Electrodynamometer type Wattmeter:

These instruments are similar in design and construction to ammeter and

voltmeter except that two coils are connected in different circuit for
measurement of power. The fixed coil is connected in series with load and so
carry the current in the circuit . That is why fixed coil in wattmeter is called
current coil . The moving coil is connected in parallel or across the voltage and
therefore carries a current proportional to the voltage . A non-inductive resistance
is connected in series with the moving coil to limit the current to a small value .
Since the moving coil carries the current proportional to the voltage , this coil is
called pressure coil or voltage coil of the wattmeter.

Construction:

There are two coils in dynamometer type wattmeter as i) fixed coil ii) moving coil .
The fixed coil carry the current flowing through the load . They are divided into
two halves. The reasons for using coils as current coils is that they can be made
more massive . the fixed coils are wound with wire of larger cross section . This
wire is stranded or laminated especially when carrying large current in order to
avoid eddy current losses in conductors . In case of precision wattmeter, the two
halves of the fixed coil , which are connected in series for a basic measuring
range , can be connected in parallel to increase the current range to twice its
original value . Shunts are not used for extension of current since they are
subject to temperature errors. The moving coil is mounted on a pivoted spindle
and is entirely embraced by the fixed current coils . Spring control is used for the
movement .The moving coil is called pressure coil . Since the current of the
pressure coil is carried by the instrument springs , it is limited to values which
can be carried safely by springs without appreciable heating . A series resistor is
used in the pressure coil , and the current limited to a small value , usually up to
100mA. Both the fixed and moving coils are air cored . The voltage rating of the
wattmeter is limited to above 600V by the power requirements of the voltage
circuit since most of the power is wasted by the resistance in series with the
moving soil and considerable heat is generated . For higher voltages , the
pressure coil circuit is designed for 110V , and a potential transformer is used to
step down the voltage. Air friction damping is used. The moving system carries a
light aluminum vane which moves in a sector shaped box . Electromagnetic or
eddy current damping is not used as introduction of a permanent magnet for
damping purpose will greatly distort the weak operating magnetic field .

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Torque equation:

The instantaneous torque of an electrodynameter type instrument is given by:

,where and are the fixed and moving coil currents

=instantaneous value voltage across the pressure coil

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 =phase angle difference between the pressure coil voltage and current coil
current .
=resistance of the pressure coil

the pressure coil current:

, where =rms value of current in pressure coil

If the current coil current: lags the pressure coil voltage by an angle ,
instantaneous value of current through current coil :

Instantaneous torque :

Or

It is clear from the above expression that there is a component of power which
varies as twice the frequency of currents and voltage .
Average deflecting torque:

Controlling torque:

Under steady and balance condition ,

Where = power being measured =

And

Shape of scale :

The deflection is directly proportional to the power being measured and the scale
is uniform over the range in which is constant . By suitable design , the
mutual inductance between the fixed and moving coils can be made vary linearly
with angle over a range of 40 to 50 on either side of zero mutual inductance
position . If the position of zero mutual inductance is at mid scale , the scale will
be uniform over 80 to 100 which covers almost the entire scale range.

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Errors in Electrodynamometer Wattmeter:

a) Pressure coil inductance:

Let = resistance of pressure coil

=inductance of pressure coil
=series resistance for pressure coil
=Total resistance of pressure coil circuit
=Voltage applied to pressure coil
=Current in the current coil
=pressure coil current
=impedance of pressure coil circuit

If it is assumed that the pressure coil is purely non-inductive , then the current
in the pressure coil must be in phase with voltage applied to pressure coil. But
if the pressure coil has small inductance , the current in it will lag the voltage
by an angle , where
For lagging p.f. angle , the phase angle between the pressure coil current

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and current coil current is not but less than as seen from the phasor
diagram (fig. ) and is given by : .

So actual wattmeter reading is :

Now

actual wattmeter reading =

In the absence of pressure coil inductance , the wattmeter reads correctly at

all power factors.
True power =

therefore

True power = Actual wattmeter reading

So it is evident that to obtain the true power , the wattmeter reading should be
modified by multiplying a correction factor
Where correction factor = for lagging p.f. load

For leading p.f. load the phase angle between the pressure coil current and
current coil current is not but greater than as seen from the phasor
diagram (fig. ) and is given by : .

So the correction factor for leading p.f. load =

The error in terms of instrument deflection is :

Actual wattmeter reading-true power =[ ] actual

wattmeter reading
If is very small , then Error =[ ] actual wattmeter reading

Or , Error =[ ] actual wattmeter reading

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Now is very small and , therefore , <<1 .

or , actual wattmeter reading=true power ( )

Error=actual wattmeter reading –true power = true power

% Error=

Now true power =

Error=
It is clear from the above equation that error is serious at low p.f.
It is recommended that the error caused by the presence of pressure coil
inductance should be minimized by connecting a capacitance in parallel with
the pressure coil according to diagram shown below:

Compensation for inductance of pressure coil circuit

The total impedance of the combination is given by:

If the value of circuit constant is so chosen that for power frequencies

By an approximation ,
By making it is possible to make and

Thus the error caused by pressure coil inductance is almost completely

eliminated .The frequency range over which the above compensation holds
good is 10kHz.

