 147 143 139 138 128
46 169 153 148 146 143 143
47 165 152 150 144 141 137
48 169 154 153 150 148 145
49 167 154 143 141 141 134
50 153 148 143 141 138 137
Avg: 165.46 150.54 143.34 140.42 134.14 131.86
S.D.: 4.858848 5.235303 5.955199 6.468663 9.885363 9.779591
R_?
 Effect of Stress Test Results

Unmated Mated
PN INF FNF % PN INF FNF %
1 167 165 98.8024 1 171 26 15.20468
2 167 166 99.4012 2 176 20 11.36364
3 168 171 101.7857 3 173 31 17.91908
4 166 166 100 4 171 22 12.8655
5 165 168 101.8182 5 174 21 12.06897
6 163 167 102.454 6 168 18 10.71429
7 167 172 102.994 7 174 26 14.94253
8 165 170 103.0303 8 167 22 13.17365
9 170 172 101.1765 9 167 25 14.97006
10 159 167 105.0314 10 168 23 13.69048
11 158 164 103.7975 11 176 26 14.77273
12 125 132 105.6 12 169 19 11.2426
13 157 164 104.4586 13 158 25 15.82278
14 169 169 100 14 163 33 20.2454
15 158 160 101.2658 15 158 27 17.08861
16 169 173 102.3669 16 167 25 14.97006
17 156 162 103.8462 17 152 26 17.10526
18 170 173 101.7647 18 160 25 15.625
19 158 160 101.2658 19 164 29 17.68293
20 169 173 102.3669 20 164 24 14.63415
21 159 163 102.5157 21 165 28 16.9697
22 167 172 102.994 22 168 24 14.28571
23 155 161 103.871 23 170 27 15.88235
24 168 172 102.381 24 166 26 15.66265
25 158 158 100 25 170 30 17.64706
26 167 164 98.20359 26 161 24 14.90683
27 159 160 100.6289 27 169 39 23.07692
28 161 170 105.5901 28 171 26 15.20468
29 157 162 103.1847 29 161 25 15.52795
30 167 170 101.7964 30 168 23 13.69048
31 154 160 103.8961 31 161 22 13.6646
32 174 170 97.70115 32 163 28 17.17791
33 154 158 102.5974 33 155 22 14.19355
34 166 173 104.2169 34 168 24 14.28571
35 160 158 98.75 35 153 20 13.0719
36 175 169 96.57143 36 168 26 15.47619
37 170 170 100 37 157 21 13.3758
38 167 171 102.3952 38 169 26 15.38462
39 174 174 100 39 170 19 11.17647
40 169 171 101.1834 40 166 23 13.85542
41 162 161 99.38272 41 155 19 12.25806
42 173 172 99.42197 42 168 24 14.28571
43 161 158 98.13665 43 158 19 12.02532
44 168 169 100.5952 44 171 20 11.69591
45 152 158 103.9474 45 158 25 15.82278
46 175 165 94.28571 46 172 21 12.2093
47 162 162 100 47 155 15 9.677419
48 157 172 109.5541 48 165 22 13.33333
49 168 164 97.61905 49 162 24 14.81481
50 168 170 101.1905 50 173 24 13.87283
Avg: 163.5 165.8 101.5167 Avg: 165.5 24.2 14.61229
S.D.: 8.11 7.0 2.618732 S.D.: 6.13 4.04 2.40263

B-3
 APPENDIXC
This appendix contains copies of papers published by the author. The
listing of those papers are as follows:-

C-2
1 N.A Stennett, T.P. Ireland and D.S. Campbell, "Normal Force
Reduction in Electronic Contacts", IEEE Transactions on
Components, Hybrids and Manufacturing Technology, vo!. 14, no.
I, pp. 45-49, March 1991.

C-7
2. N.A Stennett, T.P. Ireland and D.S. Campbell, "Powered Testing of
Electrical Contacts in Mixed Flowing Gases", IEEE Transactions on
Components, Hybrids and Manufacturing Technology, vo!. 14, no.
I, pp. 50-55, March 1991.

C-13
3. T.P. Ireland, N.A Stennett and D.S. Campbell, "Fretting Co"osion
of Tin Contacts", Transactions of the Institute of Metal Finishing,
no. 67, pp. 127-130, 1989.

C-17
4. T.P. Ireland, N.A Stennett and D.S. Campbell, 'The Effect of
Cu"ent and Voltage on the Performance of Tin Coated Connectors
During Life-Testing", Proceedings of CERT '90, pp.137-143 London,
1990. .

C-24
5. T.P. Ireland and N.A Stennett, "Basic Contact Physics - An
Overview", Connector Industry News, vol. 1., no. 3, pp. 16·19, Nov
1989.

C-28
6. N.A Stennett and lA Hayes, "Connector Reliability", Proceedings
of The Electric Contact in Automotive, Aeronautical and Space
Applications, pp. 145-150, Toulouse, France, 1991.

C-1
IEEE TRANSAl.'·IONS UN COMI'ONENTS. IIYURIDS. AND MANUI'ACTURINO TEClINULUGY. VU!.. I-I. NO. I. MARCII I'I'H
Nornlal Force Reduction in Electronic Contacts
Neil A. Stennett, Tim P. Ireland, and David S. Campbcll, SelliorMellliJer,I££E
AhslrQct-Elrval~d l~mperature heat aging tests hav~ brrn performrd
on dual antilcnr beam gold-plated--over-nicktl, phosphor bronzc elrc-
(rinl conlacb. The normal rnrce provided by 1111' bums was dircctly
measur~d bdorc and after heat aging. A series of cunes relating change
of normal forcr with time has b«n obtained ror the lempualur~ range
100-100·C. Thrs~ ctlrv~~ showed that the normal rorce reduces with
lime. The ratc or Ihls reducllon was found to inereast: with rlevated
Irmptralur~. Th~ rnults or the tests hnt: bren usrd 10 devrlop an
empirieal relallonship for the behavior of Ih~ normal forc~ wilh lime
and trmpuature.
Kt),M'ords-Normal force reduction. slftSS relnation. creep. empiri-
cal relationship, heal age trsl, statistical analysis, s~parabl(' ('onnectors,
phosphur-hrnnl.r, dual canlilenr hnm.
I. INTRODUCTION
oPROVIDE a good electrical connection between two
T halve$ of a separahle connector, a force is required to hold
them together. For nearly all practical connectors a spring of
some description is used to do this. (Some manufacturers have
experimented with a miniature "hydraulic" system in an attempt
to increase pin density). This force is referred to as the normal
force (FN ) and Coin be related to the electrical resistance of ;1
clean conlacl (R c) by Ihe formula III
where
p electrical resistivity of the contact (ohm times meter)
11 hardness of the contact (kgmm- 2 )
i.e., R(' is inver$cly proportional to the square root of I~
I).
It is a well documented facl Ihal Ihe force provided by a
spring will decrease with time 12], (3). The processes of stress
relaxation and creep cOnlinually work to reduce the effectiveness
of the spring. The implication of this for connector designers is
that they must incorporate springs into their designs with higher
initial normal forces than would otherwise be required. This
must be done in order to cater for the end of life requiremcnts of
the contact when the forcc provided by the spring may only be a
fraction of the initial value.
Although increasing the normal force reduces the contact
resistance (Fig. I), there are several drawbacks. Firstly, higher
Manuscript rcceived April I, 1990; revised October to, 1990. This work
was surported by AMP or Great Drilain Ltd., wilh the support or AMP
Incorporated. This paper was presented at the 36th IEEE Holm Conference
on Electrical Contacts, Monlreal, P.Q., Canada, August 20-24. 1990.
N. A. Stennetl and D. S. Campbcll are with the Component Technology
Group, Dcpartmenl or Electronic and Electrical Engineering. Loughborough
University or Technology. Loughborough. Leicester, England LEII 3TU.
T. P. Ireland was with thc Component Technology Group. Department or
Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Loughborough UniversilY or Technol-
Clg)', Loughboro~gh, l..cict"slcrshire. England. He is now with 1...1bauto l.td ..
Worksop, Nottinghamshire, England S80 38J.
IEEE Leg Number 9041243.
0048·6411/91/0300-0045501.00 ©199IIEEE
u
Q)
c:
IV
1ii
Ui
Q)
.
--
a:
U
IV
c:
o
U
Normal Force -
Fig. I. Idealized relationship betweclI Ihe nmlll:.!1 li,n:e (/~) and thc
electrical resistance (R .. ) nr an electric contact.
nonnal force rC$ults in higher rates of wear at the interface ror a
given number of insertion/withdraw'll cycles (4J. Secondly.
increasing the norlllal force will produce a higher frictional
force. and therefore, a larger insertion ;lIld withdrawal forcc.
This will be particularly significant when high pin coulH ClmIlCC~
tors are used. An inerea!.. e in insertion force or 100 g per contact
for a 600 way connector can produce an increase in mating force
of 6U kg. Finally to prcxJuce :I higher normal force generally
requires a physically bigger spring. This is a retrograde step
when designers are striving to produce smaller contacts for
(I) higher packing density conneclors.
Tu determine the initial normal force, ami hence, spring lype,
it is necessary 10 know two parameters:
i) the minimum normal force required for a stable contact
(e.g., ror gold-platcd contacts this may bc considered to
be 30 g and for a lin plaled conneclor 100 g 151),
(Fig. ii) what percentnge of the initial lIorlnal force will remain at
the cnd of the contact life (i.e., to what extcnt will the
spring be effected by strC$S relaxation and creep).
When determining the first pOIramcter it lIlay he necessary to
consider the ability of the spring to prevent other failure mecha-
nisms occurring in addition to providing a suitably low contact
resistance (e.g., with tin-plateJ contacts the normal force must
be sufficient to prevent micromotion at the interfacc, otherwise
frelling corrosion will occur) 161.
The second parameter requires a knowledge of how the
normal force produced by the spring ch:..IIlges with time. This
will depend on tJ1C operating temperature at which the contact is
used, the material with which thc spring is made, and its design.
(Some contacts use thc connector housing as part of the spring
mechanism and this must also bc taken into.·consideration).
Data concerning rales of stress relaxation are provklcd by
material manufacturers and from thc literature 171. Unfortu- I
nately. it tends to be based on mctal strips rather than on formed
springs. Invariably it will havc been gathercd using somc forlll
of high temperature testing and will incorporate some sort of
extnlpolation in the timc and temperature domains. (RC31 con-
nectors tend to have life spans. up to to a or more, fur which it
is not practical to test at lhe dcsigncu uperating tcmpcfl)turc.) In
addilion Ihere is rarciy delailed stalistical analysis of Ihe data,
C-2
 IEEE TRANSAcnONS ON COMPONENTS. HYBRIDS. AND MANUFACIlJRJNG TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 14. NO. I. MARCH 1991

i.e., confidence levels,· etc. Because of these problems many

tests are comparative; the stress relaxation rates of one material
are compared with those of another.
To overcome these uncertainties many manufacturers use an
Squarl! Post (Wait')
accelerated life test to determine what effect the reduction in
normal force has on the performance of the component. The
most common test used by the connector industry is the "heat
Fig. 2. Simple duel cantilever- beam contact.
age" test. This test is based on the results of experimental work
undertaken by Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1950's [S].
·Their work showed that llS·C copper wire relaxes to 50% of its 200 .,' .

fti1Wi JI
initial stress in 33 d. By extrapolation the same amount of
relaxation would take 40 a at a typical operating temperature
(5rC). Results are also available for other contact base materi-
als, e.g., phosphor, bronze, and beryllium copper.
The use of wire instead of real contact springs and the lack of
statistical confidence bands for the data leads to uncenainties. As
: ..
• result, when endeavoring to produce a reliable product, the
inevitable tendency is to over design.
--+-.. ;_. !----:- -
20 .. *;.--~ ... -~

The absence of real data for contacts can be attributed to the °O"~~~~'~.~~1~2~'~.-"~~~-N~-U~
TIme (MInutes)
difficulty of actually measuring the normal force of the contact in
Fig. 3. Temper-ature rise characteristic of a contact within a connector
a nondestructive manner. Measuring the insertion force is not a housing. .
suitable method because of the large variability of the coefficient
of friction. However, probes have recently been developed that
allow a direct nondestructive measurement of the nonnal force. TABLE I
These incorporate microstrain gauges arranged to measure the COMPOSITION OF PHOSPHOR BRONZE SPRINQ MATERiAL
nonnal force between two surfaces opposite to one another. (PERCENT BY WEIGHT)
Using these devices it is possible to measure FN and to observe Element: %
how it changes with time for a range of temperatures.
Tin (Sn) 3.50-4.50
Taking advantage of this development in technology. a series 0.01-0.10
Phosphorus (P)
of elevated temP'!rature heat age tests have been carried out Iron (Fe) 0.10 max
using real connectors. The aims of these tests have been to Lead (Ph) 0.05 max
investigate how temperature affects the rates of
reduction of Zinc (Zn) 0.30 max
normal force in real contacts and "to develop empirical relation- Cu+Sn+P 99.S min
ships for this process.

IT. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The contacts used for the experimental work were made from
phosphor bronze. These were plated with cobalt hardened gold
over nickel. The base material of the contact was high conduc-
tivity phosphor bronze alloy, UNS No. C51100 (see Table I)
with spring temper (HOS). There were 50 contacts per connector
arranged in two rows of twenty five.
The contact was comprised of a square post (male) which was
held in between a simple dual cantilever beam (female), see Fig.
2. The spring beams were formed by stamping and were heat
treated. The connector housing did not form any part of the
spring. The initial normal force was typically 150 g.
Before any rigorous experimental work could be performed it
was necessary to establish the time required for the contacts in
the connector to reach the temperature of the oven. A thermo-
couple was attached to the eenter of a connector and the temper-
ature rise monitored after it was placed in an oven. A plot of
temperature rise versus time is shown in Fig. 3.
From this data it can be seen that it took approximately half an
hour for the connector to reach the desired temperature. How-
ever. the bulk of the temperature rise occurred much more
quickly. Therefore, a time of 10 min (by which time the
connector was within a few degrees of the desired temperature)
was added to the length of time in the oven.
The exact time interval required fer the connector to heat up
is difficult to calculate. This then influences the method used for
testing. If only one sample is used and it is continually heated up
and then cooled down in order to take nonnal force measure-
ments. the uncertainty in time will increase with every reading.
In addition the stresses of continually heating and cooling may
be more detrimental to the contacts than stress relaxation and
creep. It was decided that the following approach be used.
The nonnal force of each contact was measured for a series of
connectors. These connectors were then mated with a male
connector and placed in an oven at a preset temperature. The
connectors were removed sequentially at predetermined· time
intervals. They were then unmated and the normal force of the
contacts measured. This test was repeated at different tempera-
tures within the range of loo-200·C.
1II. REsULTS
The results of the tests are shown in Figs. 4-13 corresponding
to the following temperatures; lOO·C, lW·C, 120·C, l30·C,
140·C, 150·C, 160·C, 170·C, ISO·C, and 200·C, respec-
tively. The normal force reduction P is the percentage reduction
in normal force as a result of the test. The time is measured in
seconds. The data have been plotted on a log-log scale for
clarity. Each reading corresponds to the average of the 50
contacts in each connector.
IV. ANALYSIS OF REsULTS
A brief analysis of the data for the connector system reveals
several results.
i) Normal force reduces with time.
ii) Normal force does not reduce "linearly with time.

