LASER SECURITY ALARM

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE
OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Submitted by:

HEMANT KANT (1210921008)

MEETANSHU SHARMA (1210921017)
YASH KUMAR SINGH (1210921039)

Under the supervision of

MR. MOHAN SHARMA

(Asst. professor)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

ALIGARH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY, ALIGARH (Dr. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW) UTTAR

PRADESH

2015-16
DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this submission is our own work

and that, to the best of our knowledge and belief it contains
no material previously published or written by another
person nor material which to a substantial extent has been
accepted for the award of any other degree of the university
or other institute of higher learning, except where due
acknowledgement has been in the text.

Signature of student

Name- HEMANT KANT

Roll No. -1210921008

Signature of student

Name- MEETANSHU SHARMA

Roll No. -1210921017

Signature of student

Name- YASH KUMAR SINGH

Roll No. -1210921039

 i

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL &

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ALIGARH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY, ALIGARH (Dr. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM
TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW)
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project of the requirement for the

award of degree B.Tech in department of ELECTRICAL &
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING of A.K.T.U. is the
record of the candidate own work carried out by him under
my/our supervision. The matter embodied in this thesis is
original and has not been submitted for the award of any
other degree.
Under Supervision: HOD:

MOHAN ARIF
SHARMA HASAN
(Assistant
(Assistant professor) professor)
 ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not

have been possible without the kind support and help of
many individuals and department. We would like to extend
our sincere thanks to all of them.
We wish to express our sincere gratitude to Miss. Swati
Yadav (Asst. Professor, EN Dept.) for providing us all
help to complete this project.

We sincerely thank Mr. Mohan Sharma (Asst. Professor,

EC Dept.) for their guidance and encouragement in
carrying out this project work. We also wish to express our
gratitude to all effort of his to make this project easy by
support.
We also thank Mr. Arif Hassan (Head of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering Department) for providing us
the opportunity to embark on this project.

HEMANT KANT (1210921008)

MEETANSHU SHARMA (1210921017)

YASH KUMAR SINGH (1210921039)

 iii
ABSTRACT

LASER-Ray goes through long distance without scattering

effect and the Ray is almost invisible. Only the radiation
point and incident point is visible. So by this security
project we can make an invisible boundary of a sensitive
area. There is two part of the system. One is transmitter and
other is receiver.

The transmitter part is built with a LASER radiator, a pair

of dry cell batteries, an on -off switch and a stand to hold it.
The receiver side, there is a focusing LDR (Light
depending Resistor) sensor to sense the LASER
continuously. The LDR sensor also holds with a stand and
it connected with the main driver circuit. The circuit has
two parts. One is filtered the signal of discontinuity ray and
others is alarm circuit. When anybody crossover the
invisible ray the main circuit sense the discontinuity by
sensor and turn on the alarm circuit. If once the alarm
circuit is on it will still ringing until push the reset button.

There is two option of ringing. One is the duration of

ringing depends on preset timer and another reset manually.
Any option can be set by switch. If anybody wants to bind a
sensitive area with the single and break by object it ringing.
The system has built with low cost and high performance.
The power consumption of the system is very low.
Introduction

The realization of this project will involve the construction

of a light sensitive alarm. In this project are to distinguish
two parts. The first will consist of a written work. This
paper will explain the operation of the alarms, as well as the
different types of alarms in the world. In addition to
explaining the different components of the alarm, that is
made for this project.

The second part of the project will consist in the physical

installation of the alarm and its presentation. Alarms are
becoming more widespread due to the need for greater
security. Until a few years ago, security systems were
installed in specific locations, to preserve for burglary,
robbery or fire. Today it is used in homes, small businesses,
factories, and high-risk locations, such as banks and
jewelers.

A security system must not provide false alarms, since in

practice it is as ineffective as one that can easily be
violated. Prone to false alarm, besides not being insurance
system tends to be ignored. Legislation in this field requires
certain establishments such as banks, savings and credit
institutions in general gun shops and jewelers to have in
their facilities, systems, and

these systems should be installed by approved companies

for added security. A good security system, to be
successful, you must be connected via a telephone
transmitter to a central station with 24 hour security. This is
the only way to provide continuous security to the factory,
warehouse, office or family housing in question. Before
installation it should take into account certain
considerations very clear since they will define the
installation to be carried out. It should be noted that it is
virtually impossible to make a proper fit, given existing in
each own constraints and limitations of the equipment,
because even come to a very high degree of reliability are
always risks.