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 Wattmeter phasor diagram for leading p.f.

Wattmeter phasor diagram for laging p.f.

b) Pressure coil capacitance:

The pressure coil circuit may possess capacitance in addition to

inductance . This capacitance is mainly due to inter-turn capacitance of
the series resistance . The effect of capacitance is opposite to that
produced by inductance , therefore , the wattmeter reads high on lagging
power factors of the load. The phase angle between pressure coil current
and applied voltage depends on the reactance of the pressure coil circuit .
the inductive reactance is normally greater than the capacitive reactance
and , therefore , the phase angle varies with frequency , increasing with
increase in frequency .

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c) Mutual inductance effect:

Errors are caused due to mutual inductance between current and

pressure coils of the wattmeter. These errors are quite low at power
frequencies but they increase and become more important when
frequency increases . The effect of mutual inductance is to increase the
phase angle for the connection in which the pressure coil is connected on
the load side and to decrease the phase angle when the current coil is
connected on the load side. This change in phase angle is .

Instruments coil system are so arranged that mutual inductance between

the coils should be zero.

d) Moving and fixed coils connection:

There are two alternative connections for two coils .This is illustrated by
the fig:

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In both the connection , errors are introduced due to power loss in the
current coil and pressure coil.

In the 1st connection , the pressure coil is connected on the supply side
and therefore , the voltage applied to the pressure coil is the voltage
across the load plus the voltage drop across the current coil. Thus the
wattmeter measures the power consumed by the load and power loss in
the current coil.
Power indicated by wattmeter = power consumed by load +power loss
in current coil
=power consumed by load + ; where =resistance of current coil
In the 2nd connection , the current coil is on supply side and therefore it
carries the pressure coil current plus the load current . Hence the
wattmeter reads the power consumed by the load plus the power loss in
the pressure coil .

Power indicated by wattmeter= power consumed by load +power loss

in pressure coil
=power consumed by load+ ; where = resistance pressure coil

If the load current is small , the voltage drop in the current coil is also
small , so that connection a) introduces a very small error . On the other
hand , if the load current is large , the value of pressure coil current is is
small , hence the power loss in pressure coil will be very small as
compared with the load power and therefore connection b) is preferable.
Thus it should be noted that in an uncompensated wattmeter , the reading
of the wattmeter includes the power loss in the coil connected on the load
side . The use of above connection for small and large load currents holds
good only if the power loss in the instrument is to be neglected . However ,

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 if accuracy requires that the power loss in the instrument be taken into
account , connection b) is preferable . This is because for a constant
voltage , the power loss in the pressure coil is constant and , therefore ,
the true power consumed by the load can be obtained by subtracting
from the wattmeter reading . The value of can be calculated or observed
directly by simply reading the wattmeter with load disconnected . The
power taken by the pressure coil is constant if the voltage is constant and
becomes a smaller percentage of the total as a larger amount of power is
measured . However , in cases , where the load current is large and the
power factor is small , connection b) may result in large error since the
total power measured is small .

For wattmeter to be used in low p.f. circuit, a compensating coil is

required for minimizing the error caused by power loss in pressure coil.
In connection b) the current coil carries the sum current as ( ) and
produces a field corresponding to this current . The compensating coil is
connected in series with the pressure coil and is made as nearly as
possible identical and coincident with the current coil . It is so connected
that it opposes the field of the current coil . The compensating coil carries
a current and produces a field corresponding to this current . This field
acts in opposition to the current coil field . Thus the resultant field is due
to current I only. Hence the error caused by the pressure coil current
flowing in the circuit coil is neutralized.

e) Eddy current :

Eddy currents are introduced in the solid ,metal parts and within the
thickness of the conductors by a.c. magnetic field of the current coil .
These currents produce a field of their own and alter the magnitude and
phase of the current and thus causes error. Referring to the phasor
diagram , the phase of eddy e.m.f. is 90 behind the current coil flux
and therefore the resultant flux is . It is clear from the diagram that
the resultant flux is less than the current coil flux and lags it by a small
angle. Since the resultant flux lags the current coil flux , the phase angle
between the fluxes and , which produce the torque , is increased .
As the magnitude of the field is decreased and the angle between fluxes is
increased , the torque produced is decreased for lagging p.f. This error is
similar in principle to the error caused by the inductance of pressure coil
except that the sign of error is opposite . It is clear that the wattmeter will
read low for lagging p.f. and high for leading p.f. The error caused by eddy
currents is not easily calculable and may be serious if the ,metal parts are
not well removed from the current coil . In fact solid metal parts should be
avoided as far as possible . Stranded conductors should be used for the
current coil if the current carried is large . This reduces the eddy currents