C-3
STENNElT et al.: FORCE REDUCTION IN ELECTRONIC CONTACTS 47

, ,
, ; L-..-.l.
I
f ' I--.L
1..-
!= I !1---.-l
! , I I

o.y W.... IIonIh y.., 10 y..,.

TIme (t)
,I,

I Day W_ IIonUI
llme (t)
\ II
Year 10 V..,.

Fig. 4. lOO·C heat agc test results. Fig. 9. ISO·C heat age test results .

, .5 100;
"0 ' " 70..
! t 1
r
.+
-l
- ..
--j-
j 1- - I"
g '; 30 --- L I ;-,-

~ I ~ ~ 20 !
~ 10
1---T
& If-----t--1r--t-·---r--.. --'-;-
I j

, 11I! Z~ I I
I · ·i I;
:. 1 ,I!
o.y W" Month y.., 10VM,.. Hour Day Wen Month Y..r 10 Yea,..
TIme (t) llme (I)
Fig. S. 11O·C heat agc test results. 160·C heat age test results.

'.5 100 " -f=- - 1 -l-

e =.:::r:.-----1 ---<-

00:-: t-·- f-· i-

g
IX
'; t:::-----==t==t=jr==I---t
~ ~
u..
30
20
10
i 1---,
-.-+----·-+-·-·-·--1"
&;; I 1 I
11 E ; 1 1 I

__ __+-__ j!! i!
_ 'I 1 ,
I II I
1~--~~-+

Hour o.r W_ ~

Month v..,
~

10 v.....
1~----~~~----~--~
Hour Day WMk Month Year 10 Y..,..
TIme (I) llme (I)
Fig. 6. 120·C heat agc'test results. Fig. 11. 170·C heat age test results.

---I-
___I-
, -1-
- 1!---4=1=1--1- - ' -
b-- =--t------
1
- I

1
oar Week Month y.., 10 Y. .,. o.y Week Month Yeu 10 Y....
TIme (I) llme (I)
Fig. 7. 130·C heat age test results. Fig. 12. lSO·C heat age test results.

-i· ---l~-

-=j~~
L-? .'-
I- ---
V-
I"

I
,----'
I 1

1~----~~--~--+---~ I I
Hour oar
w. . IIordh 10 Y..... y.., Day Week Month Year 10 Y..'"
TIme (t) llme (t)
Fig. 8. 140·C heat age test results. Fig. 13. 200·C heat age test results.

C-4
•• IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS. HYBRIDS, AND MANUFAcruRING TECHNOLOOY. VOL 14, NO. J. MARCH 1991

, , , , .
-~-~-!-'--l--'!-'

Day W_MonIh V.... 10Y. . . 120 140 160 180 200

TIme (\) Temperature °c
Fig. 14. Lines of best fit from heat age tests using linear regression with Fig. 15. Regression constant b versus temperature.
Jinearizing lransfonns.
force reduction to time, the next step is to investigate whether it
can be expanded to incorporate variations in temperature. To
TABLE 1I
PARAMETERS FROM ApPLYINO LINEAR REGRESSION (USING
analyze this it is necessary to examine the parameters n and A
UNEARlZING TRANSFORMS) 1'0 11IE DATA - n SLOPE. b =
INTERCEPT = (b) to establish if !hey vary in a predictable way wi!h tempera-
(A = eb) ture.
A plot of b versus temperature is given in Fig. 15. The error
Temp. Constant Exponent Correlation
(0C) A n Coefficient bars shown indicate the 95 % confidence l~vels. No linear rela-
tionship is apparent, in fact, variation in the value of b appears
100 7.4 0.07 0.904
110 3.7 0.14 0.985 to be random when compared to variations in temperature. This
120 6.7 0.11 0.979 is confinned by examining the correlation coefficient, 0.392, in
130 5.0 0.15 0.992 this case. This is a very low value suggesting little or no
140 6.0 0.15 0.995 correlation. From the point of view of the empirical relationship
ISO 5.0 0.18 0.995 we can thus treat b as a constant independent of temperature.
160 5.2 0.185 0.997
170 7.9 0.165 0.994 Having obtained 10 samples of b from the tests an average can
180 8.8 0.172 0.996 be calculated and confidence bands determined. If the data are
200 6.7 0.21 0.969 assumed to be normally distributed with 95 % confidence levels
b is as follows:
iii) The rate of reduction of normal force decreases wi!h b = 1.8 ± 0.2.
time at constant temperature. Hence:
iv) The rate of reduction of nonnal force increases with A =6.0± 1.1.
higher temperatures.
Fig. 16 shows the variation of the exponent n with tempera-
Using !hese results it can be seen !hat when plotted on a ture in the data collected. The error bars correspond to 95 %
log-log scale, !he data at any given temperature approximate to confidence bands. In this instance a variation with temperature is
a straight line. This suggests !hat at any given temperature !he discernable. Using linear regression on the data, a line of best fit
straight line equation, y = mx + C, may be used to produce an can be calculated (Fig. 17). From the analysis the correlation
empirical relationship for !he process coefficient is 0.888. Therefore, we can say that there is a
In (P) = n In (I) +b (2) correlation between n and temperature, T. Also included in Fig.
17 are the 95 % confidence bands for this equation (19).
where
This then gives an empirical relationship for the process of
P reduction in normal force as a percentage of !he initial nonnal force reduction, with respect to time and temperature for
value the system under investigation. of the form:
t time in seconds,
b zero intercept of !he "line of best fit," P = 61°.0011 (4)
n slope of !he "line of best fit." where
This can be simplified by taking the exponential of each side P reduction in normal force as a percentage of the initial
of the equation to produce: value,
t time in seconds,
P = AI" (3) T temperature in degrees centigrade.
where A = exp(b).
The lines of best fit for each set of data have been calculated V. DISCUSSION
using standard linear regression with linearizing transforms [9). The data that the empirical relationship is based on was
These are shown graphically in Fig. 14. The corresponding collected in the temperature range lOO-200·C and in the time
equations are given in Table IT with the correlation coefficients. range 0-3 moo It is, therefore, only applicable within these
These give • measure of the degree of association between the ranges. When applying this type of analysis it is unwise to
variables and can range from - I to + 1. Values close 10 - I or extrapolate outside !hese ranges unless there is a good reason for
+ I indicate a high degree of association or correlation whereas doing so. To be of use in the predication of nonnal force
values close to 0 indicate little or no correlation. reduction in real contact systems, times of up to lOa and
Having established an empirical relationship relating normal temperatures down to room temperature are more realistic envi-

c-s
STENNE'IT ~I 01.; FORCE REDUcnON IN EI..EcrRONIC CONTACTS
0.0: i ;
-~l--T~-j--T-,-!~-·r-
1 1 1 j
100 la 1~
Temperature ·C
Fig. 16. Regression slope n versus temperature.
i~U4~
"i 0.1 .. ~.-+~ . ~ 1........ ;.... ,+·:=r::::-J::~.:::t.::::=:
~ ~~ ~~~j:~:l~!~~~~::
100 120 1~
Temperature ·C
Fig. 17. Line of best fit for regression slope n versus temperature.
ronments. One method of overcoming this problem would be to
gather data up to these new parameters, i.e., conduct very long
duration low temperature tests. However, the time constraints in·
such testing become a serious problem. It would be possible io
extrapolate such data to, e.g., room temperature ·and obtain an
estimated value of the cbange in the rate of change of nonnal
force.
An alternative approach is to look at the physics of the device.
If it is possible to find a theoretical model that supports the
empirical relationship then the limitations of the test ranges may
be overcome. In addition it may be possible to link the parame-
ters of the empirical relationship to material parameters which
would then allow the fonnulas to be expanded to incorporate
other systems. It is this area which is currently under review at
the Component Technology Group at Loughborough University
of Technology.
The empirical relationship produced is only one of many
possible empirical relationships that could be constructed from
the data. It was based on applying linear regression analysis on
each set of test results. Another approach currently under review
involves multiple linear regression in which all the data points
(some 6150 readings in all) are analyzed simultaneously [10]. In
addition to testing the empirical relationship that has been devel-
oped this method may well produce other relationships that fit
the data even better.
Comparison of the results with published literature is not easy
since nearly all the related work deals with stress relaxation and
does not give values of normal force reduction. Although in all
49
probability stress relaxaton accounts for the largest part of the
this phenomena, other factors such as creep may have to be
considered. For the material used (UNS No. C51100) the manu-
facturers' data give values for percentage stress remaining as
74% after 1000 h at lOO·C and 47% after 1000 h at 150·C. The
experimental work produced values for percentage normal force
remaining after the same times and temperatures as 75 % and
30%, respectively, (see Fig. 14). Although the low temperature
i ! i
readings are in good agreement, the higher temperature readings
1~ 1~ ~ are somewhat different. In answer to this it must be remembered
that the parameters being compared are different (i.e., nannal
force and stress relaxation) even though they are closely related.
Also, the manufacturers data will probably have been compiled
from strips ~ather than actual contact springs, and hence, the
geometries will be different.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
An empirically-based relationship has been produced from test
data performed on a phosphor-bronze, base material contact
system. The empirical relationship can be used for predicting the
amount of normal force reduction that has tilken place after a
given time at a specified temperature. Confidence bands have
110 180 200 been calculated for the empirical relationship parameters. The
limitations of the use of the empirical relationship are described.
Areas of funher research are outlined.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank AMP personnel both in the
U.K. and the U.S.A., in particular, Nigel Baker and Bob
Mroczkowski. for helpful advise and comments during the course
of study.
REFERENCES
[11 R. Holm, Electric Contacts. Berlin, Gennany: Springcr~
Verlag. 1968.
(2) E. ShapiTO and H. Hummel. "High temperature stress relaxation:
Mechanisms and data:' in Proc. 17th Ann. Connectors and
Interconnection Technology Symp .• 1984, pp. 99-108.
(3] F. R. La.rson and 1. Miller, "A time~temperature relationship for
rupture and creep stress," Trans. ASME, pp. 765-775, 1952.
(4] M. Antler, "Sliding wear of metallic contacts," IEEE Trans.
Camp .. Hybrids, Manu!. Technol., vol. CHMT4, pp. 15-29,
Mar. 1981.
[5] R. S. Mroczkowski, "Contact surfaces-Where the action is,"
presented at INDYCON 500 Conf., Indianapolis, IN, Aug.
23-24, 1983.
[61 J. B. P. WilIiamson, "The microworld of the contact spot," in
Proc. 27th Ann. Holm Seminar on Electrical Contacts, 1981,
p. 1. .
[7] J. C. Harkness and C. S. Lorenz, "Stress relaxation of beryllium
copper in bending," presented at the Electronic Connector Study
Group Symp., 1979.
[8) J. H. Whitley, "Stress relaxation and creep in metals," AMP
Research Note 110.
19] C. Lipson and N. J. Sheth, Statistical Design and Analysis oj
Engineering Experiments. New York: McGraw-HiIl, 1973.
ch. 13, pp. 372-415.
[to] D. C. Montgomery and E. A. Peck., Introduction to Linear
Regression Analysis. New York.: Wiley, 1982.
C-6
 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, HYBRIDS, AND MANUFAC11lRlNG TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 14, NO. I, MARCH 1991