Which do not require interfacing with the security company

because they have warning system and outdoor signage,
and these are fairly simple constitution? However, the trend
in Europe is to connect these small systems security
certified security company, since it guarantees all the
senses.
 v

TABLE OF
 CONTENTS

DECLARATION i
CERTIFICATE ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF FIGURES ix

CHAPTER: 1 1
1. INTRODUCTION 2
1.1 AIM 2
1.2 FEATURES OF SYSTEM 2
1.3 SYSTEM COMPONENTS 2
CHAPTER: 2 4
2. LASER 4
 2.1 WORKING PRINCLE OF LASER 5
CHAPTER: 3 7
3. LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTER 7
3.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LDR 7
3.2 CHARACTERISTIC OF LDR 8
CHAPTER:4 9

4. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE 9

4.1 WORKING OF LED 9
CHAPTER: 5 11
5. BASIC COMPONENTS OF SYSTEM 11

vi
5.1 PROTO BOARD AND
CONNECTION BOARD 11
 5.2 RESISTOR 12
5.3 VARIABLE RESISTOR 12
5.4 PRECISION RESISTOR 13
5.5 COLOR CODE 14
5.6 CAPACITOR 15
5.7 TYPES OF CAPACITOR 16
5.7.1 CERAMIC CAPACITOR 16
5.7.2 FILM CAPACITOR 17
5.7.3 FILM POWER CAPACITOR 17
5.7.4 ELECTROLYTE CAPACITOR 17
CHAPTER: 6 19
6. ALARM AND BUZZER 19
6.1 VOLTAGE 19
6.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT 19
6.3 OHM'S LAW 19
CHAPTER: 7 21
7. VOLTAGE REGULATOR 21
7.1 7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR IC 21
7.2 PIN CONFIGURATION 22
7.3 WORKING OF 7805 IC 22
CHAPTER: 8 24
8. TIMER IC 555 24
8.1 PIN CONFIGURATION 24
8.2 WORKING AND CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM 26
CHAPTER: 9 28
9. SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY 28
vii
9.1 BASIC COMPONENT 28
CHAPTER: 10 30
 10. TRANSISTOR 30
10.1 TYPES OF TRANSISTOR 31
10.1.1 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 31
10.1.2 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR 31
10.2 BC-548 TRANSISTOR 32
CHAPTER: 11 33
11. ANALOG COUNTER 33
11.1 PIN CONFIGURATION AND
FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM 33
11.2 INTERACTING 34
11.2.1 INTERFACING WITH 7 SEGMENT
DISPLAY 34
11.2.2 INTERFACING WITH IC 555 35
CHAPTER: 12 36
12. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND WORKING
OF SYSTEM 36
 12.1 LASER SYSTEM CIRCUIT 36
12.2 WORKING OF CIRCUIT 36
12.3 COUNTER SYSTEM CIRCUIT 37
12.4 WORKING LASER COUNTER 38
CHAPTER: 13 39
13.METHODOLOGY AND SCOPE 39
REFERENCES 41
 viii
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Fig 2.1 5 VOLT LASER 4
2. Fig 2.2 STIMULATED EMISSION VIEW 5
3. Fig 3.1 LDR 7
4. Fig 3.2 CHARACTERISTIC OF LDR 8
5. Fig 4.1 ELECTRONIC SYMBOL OF LED 9
6. Fig 4.2 INNER WORKING OF LED 9
7. Fig 4.3 LEDs 10
8. Fig 5.1 CONNECTION BOARD OR
PROTO BOARD 11
9. Fig 5.2 ELECTRONIC SYMBOL OF
RESISTOR 12
10. Fig 5.3 VARIABLE RESISTOR 13
11. Fig 5.4 RESISTOR 14
12. Fig 5.5 COLOR CODES FOR
RESISTANCES 15
13. Fig 5.6 CAPACITOR 15
14. Fig 5.7 CATEGORIES OF CAPACITORS 16
15. Fig 5.8 ELECTROLYTE CAPACITOR 18
16. Fig 6.1 VOLT BUZZERS 20
17. Fig 7.1 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 21
18. Fig7.2 PIN DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE
REGULATOR 22
19. Fig 7.3 7805 VR CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 23
20. Fig 8.1 PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 555 24
21. Fig 8.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF IC 555 26
22. Fig 9.1 SSD 28
23. Fig 9.2 SEGMENT OF DISPLAY 29
24. Fig 10.1 TYPICAL TRANSISTOR VIEW 30
25. Fig 10.2 MOSFET 31
26. Fig 10.3 BC-548 TRANSISTOR 32
ix
27. Fig 11.1 PIN DIAGRAM OF COUNTER
IC 33
28. Fig 11.2 INTERFACE OF SSD & IC-4033 34
29. Fig 12.1 LASER SYSTEM CIRCUIT 36
30. Fig 12.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF
COUNTER SYSTEM 37
x
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

Security is a most important factor today. Technology

develops day by day in the world. The crime gang also
improves their technology to perform their operation. So
technology of security should be modern with time to
protect the crime works. We decide to make a security
project as our project.

In this project we have used laser light to cover a large

area. We know laser light goes through long distance
without scattering effect. It’s also visible only at source and
incident point, otherwise invisible. These two properties
help us to build up a modern security system, which may
name as “laser security”.
When any person or object crossover the laser line the
security alarm will ringing and also the focus light will
“on” to focus the entrance of unauthorized person. We can
make a security boundary of single laser light by using
mirror at every corner for reflection.