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 induced within the thickness of the coil.

f) Stray magnetic field:

The dynamometer type instrument has a relatively weak magnetic

operating field and therefore , it is particularly effected by stray magnetic
fields resulting in error . hence these instruments should be shielded
against effect of stray magnetic fields. Laminated iron shields are used in
portable laboratory instruments

g) Error due to vibration of moving system:

The torque on the moving system varies periodically with a frequency

twice that of the frequency of the ac current .. If the pointer and spring or
somewhat the other part of moving system has a natural frequency which
is resonance with the frequency of torque pulsation , the moving system
would vibrate with considerable amplitude. These vibrations not only
make the position of the pointer difficult to read but also the mean
position of the pointer may be displaced from that corresponding to the
average value of power . These vibration are avoided by designing the
instruments in such a way that the natural frequency of the moving
system is very much away from twice the frequency of the system on
which the wattmeter is intended to be used.
.

h) Temperature:

Due to change in room temperature , the resistance of the pressure coil

changes and leads to error in power measurement. These effects are
opposite in nature and would nearly neutralize each other , if the pressure

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 coil circuit were composed of copper and of a resistance alloy having a
negligible resistance temperature co-efficient in the ratio 1:10 .

Low Power factor Wattmeter (Electrodynamometer type):

Ordinary dynamometer type wattmeter can not be used for Measurement of

power in circuit having low p.f. with greater accuracy due to following reasons:

i) The deflecting torque on the moving system is small owing to low p.f. ,
even when the current and pressure coils are fully excited.
ii) Error introduced because of inductance of pressure coil tend to be
large at low p.f.
Special features are incorporated in an electrodynamometer type wattmeter to
make it a low power factor type wattmeter . These features are summarized
below:

Pressure coil current :

The pressure coil of the wattmeter is designed to have low value of

resistance , so that the current , flowing through it , is increased to give an
increased operating torque . the pressure coil current in a low p.f. wattmeter
may be as much 10 times value employed for high p.f. type wattmeter

Compensation of pressure coil current

The power being measured in a low p.f. circuit is small and current is high on
account of low p.f. ,

Compensation for inductance of pressure coil:

The error caused by pressure coil inductance is . Now with

low p.f. , the value of is large , and therefore , the error is
correspondingly large . Hence in a low p.f. wattmeter the error should be
compensated by connecting a capacitor across a part of series resistance
in the pressure coil circuit as shown below:

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Small control torque:

Low p.f. wattmeter are designed to have a small control torque so that
they give full scale deflection for p.f. as low as 0.1

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Measurement of power using instrument transformer:

Power measurements are done not directly in high voltage circuit by connecting
the pressure and current coils of dynamometer type wattmeter to the circuit(e.g.
transmission and distribution line in substation etc.) The wattmeter should be
connected through instrument transformers (i.e. C.T and P.T.) for instrument
and human being safety . Sometimes the C.T. and P.T. s are also used in
conjunction with wattmeter for extending the range of full scale current in current
coil full scale voltage in and pressure coil .

The primary winding of the C.T. is connected in series with the load and the
secondary winding is connected in series with current coil of wattmeter . The
primary winding of P.T. is connected across the supply lines and secondary
winding is connected across the pressure coil of wattmeter. One secondary
terminal of each transformer and the casings of the system are earthed.

The C.T. and P.T. are subjected to ratio and phase errors . The cumulating effect
of these errors and the resistance and inductance of pressure coil will produce
some gross error in power measurement unless taken into account . This is
illustrated from the following phasor diagram

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Let = Voltage across the load
=Load current
=phase angle between load current and voltage
=phase angle between currents in pressure coil and current coil of wattmeter
=voltage across secondary of the P.T.
=secondary current of C.T.
=current through pressure coil
=phase angle by which lags on account of inductance of pressure coil
= phase error of P.T.
=phase error of C.T.

For lagging p.f.:

The phase angle of C.T. is +ve and the phase of P.T. is –ve . For such a case ,
phase angle of load is :

In general the phase angle of P.T. may be –ve or +ve.

For +ve phase angle of P.T. , phase angle of load :

For leading p.f.:

When the phase angle of C.T. is +ve and that of P.T. is –ve , then phase angle of
load =
If the phase angle of P.T. is +ve , then

Correction factors:

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Neglecting the ratio errors of both transformers, the correction factor is given by:

Power= actual ratio of P.T. R.C.F. of C.T. nominal ratio of P.T. nominal
ratio of C.T. wattmeter reading

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