Powered Testing of Electrical Contacts

in Mixed Flowing Gases
Neil A. Stennett, Tim P. Ireland, and David S. Campbell, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract-A series of Industrial mixed Bowing g85 t£Sts bave been TABLE I
~rlormcd using real connecton to investigate the effects or electrical DEANmON OP MFG ENVIRONMENTS BY COMPOsmoN
power on tbe life of gold·plated contacts, The connecton wen: divided
loto three sets; uomaled, uopowerai, and powe~. Cbange in contact Gas Concentration (ppb)
ralstance was nsed as tbe measure of contact ~rformance. The results Test/Class H,5 Cl, NO, %RH T ("C)
showed Ihat with real contacts, the shielding provided by tbe housing,
wben a connector Is mated, siglllfic:anUy Inblblts corrosion at the inter- I
race even 'In the barshest environments. As a consequence. levels or 11 10 10 200 70 30
corrosion produced at the Interface with the uDpowe~ and powered m 100 20 200 70 30
sets was nry small. A marginal Increase in contact resistance was, IV 200 50 200 75 50
howenr. detec::ttd when contacts bad beep powerai to rated current.
In order to investigate tbe phenomena In mon: detail, mon: severe
atmospheres and less well sblelded connecton wen: used. These subse-
quent tests produced Increases In corrosion at the contaet interface, electronic applications connectors that require the connector to
particularly for tbe powered sets. The cbange in resistance or the be powered during the test.
powered contacts was higber (sometimes greater tban five limes) tban One of the most progressive of the tests used to evaluate
that or the unpowered sets. It Is suggested that tbls result is due to the connector performance is the industrial mixed flowing gas test.
rise in tempt:rature at the interface 01 tbe powered contacts Increasing
tbe rate of cbemlcal reaction. There are several versions of this test [1) but arguably the most
Continuous monitoring 01 resistance durlog tbe tests produced resis- realistic of these is based on the findings of the Battelle Institute
tance cbanges consistent wltb tbe pbenomena of self-beaUng. [21. This environmental test can be used to predict the perfor-
Keywords-Powered testing, gold, self-bealing, contact resistance, mance of a contact system under normal working conditions
sbielding. durability, corrosion. accelerated life tesliog, because the acceleration factors associated with the test are
known. These acceleration tests have been developed from an
I. iNTRODUCTION extensive worldwide field study undertaken by the Battelle field
Study program [3). There are four classes of aunospheres used
ITHIN today's hi-tech society reliability is becoming more for this test. They range from the benign (office) to the very
W and more a feature of system design. As a consequence. severe (heavy industry). The chamber reproduces these atmo-
system components have to be rigorously tested in a scientific spheres by utilizing the synergistic properties of the pollutant
way and given appropriate reliability ratings. The humble con- gases. Table I shows the concentrations of each pollutant gas
nector is as much a part of this trend as the most sophisticated required to simulate each class of aunosphere.
microprocessor. Prior to a typical test, the parameters to be measured (nor-
To detennine the reliability of a component it is first neces- mally contact resistance, Rc) are recorded. The connectors are
sary to identify the failure mechanisms attributable to it. A then placed in the chamber. which is set at the atmosphere
means of testing against these mechanisms. usually under some appropriate to the test, and left for a specified length of time
sort of accelerated life conditions, must then be detennined. (usnally 10 d). At the end of the test the connectors are removed
finally, the results of these tests can be assessed against a and the parameters measured. Any change in their value are then
suitable parameter to give the reliability ratings for that compo- compared with the specification for that connector. This specifi-
nent under the specified conditions. . cation is normally written by the customer and does not neces-
With electronic and electrical connectors Several of the known sarily have any scientific basis.
failure mechanisms are well documented. Progress in the field of A survey of all UK IMfG chambers revealed that no testing is
accelerated life testing is less advanced but several tests are carried out on connectors with current flowing through the
available. However, it is unusual to find a test, particularly for _ components during the.test. There were two reasons given for
this situation. Firstly, no customer or supplier specifies that
Manuscript received April I, 1990; revised October 10, 1990. This work. connectors should be powered during this test. Secondly most of
was supported by AMP of Great Britain Ltd., with the suppon of AMP the chambers have rotating carousels and the' logislics of cabling
Incorporated. This paper was presented at the 36th IEEE Holm Conference would present numerous problems.
on Electrical Contacts, Montreal, P.Q .• Canada, August 20-24, 1990.
The results presented here are for the powered testing' of
N. A. Stennett and D. S. Campbell are with the Component Technology
Group, Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Loughborough electrical connectors in a mixed flowing gas chamber. The
University of Technology, Loughborough, Leicestershire, England LEtl selection of the current value was based on the current required
3TU. to produce a measurable temperature rise of 30°C at the contact
T. P. Ireland was with the Component Technology Group, Department of interface. The parameter used to evaluate the perfonnance of the
Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Loughborough University of Technol-
ogy. Loughborough. Leicestershire, England. He is now with Labauto Ltd .• contacts was contact resistance. Visual and surface analysis was
Worksop. Nottinghamshire, England 580 381. also used to interpret the findings. The problem of cabling was
IEEE Log Number 9041242. overcome by turning off the rotating carousel. Thorough mixing

0048-6411/91/0300-0050$01.00 ©199IIEEE

C-7
STENNElT ET AL.: TESTING OF ELECl"RICAL CONTACTS IN MIXED OASES 51

of the gases was achieved by altering the angle of the gas inlet Gases Exil
nozzle.
The reasoning behind this work is based OD a logical premise. Carousel
If connectors are designed to pass current why are they not
tested with current flowing across the interface? The objective of
the work undenaken at Loughborough University of Technology ~ 0

(LUT) was to evaluate the differences between powered and

\ 0_
unpowered electrical contacts when subjected to a number of
Gas Test
accelerated life tests [41. If no significant differences are found Probes
Coupon A
then the tests can be justifiably called realistic. However, if there
are appreciable differences, then the philosophy of life testing Gases Enter
should be readdressed. (a)
Fig. 1. Battc:lle chamber configuration. (a) Front view. (b) Plan view.
I. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
The connectors used for the experimental work were high
reliability cobalt hardened gold plated over nickel plated (50 100.-------------,
Q) 90 -Cu - S ---Cl
/lin) phosphor bronze contacts. This meant that the quality of the ~ BO
connectors used was consistently high. Any changes in Rc -,: 70 /"
would arise from the test rather than from poor manufacturing. ~ 60 .----
No porosity measurements were made since all the connectors ~ '50 , . . . - - - - - - - - - - -
"-'0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _
used were from the same batch and the tests were designed to be
E JO ..........
comparative. not absolute. (i.e., place identical connectors .9 20 ____ ~.::.:---
through the same conditions with the only difference being the < 10 - _ _ ________ ------- ---

application of electrical power). o+-~~~~~~~~--~

Two different types of connector were tested. The first had 30
/lin of gold at the contact interface with a gold flash over the rest
of the contact. The housing of ibis connector gave a relatively
high degree of shielding to the contact interfaces. The second
had 50 /lin of gold at the contact interface with a gold flash over
the rest of the contact. The housing of this connector gave a
relatively poor degree of shielding to the contact interfaces. The
connectors were designed for high reliability applications.
Prior to each test, a batch of connectors were soldered to
custom built PCB's and mated with their respective halves. The
initial resistance of each contact was measured using the four
point method. In addition to the resistance at the interface, this
would also include some of the bulk resistance of the contact and
some cabling resistance. A Keithley 580 Micro-Ohmmeter was
used for this under dry circuit conditions (100 mA maximum,
20-mV maximum). At these dry circuit conditions, the upper
resistance limit is 200 m 0. The accuracy of the Micro-Ohmme-
ter was ± 20 /l0. This was computer controlled to reduce
human error, e.g., teD readings per contact were taken. If the
distribution fell outside a predefined limit then an error flag was
signaled. The ambient temperature was also recorded before and
after the test to ensure that thermal effects on electrical resistiv-
ity could be eliminated.
The connectors were then divided into sets. In Test 1 these
were uumated. uopowered, and powered. As their names
suggest, the unmated connectors were uomated throughout the
test. The unpowered connectors were mated but unpowered.
Finally the powered set were mated aDd powered to rated
current (as determined by the 30·C temperature rise mentioned
previously) for the duration of the test. Power was only applied
after the contacts had been mated. From a practical point of
view the contacts were powered in series. (A typical powered set
in a test would consist of up to two hundred individual contacts.)
In later tests, the uomated set was not included and the
remaining two sets were subdivided into groups. These groups
underwent varying degrees of durability Wear cycling prior to
the first measurement of resistance. This varied from I to 100
. insertion/withdrawal cycles.
After the connectors had had their initial resistances measured
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I J.2
Depth (micro-meters)
Fig. 2. Auger analysis results on coupon A.
and had been divided into the appropriate sets and subsets, they
were all placed into the test chamber. A constant current was set
through the powered set and the test started. After the appropri-
ate length of time the test was stopped. The connectors were
removed from the chamber and the final resistances measure-
ments were made.
The change in contact resistance (R c) due to the test was then
calculated by subtracting the initial resistance measurement from
the final one. In this way the effects of the bulk resistance of the
contact and of the cabling were minimized.
The voltage across each set of powered contacts was recorded
on a chart recorder for the duration of Tests 2 and 3. This
voltage reading is the potential produced when the constant
current used during the tests is passed through the powered
contact sets. Since all the contacts in each set are wired in series
this is directly related to the sum of the contact resistances of
each of the individual contacts.
The chamber used was owned by British Telecom Research
Laboratories at Martlesham Heath. The chamber was manufac-
tured by ACE and the monitoring equipment by Melloy. To
allow for cabling to enter the chamber and not become twisted,
the carousel was disengaged. The inlet pipe was inverted and a
batHe inserted to ensure good mixing. This· arrangement was
verified by placing metal coupons inside the chamber.
The layout of the PCB' s and coupons within the chamber is
shown in Fig. 1. After the test was completed the coupons were
analyzed using Auger analysis. The typical results are shown in
Figs. 2 and 3. PCB's from different sets were alternated around
the carousel (e.g., powered, unpowered, powered, etc.). The
results showed no correlation between position on the carousel
and increase in contact resistance. In addition the individual
connectors were mounted vertically on the PCB's. The results
showed no correlation between contact height and increase in
contact resistance. These results together with the fact that all
the contacts for anyone test were placed in the test chamber at

C-B
'2 IEEE TItANSACTtONS ON COMPONENTS, HYBRIDS. AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 14, NO. I, MARCH 1991

I~~-----------------------, 100
II.l 90 - C u - S ---Cl ~-
u'"
x p>0 fER D 2A
~'ao !6 0
+ UN 0 ER D
i: 70 Co<:
00 1
~ 60
~ 50
U- 0 fiN A D
c"
-- -- .-
._ 0 O. 1
0. ••
E 3. C ,- ~.
.3
<
20
10 ,.1'_,.--
~~
",__-..:-"",
"'"
bD~

C "
0.0
11--" ,.#"

tU-a; 0.00 1
•o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.11 I 1.2
0<:"
UQ:
. Depth (micro-meters) 0.000 1
o 10 20 30 "0 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fig. 3. Auger analysis results on coupon B. Cumulative Percentage
Fig. 6. l.S connector set (Test 1).
100
~­
u"
x PO ER ~D 2A UNPOWERED/POWEREO
.sCo<:e 10
+ UN 0 ER D
Depth IOnm
OAu
00 I§lS
U- 0 ~N A D
I!I Cl
.S ~ O. 1
IIC
C
~! 0.0 1 1110
Coo
.cco';;;III 0.001
, k,: l1li eu
I!I Sn
UQ:
Fig. 7. Auger surface analysis results {Test I).
0.0001 0 10 20 30 .0 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cumulative Percentage
Fig. 4. HS connector sets (rest I), 10
~­ x PO ER D 2A
u'"
.. 6
~o<: + UN PO ER D
10 Co
1
x PO hR ~D 2A .36 "t.:
+ U~ »01 ER D ~: .- "
C - ~~
.- o ...... i"""
.5 - Q) ,...
~;
C~
",,,,
.enn
0.1
J""
-.
.~.

" o. 1 ~
:,;
..
U"
0:: 0.0 1
o
."
c~

~'u;
U" Fig. 8.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cumulative Percentage
HS connector results at 20 IfW Cycles {Test 2).
Il:·o.o 10 10 20 30 .0 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cumulative Percentage 10
Fig. 5. Comparison of powered versus unpowered connector sets (Test I). ~­ x PO ER D 2A
u'"
",6 + U~ ~O ER D
""0<:
Co
the same time suggest that all the connectors underwent the same
test conditions.
.36
- .... "
.S
...."
Q;I
A typical test would have a Class III or Class IV atmosphere.
The severity of this test is a consequence of the high reliability
Co) s:: o. 1 -
C"" ~
of the connectors used. The atmosphere is more severe than a1.~
would be used for normal reliability testing for which the 0<:"
U"
0:: 0.01
components are designed to pass with negligible resistance o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90 100
changes. Cumulative Percentage
Fig. 9.. HS connector results at SO IfW cycles {Test ~).
III. REsULTS

A_ Test.1 B_ Test 2
The conditions for this test were to d in a Class III atmos- The conditions for this test were 10 d in a Class IV atmo·
phere followed by 10 d in a Class IV atmosphere .. The results for sphere. The results, shown in Figs. 8- \0, are for 3 sets· of liS
the high shielded (HS) connectors and low shielded (LS) connec- connectors which were subjected to 20, 50, and IOC
tors are shown in Figs. 4-6. The maximum allowable resistance insertion/withdrawal cycles, respectively.
measurement using dry circuit conditions is 200 mO. This Due to the physical size of the chart ...."order data it was nOI
explains the limiting value of the change in resistance in Fig. 6 feasible to include them in these results. The voltage reading'
for the unmated and the powered sets. for nearly all powered sets were stable for the duration of the
Auger analysis on the contacts was perfonned, the results are test, i.e., the resistance remained constant. The onc exceptiO[
.
shown in Fig. 7_ was the 100 wear cycled set where there were two events 01

C-9
STENNB1T ET AL.: TESTING oP ELECTRICAL CONTAcrs IN MIXED GASES 53

10 100
• PO ER ~D 2A ~-
0", • o ER D 2A
+ U~ PO ER D
~-!:
!lE
c:..:
00
10
+ UN 0 ER D .

- --
u~

c:"0
.."'"" ""
.~
0.1
..... r....... lr
i"'"

: --
~ 0.01

. UJ 'c;j
..:" 0.001

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
u<>:
0.0001 0
-.' 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cumulative Percentage Cumulative Percentage
Fig. 10. HS connector results at 100 IfW cycles (rest 2). Fig. 14. LS connector results at 50 I/W cycles (rest 3).

Slage 1 Slage 2

~
~
o
o
• ~•
~

§--+----------------------.~
U
§--~------------------
U Time
..
Time
Fig. 11. Illustration of chart recorder data (rest 2). Fig. 15. I1Iustration of contact failure observed by chart recorder in Test 3.