Siren is a device that produces loud noise. They are the

means communication. Sirens can be seen in emergency
vehicles such as police cars, ambulances and fire engines.
Generally, sirens are used as indication or warning. There
are different circuits to produce different sirens. Here in this
project a screaming siren lights circuit is presented.
Screaming siren lights are those which produces siren
depending on the light intensity falling on the circuit. We
can also call it as Laser Based Security alarm as it is a Light
Activated Alarm circuit.
The circuit illustrated here is a burglar alarm. LDR is place
at such a place that when the thief enters our house then a
connection of beam of light and LDR is disrupted by the
intruder and the buzzer goes off.

When a ray of light is interrupted by anything, the LDR

used in the circuit changes its resistance and causes the
buzzer to go off, producing a large siren, scaring the
intruders away. Circuit can be easily modified to make the
police siren a simple alarming sound. If once the alarm
circuit is on it will still ringing until push the reset button.
There is two option of ringing. One is the duration of
ringing depends on preset timer and another reset manually.
If anybody wants to bind a sensitive area with the single ray
he has to use mirror at every corner to reflect it. The system
has built with low cost and high performance. The power
consumption of the system is very low.

1It is of interest, in regard to future laser communication

links, to discuss the question of whether the information
transmitted along a narrow line-of-sight path to a receiver is
proof against interception. The automatic assumption that a
beam of light whose beam diameter is of the order of
magnitude of the collector mirrors is “secure” in principle
is strictly true only for propagation in empty space. In
transmission through the atmosphere, scattering phenomena
due to water droplets in fog, cloud or rain, ice crystals,
snowflakes, dust particles, and Rayleigh scattering from the
air molecules themselves produce diffusion of the light
from the direct path of the beam. This diffused light can be
detected and utilized.
1.1 Aim

To main aim of Laser Security Alarm is-

 Totally reduces man power.


 Prevent the entry of unauthorized person in the
particular area.

 And also improve the security system.

 To provide a very modern and high sensitive system.

1.2 Features of System

 Easy installation and low maintenance.


 Fully automatic, saves man power.

 Consume very low energy and provides flexibility in
operations.
1.3 System components

 Laser light

 LDR

 N-P-N Transistors

 LEDs

 Laser receiver

 Timer IC-555

 Counter IC

 Seven Segment Display

 Resistors and Capacitors

 Beeper

 Wire and PCB
 CHAPTER-2

LASER

The term "laser" originated as an acronym for "light

amplification by stimulated emission of radiation".

A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits

light coherently. Spatial coherence allows a laser to be
focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as laser
cutting and lithography.

Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow

over great distances (collimation), enabling applications
such as laser pointers. Lasers can also have high temporal
coherence, which allows them to emit light with a very
narrow spectrum, i.e., they can emit a single color of light.
Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light
as short as a femtosecond.

Among their many applications, lasers are used in optical

disk drives, laser printers, and barcode scanners; fiber-optic
and free-space optical communication; laser surgery and
skin treatments; cutting and welding materials; military and
law enforcement devices for marking targets and measuring
range and speed; and laser lighting displays in
entertainment.

We are using a 5 volt laser in this project.

2.1 Working Principle of Laser

The working principle of laser is depending on the

stimulated emission of electromagnet light which is
describing as below.

The energy of an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is

larger for orbits further from the nucleus of an atom.
However, quantum mechanical effects force electrons to
take on discrete positions in orbital. Thus, electrons are
found in specific energy levels of an atom, two of which
are shown below:
 Fig-2.2 (Stimulated Emission)

When an electron absorbs energy either from light

(photons) or heat (phonons) it receives that incident
quantum of energy. But transitions are only allowed in
between discrete energy levels such as the two shown
above. This leads to emission lines and absorption lines.

When an electron is excited from a lower to a higher energy

level, it will not stay that way forever. An electron in an
excited state may decay to a lower energy state which is not
occupied, according to a particular time constant
characterizing that transition. When such an electron
decaying without external influence emitting a photon.

That is called "spontaneous emission". The phase

associated with the photon that is emitted is random. A
material with many atoms in such an excited state may thus
result in radiation which is very spectrally limited (centered
on one wavelength of light) but the individual photons
would have no common phase relationship and would
emanate in random directions. This is the mechanism of
fluorescence and thermal emission.

An external electromagnetic field at a frequency associated

with a transition can affect the quantum mechanical state of
the atom. As the electron in the atom makes a transition
between two stationary states (neither of which shows a
dipole field) it enters a transition state which does have a
dipole field, and which acts like a small electric dipole, and
this dipole oscillates at a characteristic frequency.
In response to the external electric field at this frequency,
the probability of the atom entering this transition state is
greatly increased.

Thus, the rate of transitions between two stationary states is

enhanced beyond that due to spontaneous emission. Such a
transition to the higher state is called absorption, and it
destroys an incident photon (the photon's energy goes into
powering the increased energy of the higher state).