100 TABLE 11
~-
0", • o ER D 2A TIME (HOURS) OP EACH STAGE OP CONTACT UFE DURING TEST 3
j e 10
+ UN 0 ER D
(240 H)
"..: Wear
83 1
- Cycles Stage I Stage 11 Stage III
O. 1 10 240
.,.i'

--
20 95.5 144.5
0.01 -' 50 168 1.83 0.17
0.00 1

0.000 1 measure these it was necessary to change the setting of the

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cumulative Percentage Micro-Ohmmeter to nondry circuit conditions, i.e .. maximum
source voltage of 1 V and maximum test current of I mA. (This
Fig. 12. LS connector results at 10 l/W cycles (rest 3).
was only done after a contact had had a dry circuit measurement
to establish that the resistance was in fact greater than 200 m 0).
100 As with Test 2 it was not feasible to include the chart
~-
0", • "0 ER D 2A
recording results due to their size. The voltage traces from the
!le 10
+ UN o ER D chart recorder showed three distinct stages in the deterioration of
"":
00 the contacts. The first stage comprises of a constant level
U~
corresponding to constant resistance. This resistance becomes
""
.."
.~ 0 0.1
I- I""'" -'
unstable during the second stage. The third stage is characterized
""
C:'"
~ 0.01
~- r-
by a sharp rise in the resistance culminating in open circuit. The
corresponding times of each stage for the results of this test are
ctI'oo L.o-
..:" 0.001
tabulated in Table n.
U<>:
0.0001
.- f-- The 20 wear cycle test stage two period was interspersed with
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 gO 100 "stable" regions consistenl with stage I. T)le length of these
Cumulative Percentage regions were up to 36 h in length. When instability occurred the
Fig. 13. LS connector results at 20 IfW cycles (Test 3). observed resistance changes varied by as much as 50 m O. In
addition towards the end of the test, after 232 h, an event similar
note. An abridged version of the voltage traces for these is given to those in Test 2 occurred.
in Fig. 11. With the 50 wear cycle set, total contact failure occurred after
170 h of the 240-h test. The stages of failure are illustrated in
C. Test 3 Fig. 15.
The conditions for this test were 10 d in a Class IV atmo- IV. ANALYSIS OF REsULTS
sphere. The results, shown in Figs. 12-14, are for 3 sets of LS
connectors which were subjected to 10, 20, and 50 A. Test}
insertion/withdrawal cycles, respectively. With this tesl several The test conditions chosen at first glance may appear to be
of the contacts had resistances higher than 200 m O. In order to very severe. However, it must be remembered that real connec-

C-lO
 54 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS, HYBRIDS. AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOlOGY, VOL. 14, NO. I. MARCH 1991

tors are being used and these are designed to pass such tests with
little or DO degradation at the interface. Hence, in order to
produce changes in resistance that will enable comparisons to be
made it is necessary to use harsher conditions.
Considering the actual results, the resistance changes for the ~

unmated connector sets were significantly worse than those for o

the mated sets, whether powered or unpowered, regardless of "
~

the types of shielding (Figs. 4 and 6). This demonstrntes the
benefit of connector housings as a corrosion barrier in these
types of test [5).
The HS connector showed very little difference between the
mated sets. When the scale is magnified, Fig. 5, the powered
contacts show a slightly worse performance above 90%. How-
ever. even with the very severe test conditions used, the overall
levels of corrosion are very small. This makes analysis of the
effect of powered contacts against unpowered contacts for a
highly shielded connector very difficult, i.e., if no corrosion
occurs then the rate of growth cannot be increased by applying
power.
The results for the LS connector were more revealing (Fig.
6). As indicated by the resistance changes, the levels of corro-
sion on the powered contacts were at least five times higher than
those of the unpowered contacts.
Analysis of the contact surfaces using Auger re-emphasized
the difference between the amount of corrosion of mated and
unmated connectors (Fig. 7).
B. Test 2
The shielding effect predominated these results. The severity
of the test atmosphere was reduced but durability cycling was
introduced to deteriorate the interface. Only the set which had
had 100 wear cycles showed any difference between the powered
and unpowered contacts. However. overall levels of corrosion
were very small.
The stable voltages (resistance) recorded by the cban recorder
confirms that levels of corrosion at the interface were not high
enough to produce any significant changes in resistance. Two
events that occurred during the test in the voltage of the 100
wear cycled set are of interest. In the first event, which occurred
after 72 h and 48 min of the 240-h test, the total voltage
increased by 0.08 V (20 m 0) in under I min. This increase was
maintained at a stable value for a period of 7 h and 40 min. It
then reduced to its original value, again in less than I min. The
second event followed a similar pattern to the first. It occurred
after 176 h and 26 min of the test and lasted for 2 h and 18 min.
The change in voltage was 0.04 V (10 mOl. A possible explana-
g-+------------t~
u Time
Fig. 16. lJIustration of event observed in chart recording data from Test 3.
electrical potential and current on the corrosion process, i.e.,
frilling [7) and self-healing [8). The 50 wear cycled set had even
more plating damage. The amount of base material and nickel
exposed is now sufficiently large that the corrosion process
dominates and the resistance rises (stage 3).
The event that occurred at the end of the 20 wear cycle test
involved the resistance increasing by 150 mO for a period of 6 h
and 10 min. The initial rise occurred in less than 1 min. The fall
occurred over a period of 40 min. This is reproduced in Fig. 16.
As with Test 2 it is believed that this event may be attributable to
the process of self-healing.
V. DtSCUSStON
Before the work was carried out it was thought that there
could be two possible outcomes. Either the electrical phenomena
of fritting and/or self-healing would maintain the integrity of the
junction or the heating effect of current would increase the rate
of chemical reaction at the interface (corrosion) and produce an
increased rate of deterioration. What actually happens appears to
be a combination of both these processes competing with each
other.
The electrical effects have been observed to be beneficial. The
events shown in Figs. II and 16 both have a rise and fall in
resistance. Additionally, even though the resistance became
unstable in the first half of the test, the contacts continued to
conduct current for the remainder of the test. Indeed the resis-
tance would even revert to the initial stable value for long
periods. However, the overall levels of corrosion (as detennined
by increased contact resistance measurements) of all the contacts
in the powered sets were higher than the unpowered sets (e.g.,
Fig. 13). This suggests that the temperature rise caused by the
passage of current (super temperature [7) as well as bulk temper-
ature) increases the rates of chemical reaction. This is not
surprising since it is generally accepted that for every IO'C rise
in temperature the rate of chemical reaction will double. A

--_
tion for these events is the phenomena of self-h~ing [6].
..
c. Test 3
---- means of testing this would be to conduct a series of unpowered
. tests in cabinets of similar atmospheres but at different tempera-
tures.
The results for this test was far more revealing with respect to . The three stages observed from the chart recordings are
the comparison between powered and unpowered contacts. Even thought to correspond to the deterioration of an e1ectrieal con-
though the severity of this test was less than Test I the powered tact. The first stage represents a stable region, where any
contacts still showed level of corrosion 2 to 3 times greater than contamination of the interface does not appreciably affect the
the unpowered contacts. contact resistance. As the corrosion levels rise, the junction
The effect of the differing degrees of wear cycling was becomes unstable; this is reflected in the continually changing
illustrated by the chart recorder data. The 10 wear cycle set resistance. At a microscopic level the number and size of the
remained in stage one throughout the entire test. With the 20 a-spots [8) is varying. The,e are two processes competing
wear cycling set there occurred an extended period of instability against each othe, during this stage; corrosion is reducing the
(stage two). Since the interface had more wear, the gold plating effective contact area, but the electrical effects are maintaining
will have experienced correspondingly more damage, allowing metal to metal contact. In the final stage of a contact life the
greater corrosion (of the base material and nickel underplate). corrosion process takes over and the resistance rapidly rises to
The instability is likely to be a result of the effects of the open circuit.

C-ll
 STENNElT ET AL.: TESTING OF El.ECTRlCAL COm-ACTS IN MIXED GASES
r
I The changes in resistance that were observed in the chart
i recorder data are for a number of contacts in series. It is
i unlikely that the resistance of all the contacts changed by a
proportional amount. A more likely scenario would be just one
or two contacts providing the change. It must be remembered
that with all real processes statistical variability will occur, e.g.,
with all the tests it is possible to find an unpowered contact that
perfonns worse than a powered contact. However, when viewed
in their entirety the overall trends become apparent.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
I) The shielding provided by a connector housing signifi-
cantly reduces corrosion levels when it is subjected to an
industrial mixed flowing gas test. Different housing de-
signs afford differing degrees of protection. With highly
shielded connectors, levels of corrosion produced at the
interface were very small even with very severe tests,
which included durability cycling. 11 was difficult to draw
any definite conclusions concerning the comparison of
powered contacts against unpowered ones because of this.
However, a slight bias towards powered contacts perform-
ing worse was detected.
2) With low shielded contacts, powered contacts performed
worse than unpowered contacts in a variety of severe test
regimes determined by atmosphere and wear cycling. Lev-
els of corrosion with contacts powered to rated current
were several times greater thati unpowered contacts. This
is believed to be caused by the thermal effects (i.e., rise in
temperature) due to the passage of current.
3) Continuous measurement of the resistance during the tests
showed that events occur consistently with the phenomena
of self-healing and frining. Contacts which failed appeared
to have three distinct stages during their life. These were
comprised of a stable resistance period, a period where
C-12
s
electrical and chemical effects are competing with eacl
other I and a final period where the chemical reaction run
away and the contact "dies."
4) In applications for which the connectors that were teste<
were designed for, it is unlikely that there would be an~
detectable difference belween powered and unpowered set
in the specified environmental tests. However, in mon
severe tests or when reduced quality connectors are use<
because of economic demands, the results presented be·
come significant.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank AMP personnel both in th<
U.K. and the U.S.A., in panicular, Nigel Baker and Bot
Mroczkowski for their encouragement and help. We thank BT,
Manlesharn Heath, U.K. for the use of their equipment.
REFERENCES
(I] J. Souter, ""Corrosion testing of connectors-A review," in Proc.
Connectors '87, U.K .. 1987.
[2] W. H. Abbott, "The development and perfonnance characteristics
of mixed flowing gas test environments," in Proc. 14th ICEC,
Paris, 1988.
(3] b2-, ""The development and performance characteristics of mixed
flow gas test environments," in Proc. 33rd IEEE/Holm Con/.
on Electrical Contacts, Chicago, 1987, pp. 63.
14] - , "Materials, environment, motion and electrical contact fail-
ure mechanisms," in Proc. Electrical ContaclS, 1989.
[5] T. P. Ireland, N. A. Stennett, and D. S. Campbell, "Fretting
corrosion of tin contacts," Trans IMF, vol. 67, p. 127, 1989.
[6] J. B. P. Williamson, "The self-healing effect-lIS implications in
the accelerated testing of connectors," in Proc. 10th lCEC,
Budapest, 1980.
[7] R. Holm, Electric Contacts, 4th cd. New York: Springer Ver-
1ag, 1967.
[8J F. Bowden and D. Tabor. The Friction and Lubrication of
Solids, vol. 2. London, U.K.: Oxford University, 1964.
.'
T. P. Ireland,
N. A. Stennett,
0. S. Campbel/
Department of Electronic and
Electrical Engineering.
Loughborough Universily 01 Technology.
T. P. Ireland, N. A. Stennett
and D. S. Campbell
Trans IMF. 1989.67,127
Fretting corrosion of tin
contacts
5t.Mw.wn' - Fretting has been induced between tin plated brass contacts using a speciafly designed
rig. both 'Nithout and with a Current passing through the contact faces.
Results are given of the analysis of the debris obtained by the fretting process. These show that the
rate of oxide growth is accelerated by the passage of current across the interlace. It was also noted
that in I:xJth the case of current and no current a considerable amount of copper oxide debris was
produced.
INTRODUCTION the applied field and this shortens the life of
The effect of the dramatic rise in the price .of the contact.
gold during the 1970s is still being felt in the In this paper the effect of current on
connector industry. New, and old, alterna· fretted tin contacts is examined. The ex-
tives to gold are being evaluated for reliabil- perimental system is based on actual con-
ity and economy with varying degrees of nector piece parts. but as noted later in the
success. text, they are subjected to test conditions
Gold has unique property that it does not which normally would not be encountered.
readily form an insulating, surface contami- Analyses are made of the number of cycles
nating film. This makes it an ideal contact to failure, and of the debris formed at the
material provided that the coating is non- surface and ejected by the motion. The
porous to contaminants in the atmosphere. results for a powered system are compared
If it is porous then gas contaminants can with those for an un powered system.
react with the underplate and base mate-
rials to form corrosion products which raise BACKGROUND
the contact resistance. Tin as a contact material
A' class of coatings that has proved to be Unlike gold, which is a noble metal, tin
a suitable alternative to gold uses tin based oxidises readily. Typically the oxide layer on
coatings on the contact interfaces. These clean tin will grow to a thickness of sA in a
systems are used extenSively in the auto- matter of microseconds"' This oxide con-
mObile industry and for applications where tinues to grow, but at a slower rate. Since
the highest reliability is not the main criteria. the oxide is not a good conductor, tin would
One of the major disadvantages of tin as a appear to be an unsuitable choice as a
contact material is its susceptibility to fret-
contact material. However tin oxide is con-
ting corrosion. Waterhouse 1 has defined siderably harder and more brittle than the
fretting as a "wear phenomena occurring metal itself. In the form of cassiterite the
between two surfaces having OSCillatory oxide has a hardness of 16S0 Kg/mm 2
motion of small amplitude". Fretting corro- compared to a value of only S Kg!mm 2 for
sion is a form of fretting where a chemical the pure metal·. This means that when two
reaction predominates, which usually pieces of tin are pressed together with
means that particles of debris produced by sufficient force the hard brittle oxide cracks.
fretting react with the atmosphere to pro- The softer metal can then extrude through
duce a chemical product as an oxide. these cracks and reach the surface (see Fig.
The fretting of tin contacts and subse- 1). Where the cracks in the two surfaces
quent oxidation of the debris can lead to coincide, good metal-metal contact is
unstable contact resistance values and established and current can flow across the
eventually to contact failure 2 • The relative
interface. Where the cracks do not coincide
motion which causes fretting can be pro- the tin at the surface will oxidise rapidly. A
duced by processes such as vibration and similar phenomena has'been photographed
thermal movement. In his review of Contact in the case of aluminium7 • where the metal
Fretting', Antler discussed the effect of can be seen extruding in a rectilinear pattern
current on the forced fretting of electrical through the oxide..
contacts. He proposed that there are two
processes possible, depending on the ap- The effect of fretting on tin contacts.
plied voltage and on the current. At low Once metal to metal contact has been
currents the potential difference across the achieved current flows freely and the con-
interface is also small. However it may be tact is reliable. However, if the interface is
sufficient to breakdown electrically an in- slightly displaced then it is possible that the
sulating oxide film. This phenomena is areas of exposed tin no longer coincide and
known as "fritting"'. At higher currents current can no longer pass. Fortunately the
localised resistive heating can occur at the normal force on the surfaces will crack the
contact interface. The consequent rise in oxide again and metal to metal contact will
temperature increases the rate of oxidation be re-established. This time a thicker layer
to such an extent that the oxide rapidly of oxide has to be broken. In situations
becomes too thick to be broken down by when the interface is being displaced con-
127
C-l3

1r
I --'/
Broken OXlde~'
~
./ A T}n Ollde
Ftgure 1, The Cracking of Tin Oxide.
tinually Le. when fretting is occurring, it
becomes clear that ultimately the detritus of
oxide and powdered oxide debris will be too
thick to be broken by the normal force at the
applied voltage (see Fig. 2). The contact
ceases to conduct and its failure can be
attributed to fretting corrosion2 •
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
General design
The system selected for the experimental
work was a tin plated brass pin and socket.
It is extensively used in the automobile
industry throughout the world. This contact
system is designed to eliminate fretting
motion by using a high normal force.
However, the system was convenient for
the experimental work and the fretting
motion was forced using a specially de-
signed rig. Although this does not cOrres-
pond to real conditions the emphasis of the
work was the investigation of the relative
effect of powered and unpowered contacts
and the artificial conditions allowed direct
comparison to be made. This differed slight-

y from previous fretting tests which have
used either a hemispherical cone on a flat
surface, or a crossed rods system. This
means that there are considerations which
may influence the results. The most impor-
tant are the normal force, the effect of
frecuency and exposure to the atmosphere.
A real contact system has a fixed normal
force whereas artificial systems, such as
crossed rods, allow for the normal force to
be varied. The magnitude of the normal
force can have a significant effect on the
fretting process· and is usually kept low (Le.
less than 1N to accelerate failure). The
system used in our tests was designed to
impose a high normal force (3-4N) with the
object of preventing fretting from occurring.
The higher frequency of the fretting motion
may have a significant effect on the fretting
corrosion. At lower frequencies the oxide
film growth would be expected to be much
greater..An artificial system is much more
susceptible to oxidation than a pin-socket
contact which has a considerable amount
of shielding which will limit the ingress of air
to the interface". These factors suggest that
a real system would require a greater
number of fretting cycles to change the
contact resistance significantly than would
the typical laboratory arrangement.
The parameters used for the ex-
perimental work were kept constant for
both power on and for power off. The
128
ero).n OlldlP
rt I.
= =L'Y? - -
' . n ' Oll(le rlh
===~==
Tin
----.-
Figure 2. The Growth of Oxide During Fretting.
H
IOcm
T'
L -,
Figure 3. Vibrator and Custom made Trunnion,
frecuency was maintained at 50 Hz and the
displacement at 50~m. When the contacts
were powered the current was kept con-
stant at 3A. The contacts used had a
maoufacturers's rating of 14A.
Resistance measurements were made
using the four terminal method with a
maximum dry circuit voltage of 20mV and a
maximum current of 100mA. In the unpo-
wered tests the resistance was measured
continuously. During the powered tests the
resistance was measured at intervals of 60
seconds with the power off but with the
contacts still in motion (i.e. the contacts
were powered for approximately 55
seconds in every minute). The period of time
between the removal of the current and the
resistance measurement was estimated to
be sufficient to allow the point of contact to
cool to room temperature so that the
measured resistance of both powered and
unpowered contacts would be directly
comparable'.
Equipment
The fretting motion was produced using a
Goodmans Vibration Generator Type V50
Mk1. On application of a sine wave voltage
to the input terminals the device's drive
shaft vibrated. The frequency of vibration
was the same as that of the input. The
amplitude of vibration is controlled by the
amplitude of the input voltage. The vibrator
was fixed to a custom-made trunnion,
shown in Fig. 3. . actual pOint of contact as possible had the
The assembly had three feaures:-
a) It held the vibrator in position. This was
fixed for the 'z' plane but allowed pivot-
ing in the x and y p'anes. This facilitated
a vertical movement in the drive shaft of
about 2cm (in the y plane).
b) A clamp was provided to hold the
stationary part of the test sample. This
C-14
!--~+-< 100 1I1t10n~
InHud
Tin
!
~'--- nlCrO.Ollon
~
~
/ . 'II~~'
.
0 ...,,, r l l .
4C::
-. -..
nl'fa.Ollon
~
I '~~":'''':'.JI'">''I''ll'o<j'
.n·" ., .."" ••
was fixed in the z and y planes but wa:
movable in the x plane to accommodah
samples of different sizes and to assist i,
mating and unmating the connectors
Attached to this assembly was a positior
transducer housing. When suitably ex
cited this detected movement of a plun
,<
ger connected to the drive shaft of th'
vibrator. The motion was displayed or
an oscilloscope.
c) Another clamp was provided for th'
moving part of the sample. This wa,
attached to the drive shaft. Fixed to thi'
was the plunger of the position transduc,
er. A set of four strain gauges wm
attached to the shaft of this device.
These detected deflections in the vertica
plane and when suitably calibrated coulc
be used to give the normal force be-
tween the moving and stationary sam-
ples.
The complete apparatus included the
vibrator and trunnion; a signal generator and
power amplifier to provide the required input
signal; a power source and oscilloscope for
detecting the motion; a strain gauge trans-
ducer to indicate the normal force mea-
sured by the strain gauges on the drive
shaft of the vibrator clamp; a Hevvett-
Packard 6632A IEEE controlled constant
current source for powering the test sam-
ples; a Keithley 5802 IEEE controlled micro-
ohmmeter for measuring the contact resist-
ance; and a Waiters XT computer for
controlling the current source and micro-
ohmmeter. In addition a stroboscope and
microscope were used for visual inspection
of the sample during fretting.
To use the system the sample had four
cables connected to it for the measurement
of resistance, Fig. 4. The current terminals
were usually soldered to the ends of the
contacts and are clamped in the jaws of the
vices, band c, Fig. 3. However the voltage
terminals had to be positioned so as not to
come into contact with the clamps as this
would have affected the resistance reading
adversely. Placing them as near to the
added benefit of reducing the effect of the
bulk resistance of the contact to a
minimum. .
After the terminals had been attached the
sample was clamped by the vices. The
Stationary clamp could be moved in the x
plane to assisl in this process. If the sample
was a complele connector then the vibrator
was pivoted in the x and Y plane until the
 CGnuct rRtTTING or TIN CONTACTS
'.,htl"C. (l0/!i.0 Il. '!i. aluoal)
(.oau)
,,.
Vnltow!
Prob ...
Voltoyc
p!f'!~'~ ... lO It

..0 'z

Current ".
Cur,.·nt
Probe Probe
.
MAlt feMALE
.
CON1ACI CONTACT • 1.0[.2 LOt.' 10["
lIuaDu 01 eyeln
I O[.S I 0[·6

Figure 5. ENect of Frequency on Contact Resistance_

t--I
!cm COlltlct

.
rRtT'l'IIIG or TIll COIITACTS
t.ustlnelP
(.oan) (!IQ I •. ' .. anun,)

Figure 4. Attachment of Terminals to Sample.

, 'o~.nc

... I lA)

"...
.
1 0[.2 I e['l I 0[., I O[·S I Ot-o
~ubu Dl Creln

Figure 6. ENect of PoNer on Contact Resistance.

Figure 7. Unpowered Contact After 50,000 Cy·

cles.
Sn Cu Zn
vice on the drive shaft lined up with the vice Figure 8. Bemental Analysis of unpowered Sample (50,000 Cycles)
on Ihe trunnion. This was done visually and
the vibralor was locked into position. If the
sample consisted of two separate pieces of
material to be vibrated against each other,
the pivot was used to produce the normal
force between the two samples. This was
measured by the strain gauges and display-
ed on the strain gauge transducer. A
threaded bar with locking nuts enabled fine
adjustment to be made.
The power supply leads from the con-
stant current sources were attached to the
vices (the drive shaft of the vibrator was
insulated from the outer casing; therefore
J\
the only current path was through the Sn Cu Zn
sample) and the position transducer plunger Figure g. Elemental Analysis of Powered Sample (30,000 Cycles).
was inserted into the housing. by the computer software. RESULTS
To begin an experimental run the vibrator The sample could be examined during Failure criterion
and computer program were started simul- the course of a test with the aid of a The initial contact resistance was of the
taneously. The desired frequency was pre- microscope and stroboscope. This would order of 0.5 milliohms. The criterion 01
set on the signal generator but the ampli- verify that the desired frequency and ampli- contact failure was when the resistance
tude of the fretting motion had to be tude had been obtained. exceeded 200 milliohms.
adjusted manually using the voltage control It was not possible to produce reliable
and the pOSition waveform on the oscillO- fretting in the 50-100 micron displacement Number of cycles
scope. It may also need adjustment during reg·,on below 30Hz with this rig. To achieve The number of cycles required to produce a
the course of the test. The current passing this other methods of producing the vibra- high contact resistance was slightly highe'
through the sample and the measurement tion would have to be considered such as than that reported by others" This may be
of contact resistance (always made when thermal expansion or a precise mechanical attributed to the high normal force, frequen-
the current source was off) were controlled gearing. cy of motion and the effect of shielding 01

C-lS 121
the interface by the contact geometry.
Effect of frequency
Comparison tests were made with power
off at frequencies of SOHz and 30Hz, but no
appreciable· difference in the number of
cycles to failure was found. Generally a~er
SO,OOO cycles the resistance would exceed
200 milliohms, Fig. 5.
Effect of current
The powered contacts performed worse
than the unpowered ones. Typically a po-
wered contact would fail a~er 30,000 cycles
compared with SO,OOO cycles for the unpo-
wered contact, Fig. 6.
Surface observations
Analysis of the surfaces of the interfaces
was performed visually using an optical
microscope and a scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM). Elemental analysis of the area
and of the collected debris was made by
using the LINK facility of the SEM and Auger
electron spectroscopy.
Contacts were inspected after 1,000,
10,000, 20,000, 30,000, 40,000 and
50,000 cycles. In the last two cases the
powered contacts had contact resistances
greater than 200 milliohms. Observation at
a magnitude of x 50 indicated that evidence
of fretting corrosion was manifested by the
appearance of black regions at the area of
contact for both the powered and unpo-
wered tests. The black regions appeared to
cover as much as one and a half times more
of the surface after fretting with the power
on than when fretted in an unpowered
state. More detailed analysis was carried
out using Scanning Electron Microscopy.
Fig. 7 shows the black region in detail.
130
Debris and surface analysis
Elemental analysis showed that the black
regions and the debris consisted of copper
and tin oxide. Copper was the predominant
element present in both types of test but
particularly so in the unpowered case. The
black regions on the contacts had a cop-
per:tin ratio of approximately 2;1 for unpo-
wered contacts and 10: 1 for the powered
contacts. The collected debris was pre-
dominantly copper with fIVe times as much
copper as tin for the unpowered test debris
and one and a half times as much for the
powered test. There was evidence of zinc
but the amounts were small and difficult to
quantify, Figs. 8 and 9. It should be noted
that the contacts were observed a~er
reaching the point of failure, and not aiter
the same number of cydes.
CONCLUStONS
The passage of a current between electrical
contacts during forced fretting was found to
have a detrimental effect on their perform-
ance. It is suggested that this can be
attributed to the higher temperature at the
interface which increased the oxidation rate,
causing an earlier failure. This suggestion is
supported by the visual evidence that po-
wered samples generate oxides more
quickly than unpowered ones. The phe-
nomena of fritting seems to have little effect
on contact performance. Further work is
required to investigate the effect of current
magnitudes.
Elemental analysis showed that copper
predominated at the surface. This is not
surprising in view of the number of cycles
involved. The tin at the surface could be
worn away completely during the test,
following which there will be additional
C-16
fretting between the substrate materials:
The higher level of copper on the contact
surface which fretted under power suggests
that this mechanism occurred. Analysis of
the contacts and debris would need to be
made at different stages of the fretting
process to determine the position in terms
of metal concentrations across the contact.
This will be achieved by using visual ex-
amination of the surface, elemental analysis
and micro-sectioning across the contact.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The worK reported has been funded by
AMP Great Britain Ltd. with the support of
AMP Incorporated. The authors would like
to thank AMP personnel both in the UK and
the USA, in particul?, Nigel Baker and Bob
Mroczkowski. We thank Frank Page (SEM)
and Gary Critchlow (Auge~, both of LUT,
and David Taylor (Sunderland PolytechniC)
for the loan of apparatus.
REFERENCES
1. R. Waterhouse, "Fretting Corrosion", Perga·
mon Press. 1972.
2. E. Sock and J. VVhitley, "Fretting Corrosion in
Electric Contacts". Proc. 20tn Ho/m Conf..
Chicago 1974.
3. M. Antler. "Survey of Contact Fretting in
Electrical Connectors". Proc. 11th 1nl. Cont.
on Electrical Phenomena. Chicago 1984.
4. R. Holm. "Electric Contacts", 4th Edition.
Springer·Ver1ag. Ber1in. 1967.
5. Tin Research Institute Data.
6. F. Bowden and D. Tabor. "The Friction and
Lubrication of SolidS", Vol. 2, O.U.P, London,
1964.
7. B. Williamson. "The Microwor1d of the Contact
Spot", Proc. 27th Holm ConL. 1981.
6. A. Lee, A. Mao and M. Mamric.k "Fretting
Corrosion of Tin at Elevated Temperatures",
Proc. 34lh Holm ConI., 1988.
9. R. Snowball, B. Williamson and R. Hack,
"Ingress-Umited Corrosion of Contacting Sur-
faces-, IEEE Trans. PMP-3, No. 3, 1967.
 THE EFFECf OF CURRENT AND VOLTAGE ON THE PERFORMANCE
OF TIN COATED CONNECfORS DURING LIFE-TESTING

by
T.P. Ireland·, N.A. Stennett and D.S. campbell

Electronic component Technology Group,

Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering,
Loughborough University of Technology,
Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, U.K •
• Now with
Labauto
Worksop
Notts. U.K.

ABSTRACT

A series of Temperature/Humidity Life tests have been

performed using real connectors to investigate the effects of
electrical power on the life of tin coated contacts. The connectors
were divided into three sets: UNMATED, UNPOWERED and POWERED.
Change in contact resistance was used as the measure of contact
performance. The results showed that a difference could be observed
between UNPOWERED and POWERED contacts after the tests. The POWERED
contacts showed higher changes in resistance, this effect was
exacerbated when the power was CYCLED.
It is suggested that these results are due to the rise in
temperature at the interface of the POWERED contacts increasing the
rate of chemical reaction. Relative micro-motion (fretting) is
given as a possible reason for the CYCLED result.