A transition from the higher to a lower energy state,

however, produces an additional photon; this is the process
of stimulated emission.
 CHAPTER-3

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR

A photo resistor is an electronic component whose

resistance varies as a function of light. The value of
electrical resistance of a LDR is low when there is light
shining on it (can drop to 50 ohms) and high when it is dark
(several mega ohms).Its operation is based on the
photoelectric effect. A photo resistor is made of a high
resistance semiconductor such as cadmium sulfide (CdS). If
the light falling on the device is high- frequency photons
are absorbed by the semiconductor elasticity giving the
electrons enough energy to jump the conduction band. The
resulting free electron and its associated gap, conduct
electricity, so that the resistance decreases. Typical values
range from 1 MW or more in the dark and 100 Ω in bright
light. The cadmium sulfide cells are based on the ability to
vary its resistance cadmium according to the amount of
light striking the cell. More light is incident, the lower the
resistance. The cells are also capable of reacting to a broad
range of frequencies, including infrared (IR), visible.

Fig-3.1 (Light dependent resistance)

3.1 Working Principle of LDR

Light dependent resistor works on the principle of photo

conductivity. Photo conductivity is an optical phenomenon
in which the materials conductivity is increased when light
is absorbed by the material.

When light falls i.e. when the photons fall on the device,
the electrons in the valence band of the semiconductor
material are excited to the conduction band. These photons
in the incident light should have energy greater than the
band gap of the semiconductor material to make the
electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction
band. Hence when light having
enough energy strikes on the device, more and more
electrons are excited to the conduction band which results
in large number of charge carriers.

The result of this process is more and more current starts

flowing through the device when the circuit is closed and
hence it is said that the resistance of the device has been
decreased. This is the most common working principle of
LDR.

3.2 Characteristics of LDR

LDR' are light dependent devices whose resistance is

decreased when light falls on them and that is increased in
the dark. When alight dependent resistor is kept in dark, its
resistance is very high. This resistance is called as dark
resistance.
It can be as high as 1012 Ω and if the device is allowed to
absorb light its resistance will be decreased drastically. If a
constant voltage is applied to it and intensity of light is
increased the current starts increasing. Figure below shows
resistance vs. illumination curve for a particular LDR.

Fig-3.2 (Characteristic of LDR)

 CHAPTER-4

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor

light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light
when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes
within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.

This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of

the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.
4.1 Working Principle of LED

Fig-4.2 (The inner working of an LED)

A P-N junction can convert absorbed light energy into a
proportional electric current. The same process is reversed
here (i.e. the P-N junction emits light when electrical
energy is applied to it). This phenomenon is generally
called electroluminescence, which can be defined as the
emission of light from a semi-conductor under the
influence of an electric field.

The charge carriers recombine in a forward-biased P-N

junction as the electrons cross from the N-region and
recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free
electrons are in the conduction band of energy levels, while
holes are in the valence energy band. Thus the energy level
of the holes will be lesser than the energy levels of the
electrons.
Some portion of the energy must be dissipated in order to
recombine the electrons and the holes. This energy is
emitted in the form of heat and light.

The electrons dissipate energy in the form of heat for

silicon and germanium diodes but in gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAsP) and gallium phosphide (GaP)
semiconductors, the electrons dissipate energy by emitting
photons.

If the semiconductor is translucent, the junction becomes

the source of light as it is emitted, thus becoming a light-
emitting diode, but when the junction is reverse biased no
light will be produced by the LED and, on the contrary, the
device may also be damaged.
 CHAPTER-5

BASIC COMPONENTS OF SYSTEM

5.1 Proto Board and connection board

This board, we will use the first part of the mounting

system. Once we get the certainty that the system works
properly, we can make the final connection, which will
alarm inside a container. In this way this alarm will be
portable.

A proto board is a board with holes electrically connected

together, usually in patterns of lines, which can be inserted
and electronic components and wires for assembling
electronic circuit prototyping and similar systems.
It is made of two materials, insulation, usually a plastic,
and a conductor connecting together the various holes. One
of its main uses is the creation and testing of prototype
electronic circuits before reaching the mechanical printing
circuit in commercial production systems.

It is currently one of the most used test plates. Block is

comprised of perforated plastic and numerous thin films of
an alloy of copper, tin and phosphorous, joining said
perforations, creating a series of parallel conducting lines.

The lines intersect at the center of the block to ensure that

integrated circuit devices such dual in-line package (DIP)
can be inserted perpendicularly and without being touched
by the supplier to the conductive lines.
 Fig-5.1 (Proto board and connection board)
5.2 Resistor

Resistor called electronic component designed to introduce

a specific electrical resistance between two points of an
electrical circuit. In the electrical and electronic slang itself,
are known simply as resistors. In other cases, such as
plates, heaters, etc... Resistors are used to produce heat
exploiting the Joule effect.