INTRODUCTION

The electrical connectcir The testing of electrical

appears to be a simple connectors is one of the major
component. It's primary problems for both buyers and
function is to allow the manufacturers. There are a
passage of current from one variety of ways in which a
half of an electrical system to connector can ·fail to perform
the other half. There are, against the specification [1].
however, many factors which The "failure" of two
have to be accounted for when electrical connectors can not
designing a successful always be attributed to the
connector. These include normal same failure mechanism. Most
force, insertion force, contact tests for the evaluation of
material, underplate, base connector performance are
material, and housing. When a designed to reproduce one or
connector is finally designed sometimes two failure
it is then tested to ascertain mechanisms. e. g. Heat Age
it's reliability and (stress relaxation) [2], Mixed
suitability for the required Flowing Gas (corrosion) [3].
task. There is not, however, any

C·17
universal test for all failure
mechanisms. The general
philosophy of the test engineer
tends to be "If it passes this
test then it must be alright".
Although this may produce a
highly reliable product there
will be certain amount of over
design and extra cost involved.
This problem has existed
since testing began. The work
presented here does not attempt
to provide a panacea for the
test engineer. If, anything, it
may complicate matters further.
The objectives of the work were
to assess the effect of
powering contacts during an
environmental life test. This
is based on the simple premise
that if connectors are designed
to carry current, why are they
not tested in the same state?
There are two major reasons for
this. Firstly, the customer
does not normally specify
powered testing and secondly
the logistics of cabling can
prove too difficult for the
chamber.
The connectors chosen for
this work comprised of tin
coated nickel plated brass
contacts used in automobile
applications.
TIN AS A CONTACT MATERIAL
Unlike gold, which can be
considered a "noble" metal, tin
readily oxidises. Typically the
oxide layer on clean tin will
grow to a thickness of 5A in a
matter of microseconds [4].
This oxide will then continue
to grow at a slower rate. Since
the oxide is not readily
conducting tin would appear to
be an unsuitable choice as a
contact material. Fortunately
tin oxide is considerably
harder and more brittle than
the metal itself. In the form
of casseri te the oxide has a
hardness of 1650 Kg/mm2
C-lS
compared to a value of only 5
Kg/mm2 for the pure metal [5].
This means that when two
pieces of tin are pressed
together with sufficient force
the hard brittle oxide cracks.
The softer tin metal can then
"flow" through these cracks
and reach the surface [see
Fig. 1]. Where the cracks in
the two contact hal ves
coincide good metal-metal
contact is established and
current can now flow across
the interface. Where the
cracks do not coincide the tin
at the surface will rapidly
oxidise. This phenomena has
actually been photographed in
the case of Aluminium [6],
where the metal can be seen as
a rectilinear pattern extruded
through the oxide.
,---.,1"0\XI de
I )
~'
Brohn Oxl de
Ti n
Figure 1. The Cracking of Tin
Oxide
TESTING OF TIN CONTACTS
The oxide layer described
in the previous section acts
as a barrier to contaminants
in the atmosphere which could
corrode the interface. This
can explain why tin coated
contacts survive seemingly
severe life tests such as the
Mixed Flowing Gas test. It
also presents the problem of
how to test the performance of
tin coated contacts. It has
been found that humidity can
have a detrimental effect on
tin contacts [7]. It is also
known that fretting corrosion
is one of the major failure
mechanisms of tin contacts [8].
These two factors are the
reasons behind the test used to
assess the performance of tin
coated connectors. The
Temperature/Humidity test is
designed to give high
temperature and humidity.
Typical operating conditions
are as high as 8S"C and 8S% RH.
Temperature cycling is also a
popular test for tin
connectors. The differential
thermal expansion (OTE) rates
cause micro-motion at the
interface and ultimately
fretting corrosion.
Unfortunately none of these
tests are related to field
failure data and it is not
therefore possible to attribute
acceleration factors to them.
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
Prior to each test a batch
of connectors was soldered to
custom built PCBs and mated
with their respective halves.
The initial resistance of each
contact was measured. In
addition to the constriction
resistance at the interface
this would also include some of
the bulk resistance of the
contact and some cabling
resistance. A Keithley S80
Micro-Ohmmeter was used for
this at dry circuit conditions
(lOOmA max., 20mV max.). At
these dry circuit conditions,
the upper resistance limit is
200 mO. This was computer
controlled to reduce human
error. e. g. ten readings per
contact were taken, if the
distribution fell outside a
pre-defined limit then an error
flag was signalled. The ambient
temperature was also recorded
before and after the test to
ensure that thermal effects on
electrical resistivity could be
eliminated.
C-19
The connectors were then
divided into sets_ In earlier
tests these were UNMATED,
UNPOWERED and POWERED. As
their names suggest the
UNMATED connectors were
unmated throughout the test.
The UN POWERED connectors were
mated but unpowered. Finally
the POWERED set were mated and
powered to rated current for
the duration of the test. From
a practical point of view the
contacts were powered in
series.(A typical POWERED set
in a test would consist of up
to two hundred individual
contacts.)
In later tests the
UNMATED set was not included_
The POWERED sets were split
into two sub-groups. Half were
powered continuously the other
half had the power CYCLED.
After the connectors had
had their initial resistances
measured and had been divided
into the appropriate sets and
sub-sets, they were all placed
into the test chamber. A
constant current of 6A was
passed through the POWERED set
and the test started. After
the appropriate length of time
the test was stopped. The
connectors were removed from
the chamber and the final
resistance measurements were
made.
The change in contact
constriction resistance (Rc)
due to the test was then
calculated by subtracting the
initial resistance measurement
from the final one; In this
way the effects of the bulk
resistance of the contact and
of the cabling are minimised.
I.

RESULTS TEST 3

TEST 1 In Test 3 one POWERED set

was cycled daily (i.e. ON for
The conditions for Test 1 24 hours and OFF for 24
were twelve days at 85·C/85%RH. hours). The Test conditions
The results for the UNMATED, were twenty days at 85" C and
UNPOWERED and POWERED sets are 65%RH. The results for the
shown in Figure 2. UNPOWERED, POWERED and CYCLED
sets are shown in Figure 4.

4
I: l ~po ERi
IAJ
gE
~

8r--t~~~~taur--r--t--t--+~
"6 t.c Pol"ER 0 (6 )
8~
_ .6;'--i'rvm'r'~'~rnt--t--+--t--+--+--
, u cv ~""'
2 ". .5.
1.::-".-.1 ~~ 4+--+--+--+--t--r--t--+--+--+~·
~2 ,.
1 Cl ., • ~
Q~ 2r--+--+--+--t--r--t--+--+'~'~~
J-~~b-~~~~~~~~~I~~t~~·~~·
o
o 10 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 00 00 100
Cumulotlve Percentage 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cumulative Percentage
Figure 2. Results from Test 1
(12 Days at 8S·C/8S%RH) Figure 4. Results from Test 3
(20 Days at 85°C/6S%RH)

TEST 2
TEST 4
Test 2 was performed for
twenty days at a temperature of The cycling rate was
65"C and with a relative increased to 30 minutes for
humidity of 85%. The results test 4. This was based on the
for the UN POWERED and POWERED estimate time for the contacts
sets are shown in Figure 3. to cool to ambient temperature
when the current was switched
off. The current was cycled
using an IEEE Current Source
controlled by an IBM PC. The
test current was reduced to 4A
100 which was the maximum output
~
of the IEEE Current Source.
80
-.c
-0
ge 1< pAJ The test ran for 15 days at
Co + U POI ERE I 85"C and 85%RH. The results
8 5 60
• for the UNPOWERED, POWERED and
.5 G I ...
G~
o>C 40 CYCLED sets are shown in
.c.
col!
Do
()G
Cl:
20
V
j Figure 5.

oo 10 20 30 .0 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cumulative Percentage

Figure 3. Results for Test 2

(20 Days at 6s o C/8S%RH)

C·20
 TEST 3

Test 3 differed from Test

2 in three ways. The
10 temperature was 20' C higher;
the humidity was 20% lower;
'<., and the power was CYCLED for
~ ~~ WER o (4 ) half of the POWERED contacts.
y
'" . Comparing the results of the
POWERED and UNPOWERED contacts
. with those of Test 2 it can be
seen that while the contacts
all showed changes in Rc above
o
~ 80th percentile those in Test
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 2 (Le.with a higher RH)
Cumulative Percentage performed worse. This suggests
that humidity is a more
Figure 5. Results from Test 4 important factor than
(15 Days at 8S"C/8S%RH) temperature. Cycling the
current at the low" frequency
does not seem to have any
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS effect on the performance of
the contacts.
TEST 1
TEST 4
The results of Test 1
demonstrate the high The faster cycling time
reliability of the connectors produced over "350 cycles
tested. Generally the" POWERED during this test. The effect
sets showed a change in Rc 0.5 of this on the change in Rc
mn higher than the UNMATED and was significant. The overall
UNPOWERED sets. However the changes in Rc are not as high
largest change in Rc was less as for Test 3, this is not too
than 2. 5 mn. It appears that surprising as the test was
any additional oxide that form shorter and the current lower
on the exposed UNMATED contacts than the previous tests.
is disrupted when the connector
halves are remated.
DISCUSSION

TEST 2 The shielding effect of

the housing, which has been
Test 2 was eight days found to be so important for
longer than Test 1 and this gold contacts [9], does not
extra severity has produced have a measurable effect on
some interesting results. After the performance of tin
80th percentile the contact contacts when comparing the
resistance change values for resul ts for the UNMATED and
the POWERED contacts all exceed UNPOWERED sets. This does not,
10 mn. CA common failure of course, discount the
criterion used by the connector shielding from other
industry) • This results contaminants e.g. oil,
suggests that the extra heat afforded by the housing. The
generated by the passage of resul ts of the experimental
current is increasing the work presented demonstrate
levels of oxide at the that powering tin coated
interface. electrical contacts during an

C·21
environmental test can have a CONCLUSIONS
detrimental effect on their
electrical performance. Higher The' work has shown that
humidity appears to exacerbate life testing of tin connectors
this process. Cycling the power is more severe when power is
supplied to the contacts also applied to the contacts during
increases the resistance change the test. This is exacerbated
of the contacts. When the when the power is cycled_
cycling time is relatively fast
the contacts have higher Powered testing,
resistance changes than those therefore, will provide a
which are powered continuously sterner test for a tin
throughout the test. connector. The major issue is,
however, whether it is a more
The tin oxide formed on realistic situation. Logic
the contact acts as a barrier suggests that cycling the
to other contaminants. When the power is most representative
contacts are remated the oxide of a connector's life.
is disrupted and metal-metal However, without any field
contact re-established. This failure data to support these
explains why testing tin findings, powered testing only
contacts in an UNMATED state offers a numberless
produced no change in Rc. reliability statement.'
A probable reason for the
increased deterioration under ACKNOWLEDGMENT
power is the heating effect of
the current. This will increase The work reported has
the rate of oxidation at 'the been funded by AMP Great
interface and reduce the area Britain Ltd. with the support
of metal-metal contact (and of AMP Incorporated. The
therefore increase the Authors would like to thank
resistance). The rate of AMP personnel both in the UK
oxidation is known to increase and the USA, in particular
with higher humidity and this Nigel Baker and Bob
is shown to be the case. The Mroczkowski.
cycling effect is particularly
interesting as this situation
is a more realistic one than
continuously powered or
unpowered. (Connectors in
automobiles are cycled every
time they are switched on - 350
cycles could equate to only six
months motoring!). It seems
very likely that differential
thermal expansion is occurring
at the interface. This relative
oscillatory (fretting) motion
between the contact halves
produces a larger area of tin
(in the form of debris) to
oxidise. This phenomena is
known as fretting corrosion,
the major failure mechanism for
tin contacts.

C-22
· -
REFERENCES
1. T.P. Ireland and N.A. 7. W.H. Abbott and H.R.
stennett, "Why Do ogden , "The Influence of
Connectors Fail?", Environment on Tarnishing
Connector Industry News, Reactions", Proc. 4th
1990. Int • 1 Conf. on Electric
contact Phenomena,
2. J.H. Whitley, "stress Swansea, 1968, pp 35.
Relaxation and. Creep in
Metals," AMP Research Note 8. M. Antler, "Fretting
110. Corrosion of Solder and
Tin Coated Electrical
3. W.H. Abbott, "Battelle contacts", 16th Annual
Institute Environmental Connectors and
Studies Group, Reports 1 - Interconnection
9," 1977-86. Technology Symposium
Pro c e e din g s ,
4. Tin Research Institute Philadelphia, PA, USA. p.
Data. 231-41, 1983.

5. F. Bowden and D. Tabor, 9. W.H. Abbott "A Review of

"The Friction and Flowing Mixed Gas Test
Lubrication of Solids", Developments", corrosion
Vol. 2, o.U.P., London, of Electrical Contacts
1964. Seminar, National Physics
Laboratory, London, UK.
6. J.B.P. Williamson, "The 1988.
Microworld of the Contact
spot", Williamson
Interface, Malvern
Worcestershire, England.

C·23
 •
RESEARCH

Basic Contact Physics - An Overview

T. P. Ireland and N. A. Slennen

INTRODucnON

The electronic connector is one of the most common

components used in the electronics and automotive industries.
More often than not if an electrical fault develops the conneClOr
is the first component blamed. usually with good reason.
Why do connectors fail7 Or for that matter how do they work?
The answers to these questions can be gleaned by considering
the basic fundamentals of contact physics: the science of an
electrical contact. .
This article is therefore wrillen in order 10 oulline to the
reader the basic principles underlying the performance of a
connector. Future articles will examine failure mechanisms,
material selection and contact intermillency.
An electric contact enables current to flow from one part of an
electrical circuit to another. Contacts can be of !Wo types.
permanent or separable. Examples of permanent contacts
t
Area of Actual Contact
include soldered joints. crimped wire and insulation
displacement Separable contacts can be further sub-divided -F-igure 10
into stationary contacts (e.g. PCB edge' connectors. Infinitely Hard Surfaces in Contact
transmission line connectors); contacts which move
perpendicularly 10 each other (e.g. switches): and contacts
which move parallel with each other (e.g. potentiometers.
railway engine pantographs). The information contained within
this article applies mainly to low signal voltage stationary Deformation of Surface
conlacts. I! should be noted that while the same principles may ot Points Contact
be applied to all contacts there are other factors which can be
more influential on the performance of the contact systems. e.g.
the effect of arcing ~nd material transfer in switching contacts.
J

• • •
• f I I I I
REAL SURFACES IN CONTACT

~
Although many surfaces appear smooth on a macroscopic
scale. they are quite different when viewed microscopically. A
typical example might be a shot blasted Aluminium Bus Bar. Areas of Actual Contact
When examined with a microscope the surface appears rough Figure lb
with hills and valleys. A reasonable analogy of the shape of the Real Surfaces in Contact
metal surface would. in fact. be a range of hills. (The scaling
involved with this analogy is something like 1:10'). Typical
slopes would have a gradient of about 5%. For the Bus Bar. a
typical value of the "hill to valley height" might be 2.5pm. For
an electronic connector this distance reduces to 0.5-1.0 pm.
(For the surface of a ball bearing in a gyroscope it can be as low Deformation of Surface
as 2.5nm). at Point Contact
With such a picture of a metal surface, the next consideration
is what happens when two of these surfaces are brought
together. This is best visualised by imagining that we take the
range of hills. turn it upside down. and hold it above itself. By
bringing the two ranges together we are now simulating two
surfaces being brought together for the first time.
When the surfaces first meet they will do so at one point only.
What happens next will depend very much on the hardness of
the material of the surfaces. If they were made from an infinitely
hard material then nothing more would happen. More probably
some lateral movement would occur reSUlting in more point Area of
contacts.
An infinitely hard material is only a theoretical concept All Figure le
real surfaces have a finite hardness. Since the initial point of Effect of Dust Particles

c-24

~contact will be infinitely small. the local pressure at that point
will be immense and some form of deformation will therefore
take place. The type of deformation that takes place will depend
upon the forces bringing the surfaces together and the yield
strength of the material involved. With very small forces and a
highly elastic material it is possible that only elastic
deformation would take place. Here the area at the points of
contact would increase until there was sufficient [0 support the
load pressing the surfaces together. When the surfaces are
pulled apart they would return to their original shape. However
with higher forces plastic deformation can also occur resulting
in some permanent deformation. The presence of chemical (e.g.
oxide) or physical (e.g. dust particles) contaminants at the
areas of contact would reduce the actual area of contact. This
can be likened to snow or ice at the top of the hills.
This is illustrated in Figures I a. I b and I C. In Figure I a the
situation for infinitely hard surfaces is shown. Figure I b shows
how the surfaces deform under load. Figure Ic demonstrates
the effect of contamination (in this case dust particles) on the
area of metal-metal contact.
Having described the process that occurs when two surfaces
are brought together it can now be applied to electrical contacts.
Contacts tend to be relatively small devices. Typically the area of
the mating surfaces will be in the order of a few square
millimetres. However even this surface, as described earlier,
does not represent the actual area of mechanical contact. In fact
only a very small fraction of these areas actually touch each
other. This is further compounded by the fact that due to surface
films and foreign objects (e.g. dust particles) the area of metal
to metal contact may be even less. It is through these very small
areas of metal to metal contact that .all the current passing
through the connector is constrained to flow.
At this juncture it is worth mentioning some expressions that
are used in this part of the subject. The area that would at first
glance seem to be the area of contact is termed the Apparent
.. Area. of Contact (A.). The area that is in mechanical contact is
referred to as the Load Bearing Area (Ab)' The area of actual
metal to metal contact is known as the Real Area of Contact
(A,). This is shown in Figure 2. (In a system which comprises of
two clean metal cylinders. whose diameter is a few mm. and
where a large enough load is supplied. it is possible that A, = Ab
= A,). The points in a system where actual metal to metal
contact occurs are known as Asperities or "a"-spots. The line
XV represents a cross-section across the system shown in
Figure Ic.
@~e@ 0 Aa y current is constricted to flow through these areas and the
!ZJ Ab
~
• Ac
Figure 2
Cross-Section of a Contact Surface
c-25
RESEARCH
It is relatively easy to calculate the actual area of mechanical
contact for a given system (Le. a clean surface. Ab = A,. of
known physical properties). The hardness(H) of a material is a
measure of how much the material will deform due to a given
load. There are several different scales available for
determining the hardness of a given material. These are all
empirically based and essentially rely on impacting a test
specimen with a known shape at a known force (e.g. a diamond
tetrahedron). The reSUlting area of deformation gives a
measure of the hardness. If the hardness of the surface region of
a connector is known then the area of mechanical contact at
variolls normal force loads can be determined using the
following equation,-
F=Ab'H (I)
where: F is the normal force between the two surfaces;
Ab is the area of mechanical contact;
H is the hardness of the material.
. CONTACT RESISTANCE
From the point of view of an electric or electronic circuit, a
connector will simply appear as a resistance. This is termed the
Contact Resistance. This quantity is obviously important to
connector manufacturers and users as it is one of the yardsticks
used to describe a connector. Let us look at this parameter a
little more closely.
The Contact Resistance (R",) of a connector normally has
three components,-
i) A bulk resistance (Rb) due to the current having to flow
through the bulk of the connector.
ii) A film resistance (R,) due to the effects of any films or
impurities present at the interface.
iii) A constriction resistance (R,) due to the current being
constrained to flow through the tiny areas of metal to
metal contact.
Hence RcR = Rc + Rc + Rc
The bulk resistance is something that is inescapable for all
connectors. In addition it will be present in all measurements
made on real connectors. The only way to remove it from
calculations is to determine what it is for a particular system.
either by measurement or calculation. and subtract it from
results. Fortunately. by its nature it is stable and should not
change during the life of a connector.
The film resistance occurs when some or all of the current
flows through a film on the surface of the connector. These films
may well be semiconducting and have a negative temperature
coefficient of resistance compared with the metal of the contact
which will have a positive value.
The final component of contact resistance is the constriction
resistance. It arises from the fact that the majority of current
will flow through the areas of metal to metal contact. The
resistance will therefore be higher than if the current were
passing through a straight piece of wire. This is shown
diagrammatically in Figure 3.
I
I
I I
"
\ \"
"t':
,
""",,
" ..... "
Figure 3
Current Constriction at a Connector Interfoce::
17

~ It is possible to produce mathematical formulae for
determining constriction resistance. To derive them in their
exact form would require several pages of complicated
mathematics. However a simplified approach is possible and
this is now illustrated.
If we assume that the whole area of metal to metal contact is
located within one "a"-spot of radius "a", let the sphere
encompassing the "a "-spot also having a radius "a" have
infinite conductivity, and the metal be of constant resistivity
",". This "a"·spot is shown in Figure 4.
Top Contact
Bottom Contact
Figure 4
Mathematical Model of Constriction Resistance
ConSidering the top half of the connector only. The resistance
of a shell radius "r" from the centre of the contact spot and
thickness "dc' is given by the equation:
R = ,dr/A
where R is the resistance;
and A is the cross·sectional area through which the current
is flowing.
Hence the shell resistance, 1\, is given by:-
1\ = ,dr/2n"
r
Therefore the total constriction resistance, 1\, is:
R, = a 2,1(2n"» dr
Therefore R, = ,Ina (2)
The actual value based on more rigorous calculations is given
in equation (3).
R, = ,I2a or ,Id (3)
where d is the diameter of the "a"·spot.
This still aSsumes one contact spot and that the resistance, if
the contact is replaced with a total conducting surface, is so
small that it is negligible.
As pointed out previously, the major flaw with this model is
that it assumes that only onc circular contact spot occurs. In
reality this is far from the truth and the effect may not be
negligible. As a result the actual value of R, is found to be only
within a factor of two of the predicted value.
With real contact spots the real area of contact is the Stll11 of'
several small contact spots distributed randomly within the
apparcm area of contact. Thl' positioning of these conlact spots
can affect the constriction resistance significantly. This can be
explained qualitatively as follows.
Consider two rooms both having two doors. In the first room
the doors are positioned side by side, in the second they are at
opposite sides of the room. Assuming aJl the doors 10 be the
same size. if a crowd of people had to leave either rool11 in a
hurry they would be able to do it much quicker in the second
room. Although the constriction in the flow of people through
the doors would be the same in both rooms, in the first room this
would be further compounded by the fact that the constrictions
C-26
i RESEARCH
interfered with each other. The same reasoning can be used with
constrictions caused by "a"-spots at the connector interface.
The constriction of a connector with regular evenly distributed
"a"·spots would be less than that of a connector with one
contact spot, assuming the areas of contact and materials
involved to be the same.
The formulae for contact resistance can be modified to try and
take into account the distribution of the "a"·spots. This is
illustrated in Figure 5.
Micro constrictions
----.----.f.-
Mocroconstriction
Figure 5
Current Constriction Through
A Multiple Contact Region
The revised formulae is given by equation (4). This allows for
the fact that with a real connector there are two types of
constriction to take into account. There is a macroconstriction,
determined by the overall distribution of the contact spots, and
a parallel combination of microconstrictions due to the
individual spots.
1\ = RM + R", = ,ID + ,Ind (4)
where RM is the macroconstriction resistance.
Rm is the sum of the paraJlel microconstriction
resistances.
, is the resistivity of the material. .
D is the diameter of the macroconstriction.
n is the number of contact spots ..
d is the effective diameter of the individual contact
spots.
It is worth noting that as the load preSSing the contacts
IOgether is increased the number of contact spots will increase.
This results in the Rm component becoming less significant as
compared to the R", component. Hence the interface begins to
act as one large contact spot.
Obviously equation (4) is not as straightforward to use as the
simpler equation (3). For very accurate applications of the
formulae detailed knowledge of the number, size and
distribution of the individual ~ontact spots is required in order
to calculate "0". In practise this information may prove very
difficult to obtain for real contacts. Even if "D" can be
determined accurately one still has the problem of determining
"n" and "d".
Equation (4) can give results as accurate as t% for certain
"a"-spol distributions. This compares very favourably with
equation (3).
EXAMPLE FOR A TYPICAL CONTACT SYSTEM
Although it has been shown that the actual area of
mechanical contact is independent of the size of the contact it is
worth comparing these values for a typical connector system. A
spring and post gold plated connector is onc such system. The
apparent area of contact on the side of the post would be in the
region of 2mm x 1mm. If the normal force is lOOg, and the ~
• hardness of gold 3!.4 Kgmm -, then the actual area of contact.
calculated from equation (I). is 0.0032mm'. Le. over one
thousand times smaller than A., This area of actual contact
corresponds to an "a "-spot of radius 0.032mm. The resistivity
of gold is 2.35 x 10-' nmm. The constriction resistance
(calculated from equation (3) is therefore 0.37 mn. The
equivalent resistance if there was no constriction (Le. the
current flowed through a gold slab of area 2mm' and thickness
O.064mm)) would be 0.75"n. again a difference of over three
orders of magnitude.

CONCLUSIONS

This article has described the process which occurs when two
contact surfaces are brought together. An expression for the
actual area of contact is identified and shown to be related to the
hardness of the materials and the force between them. The
effect of current is discussed and the concept of contact
resistance introduced. The calculation of this resistance is
described and the effects of "a"-spot distribution on this value
noted. An example has been given which shows the importance
of the concepts that have been discussed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following sources of reference are recommended to the

reader should he wish to pursue the subject further:-
R: Holm. "Electric Contacts". 4th Ed .. Springer-Verlag. 1968.
F. Bowden and D. Tabor. "The Friction and Lubrication of
Solids". O.U.P .. 1950.
j. Greenwood. "Constriction Resistance and the Real Area of
Contact". Brit. j. Appl. Phys .. Vol. 17. 1966.
B. Williamson. "The Microworld of the Contact Spot". Proc.
27th Holm Conf.. Chicago. 198!.
'Phe authors T. P. Ireland and N. A. Stennel! are part of the
Component Technology Group at Loughborough University of
Technology and are currently involved in a Research
Programme investigating the reliability of electrical connectors
for which the support of AMP is gratefully acknowledged. The
group, under the leadership of prof. D. S. Campbell. is at present
involved in a range of reliability studies on a variety of different
components and equipments. ~nquiry 122 •

c-?7
 CONNECTOR RELIABILITY

N.A. Stennett and J.A. Hayes

International Electronic Reliability Institute,

Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering,
Loughborough University of Technology,
Loughborough, Leicestershire LEll 3TU,
United Kingdom.

Te1: Nat. 0509 222811 Fax: Nat. 0509 222854

Int. 44 509 222811 Int. 44 509 222854

ABSTRACT

The International Electronics Reliability Institute (IERI) at Loughborough

University of Technology in the U.K. has been collecting and analysing reliability
information on electronic components and systems over a period of seven years. This has
involved a collaborative exercise with several major U.K. and European electronic
equipment manufacturers. This exercise, by nature of its detailed data collection at the
component, circuit board and system level allows IERI to undertake in depth analytical
studies into the field of the whole range of electronic components. At its most simple
level this allows the computation of hierarchical failure rates based on dependable
field failure data.

This present paper focuses on the data available for electrical contacts. It begins
by examining the position of contacts within the hierarchy of component failure rates.
This is followed by some initial analysis of the failure intensity curves which show the
instantaneous failure rate.

A sizable proportion of the failures reported to the data base fall into the so
called' no fault found' (NFF) category le. the faulty component(s) on failed circuit
boards can not be identified. Traditionally connectors have always been considered to
be a major source of such problems. Preliminary analysis of the information from the
database is presented which suggests that this might not be the case.

The paper finishes by highlighting the analysis that is being undertaken at present
to rationalise the connector information and the future work program that is currently
being set up.