It is a material comprising carbon and other resistive

elements for decreasing the current passing. He opposes the
passage of current. The maximum current and maximum
potential difference across a resistor is determined by the
maximum power that can dissipate your body.
This power can be visually identified from the diameter
without other indication is necessary. The most common
values are 0.25 W, 0.5 W and 1 W .There are variable value
resistors, which are called potentiometers or Variable
Resistors.

Fig-5.2 (Electronic symbol of resistor)

5.3 Variable Resistor

It is an electronic component. It is applied in an electronic

circuit for adjusting circuit resistance to control voltage or
current of that circuit or part of that circuit. The electrical
resistance is varied by sliding a wiper contact along a
resistance track. Sometimes the resistance is adjusted at
present value as required at the time of circuit building by
adjusting screw attached to it and sometimes resistance can
be adjusted as when required. The active resistance value of
the variable resistor depends upon the position of the slider
contact on the resistance track.

It mainly consists of a resistance track and a wiper contact.

The wiper contact moves along the resistance track when
adjustable component is adjusted. There are mainly three
different types of resistance track used in this resistor they
are carbon track, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) track
and wire wound track. Carbon track and cermet track are
used for high

resistance application whereas wire wound track is used for

low resistance variable resistor. The resistance tracks
generally are of circular shape but straight track is also used
in many cases.

Fig-5.3 (Variable Resistor)

5.4 Precision resistors

Precision resistors or metal sheets , also known by its

English name foil resistors are those whose value is
adjusted with errors 100 parts per million or less and also
have a very small variation with temperature of the order of
10 parts per million between 25 and 125 degrees Celsius.
This component has a special use in analog circuits with
very tight specifications settings. The resistance achieved
such high precision in value, and temperature specification,
because it must be considered as a system, where materials
that behave interact to achieve stability.

A very thin metal sheet is glued to an insulator such as

glass or ceramic, as the temperature increases, the thermal
expansion of metal is higher than that of glass or ceramic
and being attached to the insulator, the metal produces a
force that compressed by reducing the electrical resistance,
and the coefficient of variation of resistance with
temperature of the metal is almost always positive, the
almost linear sum of these factors, the resistance does not
change or do so minimally.

This component has its origin in several countries and at

different times. By the 50s, some companies and academic
centers of technology, especially in the United States,
began to investigate new techniques for components to
adapt to the emerging semiconductor industry. The new
electronic system should be more stable and more compact
and industry of that time placed more emphasis on the
accuracy and stability of the behavior with temperature
changes.
In the technology were two emerging type resistors, the
resistors can made of very thin metal films deposited on
insulating substrates such as glass or ceramics, and which
reservoir is performed with metal evaporation techniques.

Then there were resistors made from metal sheets whose

thicknesses were greater than those made with metal films.
The metal sheets were glued to insulating substrates such as
glass or ceramics.

In our project we are using 100 and 330Ω resistor.

5.5 Color code

To characterize a resistor requires three values: electrical

resistance, high accuracy or dissipation and tolerance.

These values are normally used in the encapsulation

according to the type thereof for axial type of encapsulation
that seen in the photographs, these values are labeled with a
code of colored stripes.
5.6 Capacitor

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a

passive two-terminal electrical component used to store
electrical energy temporarily in an electric field.

Fig-5.6 (capacitor)

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a

non-conductive region. The non-conductive region is
called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is
just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media
are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor
depletion region chemically identical to the conductors.
A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated,
with no net electric charge and no influence from any
external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal
and opposite

charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric

develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of
one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each
conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant

capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q on each
conductor to the voltage V between them:

=
5.7 Types of Capacitor

Fig-5.7 (Categories of Capacitor)

5.7.1 Ceramic Capacitors

A is ceramic capacitors a non-polarized fixed capacitor

made out of two or more alternating layers of ceramic
and metal in which the ceramic material acts as the
dielectric and the metal acts as the electrodes.

The ceramic material is a mixture of finely ground

granules of ferroelectric materials, modified by mixed
oxides that are necessary to achieve the capacitor's
desired characteristics. The electrical behavior of the
ceramic material is divided into two stability classes:

5.7.2 Film Capacitors

Film capacitors are non-polarized capacitors with an

insulating plastic film as the dielectric. The dielectric
films are drawn to a thin layer, provided with metallic
electrodes and wound into a cylindrical winding. The
electrodes of film capacitors may be metalized
aluminum or zinc, applied on one or both sides of the
plastic film, resulting in metalized film capacitors or a
separate metallic foil overlying the film, called film/foil
capacitors.

Metalized film capacitors offer self-healing properties.

Dielectric breakdowns or shorts between the electrodes
do not destroy the component. The metalized
construction makes it possible to produce wound
capacitors with larger capacitance values (up to 100 µF
and larger) in smaller cases than within film/foil
construction.
A key advantage of every film capacitor's internal
construction is direct contact to the electrodes on both
ends of the winding. This contact keeps all current paths
very short. The design behaves like a large number of
individual capacitors connected in parallel, thus
reducing the internal ohmic losses.