INTRODUCTION The detailed nature of the data

collected has meant that as more data
becomes available for each component
The collection of electronic type, it is passible to investigate the
component reliability data from the field time dependent reliability behaviour of a
has been under way at IERI for a period range of electronic components based on
of four years or so. Data has been field failure information. The purpose of
collected at the system and SUbsystem this paper is to highlight some of the
level in order to obtain detailed data at data available for electrical contacts
the component level. This has involved and to illustrate some of its possible
several major British and Danish uses.
companies. The organisation and some
preliminary results have been discussed
in several papers [1, 2, 31. In addition tu providing dependable
field fallure information on electronic

C-28
 components. one of the more obvious
applications for the database is to
produce a hierarchical list of component
field failure rates in order to_ identify
which types of components are causing the
most trouble out in the field. The first
results presented 1n this paper show the
list of so-called Group 1 components
which are exhibiting a field failure rate
of greater than 100 FITs (1 FIT
failure per lO~ component hours). This is
followed by listing of the field failure
rates of individual connector categories.
Having installed such a rigorous and
extensive data collection procedure it is
possible to undertake very detailed
analyses on the information within the
database. Failure intensity curves have
been produced for some of the connector
categories to attempt to analyse where or
not they conform to the classical
'bathtub' type curve. These results are
shown next.
Onc fascinating aspect of the
database arises from boards and
components returned from the field for
repair after a fault has been detected.
On detailed examination in the
laboratory, with approximately half these
I so-called failures, no fault can be
found. Traditionally contacts and
connectors have always been suspected of
being a prime candidates for such
failures or 'No Fault Found' (NFF) as
they are referred to. However an approach
can be adopted using the database whereby
it is possible to analyse "whether there
is any correlation between the number of
NFF's reported and the numbers of a
particular component or component type
within a particular system. The final set
of results presented relate to this area
of research.
The initial classifications for
connectors were very broad and based
purely on their geometry. These
classifications could be broken down if
connectors proved to be troublesome
components. While geometry does play a
significant role in the performance and
reliability of contacts and connectors
(4, 51, it is realised that this broad
classification will need to be
rationalised for more detailed analysis.
Nevertheless, even in its present form
the data can be very revealing as will be
demonstrated. This issue will be dealt
with in the future work program that will
discussed in the conclusions.
RESULTS
The so-called Group 1 component
field failure rate hierarchy is given in
table 1. This is a listing of all
component categories contained within the
C·29
database that show a failure rate of
greater than or equal to 100 FITs. The
table consists of three colwnns. The
first contains the name of the component
category, the second the failure rate
expressed in FIT and the final column has
a 'rating' letter. This 'rating' refers
to the statistical 95\ chi-squared
confidence levels were the letters
= 1 represent the levels shown in table 2.
The field failure data for each of the
connector categories is shown in table 3.
Each of the three columns arc the same as
for table 1.
Failure intensity curves have been
calculated for the Rectangular and Edge
connector categories, figures 1 and 2
respectively. These were chosen since
these are the only two categories with
sufficient data to justify a confidence
ratings of '0' or better (' B' for
Rectangular connectors and '0' for Edge
connectors). The failure intensity curve
shows the variation" of failure intensity
of a selected component with time. The
mathematical definition for failure
intensity is given in equation (1).
Failure Intensi ty (1)
where n is the observed nwnhcr of
failures in a given time period
(At-set at 1,000 hours for this
analysis)
and N is the total popUlation at
risk during this period
The failure intensity is shown as
the central solid line, and the dotted
lines above and below are ·the 95\ X:2
confidence limits. These limits are
dependent on the number of observed
failures and the population at riSk. Wide
limits are indicative of a lack of
failure data. This situation will improve
with time as more data on the various
component types becomes available. It
should be noted that when the failure
intensity drops to zero on the time axis,
then no failures have been observed in
that particular 1,000 hour period.
To illustrate the method of
computation figures 3 and 4 show the
number of failures that arc occurring
within each 1.000 hour time slot. The
numbers of components at risk in each
category as a function of operating time
are shown in figures 5 and 6. The shapes
of figures 5 and 6 reflects the fact that
as the number of sYstems going into the
field increases with time, the population
of the various component types is also
increasing.
 COMPONENT CATEGORY FIT RATING

Microwave Cavity 19.6xlO 3 E

Wirewound variable Resistor 5.06xlO 3 D
Microwave switch 2.07xlO 3 F
Metal Film Variable Resistor 1.12xlO:S F
IC: MOS, Memory, 65536 to 131072 Bits 853 E
IC: MOS, Digital, 1000 to 10000 Gates 799 B
Thyristor 435 F
Discrete (Lumped) Delay Line 434 F
le: MOS, Microprocessor, 4 to 8 Bits 410 C
Push Button Switch 305 F
Loudspeaker 301 D
Keyboard Switch 292 D
Schottky Barrier Diode 255 E
IC: MOS, Digital, 100 to 1000 Gates 249 B
ETI 243 F
pulse Transformers 241 F
IC: MOS, Memory, 32768 to 65536 Bits 240 F
le: JFET, Linear, 10 to 100 Transistors 224 E
IC: MOS, Microprocessor, S to 16 Bits 215 D
IC: Bipolar, Digital, 100 to 1000 Gates 211 F
Thermostat 204 F
Hybrid circuit 193 B
Crystal Oscillator (+ Integral Logic) 181 F
IC: Bipolar, Interface, 1000 to 10000 Transistors 176 C
Motor Driven Fan 140 F
le: MOS, Memory, 512 to 1024 Bits 134 F
Circuit Breaker 131 F
Rotary Switch 123 F
IC: MOS, Interface, 10 to 100 Transistors 121 F
IC: MOS, Memory, 2048 to 4096 Bits 120 C
Spade Connector 119 E
Optoisolator (Optocoupler) 119 D
Coil Activated/Mercury Wetted Relay 111 F
lC: Bipolar, Linear, 10 to 100 Transistors 110 C
IC: MOS, Memory, 128 to 256 Bits 105 D
IC: MOS, Memory, 4 to 8 Bits 104 E
IC: Bipolar, Linear, 1000 to 10000 Transistors 102 D
IC: Bipolar, Linear, 1 to 10 Transistors 100 D

TABLE 1

Group 1 components: FIT rate ~ 100

('-10
 :<-0' r-----;:::::;:::::::::::::;:=;-J
r..r:......!.!!!:... lI f
:(_07 r--------;::=======:l roa.......!...t!!"~ ...
Up.p« C!~~'!."". l_"
Url'''. C_IId."". l:",ll
-·0-· 1.5£_07 l.O;.;;!.;<;r.,:;........ y.;.,
T.~ ~...rod";M. -t""'" .-<;)--
.-.;.--
'•"
-;;
c
;; \[-07

u-oa

o~~~~~~~~~. .--~
o ~,OOO 10.000 1:l>.OOO :0,000 7~.OOO
, :lo.OOO 10.000 \!Io.OOO ~o.ooo 7!1o.000
Operating Time (Hours)
Operating Time (Hours)
Fiqure 2
Fiqure 1 Fail.ure Inteo.sity Curve for
Failure Intensity Curve for Edge connectors
Rectangular Connectors

"r-----------------------------~
"r----------------------------,
- -- --- --_. ---- ---.---- - -- - -- --- --- -.-- -- --- I'l.c
~
-- -- - - - .------- -- ------- ------ --- -- __ po ----~~

-"
~ 30 -~~---- ----.~---------- ~~ ------~---~~.----~-~-

~---~ ~ - --~~.-- -- -- ------ ---- ---~----- --- -----

~ 20 ----- -- --------------- -----.-------- --. ---- ~
" 20

"E, E
z
, ---- -- -.--_.-- --- .-.- ------- ----- -- -- -- .-- ---
z .,

Operoting Time (Hours)

Operating Time (Hours)
Fiqure 4
Fiqure 3 Failures Per unit Operating Time
Failures per Unit Operating Time for Edge Connectors
for Rectangular Connectors

~ .lOO,OOO 1-·-· ... _-_ ... -_ ... -.... -_ ...... -. _ ... -. ---·-·1
-E JOO.OOO
•g ao,ooo •g 2:sG,OOO 1···---· .. __ .... -.----_.-.. _--··--_···· __ ····--·1
0.
0.
~ 200,000 U
g 200,000

U
<;
<; I!oO.OOO

~.',
E
IOO.OOC
•
~

,
E
z
Z :10,000

,
Operating Time (Hours)
Operating Time (Hours)
Fiqure 6
Fiqure 5 population Data for
population Data for Edge Connectors
Rectangular connectors

C-31
 Rating Letter 95\ Chi-SqUared Leve1 (\)

A 0 to 10
B 10 to 20
C 20 to 30
D 30 to 40
E 40 to 50
F 50 up

Table 2
95\ Chi-Squared Confidence Leve1 Rating Letters

COMPONENT CATEGORY FIT RATING

Spade Connector 119 E

Coaxial Connector 50.6 E

Feed Through (Filter) 45.5 F
Connector
Edge Connector 44.3 D
Cylindrical Connector 40.9 F
Rectangular Connector 34.3 B

Table 3
Connector Field Failure Data Hierarchy

As part of the analysis into the NFF DISCUSSION

failure returns, attempts have been made
to correlate the frequency· of these types
of faults with the numbers of connectors
on a particular type of board. Some
initial results are show in figure 7.
This diagram shows the ratio of NFF's to
total number of failures (including
NFF's) plotted against the ratio of
connectors to the total number of
components on that particular board type.
All 105 board types are included from the
database which have exhibited one or more
NFF's and are marked on the diagram with
a asterisk (*).
Examination of the data presented in
tables 1 through 3 shows that in general
connectors are not the most troublesome
components to be found in electronic and
electrical systems. Only one of the six
connector categories was present in the
so-called Group 1 field failure hierarchy
which list all component categories with
a FIT level greater than 100. The other
five categories fall into the so-called
Group 2 field failure hierarchy which
contains all component categories with
field failure rates between 10 and 100

~ lr ' , , , FITs. However a general comment should be

made concerning the rating levels which

.. ..
i::
:=

~ 0.8
~
r---- - f------ -+ -------~--------}-------
~..,:
: : : :

" :": :
at present are very low. This is due to
the fact that even though the database
has been up and running for over four
years more data needs to be collected to
z E 0.6 -------.I-------+-------~--------,,-------
'0 ~ ••, : : : : improve the confidence levels in the
field failure rates produced. Data
..
~ 1:.
..
O.A -------:--------1--------:-------1--------
I : : : :

collection is ongoing and the involvement

"....
z z '" ", ,, ", , , , of more companies is being sought.
" ,'
'~:':
, .
'0 0,1 ... ---- ---:----- --- :--------:------- -1-- -- ----
,
_ _..L_ _-L_ __.l._ _....J
,
\
.0 0 L._~.L. Investigation of the failure
Z 0 0.2 0... 0.6 0.8 intensity curves shows evidence of burn-
Numb~r of Conneclo's
Numbe. of Components
in not removing all the 50-called early
failures. Figure 1 may be showing a
Figure 7 sensibly constant or slightly falling
Relationship Between Numbers NFF's failure rate. Evidence of wearout will
and Numbers of Connectors on only be seen as more data is incorporated
System Boards into the database with time [61. More
detailed failure intensity analysis with

C-32
other components from the field failure
database is given in reference (7].
The analysis of NFF shown in figure
7 suggests that connectors may not be the
culprits for this type of failure. If
they were the main cause then it would be
reasonable to suggest that there would be
some form of correlation between the
numbers of connectors on a particular
board type and the number of NFF'S.
However as can be clearly seen from the
diagram this is not the case. This is
backed up by the fact that the
correlation coefficient for these two
sets of data is 0.05349 which is
statistically not significant (8].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work is being carried out with
the support of the Procurement EXecutive,
Ministry of Defence, and we are grateful
for permission to publish this paper.
• REFERENCES
1. D. S. Campbell, J. A. Hayes & D.
Hatherington, "The Organization of a
Study of the Field FailUre of
Electronic Components", Quality &
Reliability Eng. Int., 3, pp. 251-
258, 1987.

CONCLUSIONS 2. D. S. Campbell & J. A. Hayes, "An

Analysis of the Field Failure of
Passive and Active Components",
Initial analysis of connector data Quality & Re1iabi1ity.Eng. Int" 6,
entered into the field failure database pp, 189-193, 1990.
at IERI at Loughborough shows the
following results:-
3. J. M. Marshall, A. Bendell, J. A.
Hayes & D. S. Campbell, "An
11 Connectors are not the most Exploratory Approach to the
troublesome electronic component in Reliability Analysis of Electronic
the field today. Only one of the six Component Field Data", Proc. 1st
connector categories has a field Components Engineering, Reliability
failure rate of greater than 100 FIT and Test Conference, pp. 57-67,
and there are thirty other component Gatwick, May 1990.
categories showing field failure
levels greater than this.
4. N.A. Stennett, T.P. Ireland & 0.5.
Carnpbell "Powered Testing of
2) Early failures are being observed in Electrical Contacts in Mixed Flowing
the field even after burn-in. Gases ,
ll
IEEE Transactions on
Components, Hybrids and
Manufacturing Technology, pp.50-55,
3) Analysis of the occurrence of NFF's vol. 14, no. 1, March, 1991.
against the number of connectors on
a particular board type shows no
correlation. This suggests that
connectors may not be the cause of
s. W.H.Abbott j liThe Development and
Performance Characteristics of Mixed
these types of failures. Flowing Gas Test Environrnents ll , IEEE
Transactions on Components, Hybrids
and Manufacturing Technology, pp.22-
Even though data has been 35, vol. 11, no. 1, 1988.
accumulating in the database for over
four years, confidence levels in much of
the initial analysis demonstrated here 6. P.D.T. O'Cannor, "Practical
needs to be improved. This can only come Reliability Engineering", Heyden &
about by the acquisition of more data Sons Ltd., 1981.
which will take time. In addition to
improving the accuracy of the methods
illustrated here this will also allow 7. J.A. Hayes, J.A. Jones, A.P.
more detailed and sophisticated analysis Schwarzenberger & D.S. Campbell,
to be carried out. "Failure Intensity Analysis of
Resistors and Capacitors",
Proceedings of the. 5th European
The connector categories chosen Capacitors and Resistors Technology
initially were by deSign very broad. Symposium, Munich, 30th Sept to 3rd
These need to be tighten up in order to Oct, 1991.
investigate particular problems and
failure mechanisms in depth. This work in
currently being evaluated at IERI and 8, C. Lipson & N.J. Sheth, "statistical
promises to produce some interesting Design and Analysis of Engineering
results. Experiments", McGraw-Hill, 1973.

C-33