5.7.3 Film Power Capacitors

The materials and construction techniques used for large

power film capacitors mostly are similar to those of
ordinary film capacitors. However, capacitors with high
to very high power ratings for applications in power
systems and electrical installations are often classified
separately, for historical reasons. The standardization of
ordinary film capacitors is oriented on electrical and
mechanical parameters. The standardization of power
capacitors by contrast emphasizes the safety of
personnel and equipment, as given by the local
regulating authority.

5.7.4 Electrolyte Capacitors

We had used electrolytic capacitors in our project.

Electrolytic capacitors have a metallic anode covered
with an oxidized layer used as dielectric. The second
electrode is a non-solid (wet) or solid electrolyte.
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized.

The anode is highly roughened to increase the surface

area. This and the relatively high permittivity of the
oxide layer give these capacitors very high capacitance
per unit volume compared with film- or ceramic
capacitors.
The permittivity of tantalum pent oxide is approximately
three times higher than aluminum oxide, producing
significantly smaller components. However, permittivity
determines only the dimensions. Electrical parameters
are established by the electrolyte's material and
composition.

Fig-5.8 (Electrolyte Capacitor)

The large capacitance per unit volume of electrolytic
capacitors make them valuable in relatively high-current
and low-frequency electrical circuits, e.g. in power
supply filters for decoupling unwanted AC components
from DC power connections or as coupling capacitors in
audio amplifiers, for passing or bypassing low-
frequency signals and storing large amounts of energy.
The relatively high capacitance value of an electrolytic
capacitor combined with the very low ESR of the
polymer electrolyte of polymer capacitors, especially in
SMD styles, makes them a competitor to MLC chip
capacitors in personal computer power supplies.
 CHAPTER-6

ALARM OR BUZZER

The alarm that we build is a laser light sensitive alarm.

This means that the alarm will be activated when the
laser light is interrupted.

It is an alarm that is fed by electric current, so we are

going to discuss the basic principles of electricity.

6.1 Voltage

The potential difference between two points (1 and 2) of

an electric field is equal to the work done by the unit of
positive charge to transport from point 1 to point 2.
Voltage can be defined as the electromotive force that
causes free electrons move.

6.2 Electric Current

Is the electrical charge passing through a conductor

section or unit of time? In the International System of
Units is expressed in coulombs per second, unit called
ampere. If the current is constant over time is said that
the current is continuous; otherwise called variable. If no
storage or charge distribution occurs at any point of the
conductor, the current is stationary. According to Ohm's
law, the intensity of the current is equal to divided by the
reluctance bodies' voltage:

=
6.3 Ohm's Law

As the electrical resistance in a circuit is very important

in determining the intensity of the flow of electrons, it is
clear that it is also very important for the quantitative
aspects of electricity. It was long ago discovered that,
other things being equal, an increase in circuit resistance
is accompanied by a decrease in current.

A precise statement of this relationship had to wait until

reasonably certain as instruments were developed. In
1820, Georg Simon Ohm, a teacher of German school,
found that the current in a circuit was directly
proportional to the potential difference
produced by the current, and inversely proportional to
the resistance limits the current. It is expressed
mathematically as we have seen before.

Voltage Potential difference (V) Volts. Current (I) Amps

Resistance (R) Ohms

Fig-6.1 (5 volt buzzer)

 CHAPTER-7

VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically

maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator
may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include
negative feedback control loops. It may use an
electromechanical mechanism, or electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to
regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.

Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such

as computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC
voltages used by the processor and other elements. In
automobile alternators and central power station
generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of
the plant. In an electric power distribution system,
voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or
along distribution lines so that all customers receive
steady voltage independent of how much power is
drawn from the line.

We had used 7805 voltage regulator IC to convert 9V

DC supply to 5V DC supply.

Fig-7.1 (voltage Regulator)

7.1 7805 Voltage Regulator IC

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a

member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulator
ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have
fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output.

The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at

a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed
output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides
+5V regulated power supply.

Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input

and output pins depending upon the respective voltage
levels.

Fig-7.2 (Pin Diagram)

7.2 Pin Description

Pin
Function Name
No

1 Input voltage (5V-18V) Input

2 Ground (0V) Ground

3 Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V) Output

7.3 Working of IC 7805

ICs regulator is mainly used in the circuit to maintain

the exact voltage which is followed by the power
supply. A regulator is mainly employed with the
capacitor connected in parallel to the input terminal and
the output terminal of the IC regulator.

For the checking of gigantic alterations in the input as

well as in the output filter, capacitors are used. While the
bypass capacitors are used to check the small period
spikes on the input and output level.
Bypass capacitors are mainly of small values that are
used to bypass the small period pulses straightly into the
Earth.

Fig-7.3 (7805 Voltage Regulator

Circuit)

TIMER IC 555

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a

variety of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator
applications. The 555 can be used to provide time
delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element.

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555

package includes 25 transistors, 2 diodes and 15
resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-
in-line package (DIP-8).

Low-power versions of the 555 are also available, such

as the 7555 and CMOS TLC555. The 7555 is designed
to cause less supply noise than the classic 555 and the
manufacturer claims that it usually does not require a
"control" capacitor and in many cases does not require a
decoupling capacitor on the power supply.

Those parts should generally be included, however,

because noise produced by the timer or variation in
power supply voltage might interfere with other parts of
a circuit or influence its threshold voltages.
8.1 Pin Configuration

Fig-8.1(Pin diagram of IC-555)

Pin 5 is also sometimes called the CONTROL

VOLTAGE pin. By applying a voltage to the
CONTROL VOLTAGE input one can alter the timing
characteristics of the device. In most applications, the
CONTROL VOLTAGE input is not used. It is usual to
connect a 10nF capacitor between pin 5 and 0 V to
prevent interference. The CONTROL VOLTAGE input
can be used to build an unstable multi-vibrator with a
frequency-modulated output.

8.2 Working and Circuit Diagram of IC 555

 Fig-8.2 (Circuit Diagram of IC 555)

The internal resistors act as a voltage divider network,

providing (2/3)Vcc at the non-inverting terminal of the
upper comparator and (1/3)Vcc at the inverting terminal
of the lower comparator. In most applications, the
control input is not used, so that the control voltage
equals +(2/3) VCC.

Upper comparator has a threshold input (pin 6) and a

control input (pin 5). Output of the upper comparator is
applied to set (S) input of the flip-flop. Whenever the
threshold voltage exceeds the control voltage, the upper
comparator will set the flip-flop and its output is high.
A high output from the flip-flop when given to the base
of the discharge transistor saturates it and thus
discharges the transistor that is connected externally to
the discharge pin 7.

The complementary signal out of the flip-flop goes to

pin 3, the output. The output available at pin 3 is low.
These conditions will prevail until lower comparator
triggers the flip-flop. Even if the voltage at the threshold
input falls below (2/3) VCC that is upper comparator
cannot cause the flip-flop to change again. It means that
the upper comparator can only force the flip-flop’s
output high.

To change the output of flip-flop to low, the voltage at

the trigger input must fall below + (1/3) Vcc. When this
occurs, lower comparator triggers the flip-flop, forcing
its output low. The low output from the flip-flop turns
the discharge transistor off and forces the power
amplifier to output a high.

These conditions will continue independent of the

voltage on the trigger input. Lower comparator can only
cause the flip-flop to output low.

From the above discussion it is concluded that for the

having low output from the timer 555, the voltage on the
threshold input must exceed the control voltage or +
(2/3) VCC. This also turns the discharge transistor on. To
force the output from the timer high, the voltage on the
trigger input must drop below + (1/3) VCC. This turns the
discharge transistor off.

A voltage may be applied to the control input to change

the levels at which the switching occurs. When not in
use, a 0.01n Farad capacitor should be connected
between pin 5 and ground to prevent noise coupled onto
this pin from causing false triggering.

Connecting the reset (pin 4) to a logic low will place a

high on the output of flip-flop. The discharge transistor
will go on and the power amplifier will output a low.
This condition will continue until reset is taken high.
This allows synchronization or resetting of the circuit’s
operation. When not in use, reset should be tied to +VCC.
 CHAPTER-9

SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY (SSD)

A seven-segment display (SSD) or seven-segment

indicator is a form of electronic display device for
displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the
more complex dot matrix displays.
Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital
clocks, electronic meters, basic calculators, and other
electronic devices that display numerical information.

9.1 Basic Component

The seven elements of the display can be lit in different

combinations to represent the Arabic numerals. Often
the seven segments are arranged in an oblique (slanted)
arrangement, which aids readability.

In most applications, the seven segments are of nearly

uniform shape and size (usually elongated hexagons,
though trapezoids and rectangles can also be used),
though in the case of adding machines, the vertical
segments are longer and more oddly shaped at the ends
in an effort to further enhance readability.
The numerals 6, 7 and 9 may be represented by two or
more different glyphs on seven segment displays, with
or without a 'tail'.

The seven segments are arranged as a rectangle of two

vertical segments on each side with one horizontal
segment on the top, middle, and bottom. Additionally,
the seventh segment bisects the rectangle horizontally.

Fig-9.2 (Seven segments of display)

There are also fourteen-segment displays and sixteen-
segment displays (for full alphanumeric); however, these
have mostly been replaced by dot matrix displays.

The segments of a 7-segment display are referred to by

the letters A to G, where the optional decimal point (an
"eighth segment", referred to as DP) is used for the
display of non-integer numbers.
 CHAPTER- 10

TRANSISTOR

A transistor is fundamental building block of modern

electronics devices. A transistor is a device that
regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or
gate for electronic signals.

Fig-10.1 (Typical Transistor View)

Transistors consist of three layers of a semiconductor
material, each capable of carrying a current. A transistor
is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch
electronics signals and electrical power.

It is composed of semiconductor material with at least

three terminals for connection to an external circuit.

A voltage or current applied to one pair of the

transistor's terminals changes the current through
another pair of terminals.

Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as

electronic switches which can be either in an "on" or
"off" state, both for high-power applications such as
switched-mode power supplies and for low-power
applications such as logic gates.
Important parameters for this application include the
current switched, the voltage handled, and the switching
speed, characterized by the rise and fall times.

Types of Transistor

10.1.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor

The bipolar junction transistor is made primarily on a

single crystal of germanium, silicon or gallium arsenide,
which have qualities of semiconductors, conductors as
intermediate between metals and insulators as diamond.
On the glass substrate, are contaminated in very
controlled three zones, two of which are the same type,
N-P-N or P-N-P, they formed two P-N junctions being.
The N donor elements consists electrons (negative
charges) and P acceptors area or "holes" (positive
charges). Usually P used as acceptors elements to Indio
(In), aluminum (Al) or gallium (Ga) and N donors
Arsenic (As) or phosphorus (P).

The configuration of P-N junctions, give as transistors

result PNP or N-P-N, where the middle letter always
corresponds to the characteristic of the base, and the
other two to the emitter and collector, although they are
the same type and opposite to the base, have different
contamination between them (typically, the emitter is
much more polluted than the collector). The mechanism
that represents the semiconductor behavior depends on
such pollution, the associated geometry and type of
technology pollution (gaseous diffusion, epitaxial,
etc...).

10.1.2 Field Effect Transistor

The field effect transistor junction (JFET) was the first

field effect transistor in practice. It forms a bar of
semiconductor material of N-type silicon or Q. terminal
bar establishes an ohmic contact, and have a transistor of
N-type field effect of the most basic form.

If two P regions are disseminated in a bar of material N

and connected externally to each other, a door will
occur. One of these contacts will call another Supplier
and drain. Applying positive voltage between the drain
and the source and connecting door to the supplier.
 Fig-10.2 (Typical MOSFET)

10.2 BC-548 TRANSISTOR

The BC-548 is general purpose N-P-N bipolar junction

transistor commonly used in European electronic
equipment. It is notably often the first type of bipolar
transistor hobbyists’ encounter, and is often featured in
designs in hobby electronics magazines where a general-
purpose transistor is required. The BC-548 is low in cost
and widely available.
The strengths and weaknesses of the BC-548 transistor
are derived mainly from its design. A transistor at its
most basic consists of a semiconductor material, a
number of terminals referred to as leads, and an overall
packaging or enclosure. Like many similar designs, the
BC-548 transistor has three leads that connect to the rest
of a circuit. This makes it a bipolar junction transistor;
the other main type of transistors is known as field-
effect transistor.

Each lead - respectively the collector, base, and emitter

serves a different purpose. Electric charge will flow
from the collector through the base to the emitter at
varying levels, depending on the level of current in the
base. This level is determined by the type of
semiconductor material used in the transistor.
 Fig-10.3 (BC-548 Transistor)
CHAPTER-11

ANALOG COUNTER

CD-4033 is a Johnson counter IC commonly used in

digital display. It has a 5 stage Johnson decade counter
with decoder which convert the Johnson code to a 7
segment decoded output. Means it will convert the input
into numeric display which can be seen on 7 segment
display or with the help of LED.

Advantage of this IC is it can be operated at high

voltage of 20V. But is highly sensitive, can detect emf
present in the atmosphere and is sensitive to static
charge also. When you touch your finger at its input
terminal its counter get started therefore care should be
taken while using it. It can be used in various
applications like in 7 segments decimal display circuit,
in clocks, timer etc.

11.1 Pin Configuration and Functional Diagram

 Fig-11.1 (Pin diagram of CD-4033 IC)

Pin 1 known as Clock in - It receives clock signals, and

at every positive clock counter advances one by one.
You can provide clock with the switch, 555 timers or
with the help of logic gates.

Pin 2 known as Clock inhibit - CD-4033 counter

advances one by one by receiving positive pulse at this
time clock inhibit pin should be grounded.

Pin 3 and pin 4 known as Ripple blanking in and

Ripple blanking - It is used to display only one zero
blanking the other zero. For this IC have ripple blanking
in and ripple blanking out. For example you want to
display 345 and you are using five 7 segment display
then it will display 00345 if blanking input and out is
off. But if it is on than you will receive 345. It improves
the readability of the circuit.
Pin 5 known as carry out - It is used to complete one
cycle for every 10 clock input cycle and it also used to
cascade more IC's.

Pin 6, Pin 7 and Pin 9 to pin 13 - These are 7 decoded

output from a to g used to illuminates the corresponding
segment of 7 segment display to display the digit from 0
to

Pin 14 known as Lamp test - It is used to check that all

segments of 7 segment is working properly or not. For
testing momentarily make the pin low.

Pin 15 known as Reset - It is used to reset the counter.

When it receives high it clears the counter and counting
again starts from zero. One important thing reset pin
should again made low to start the counter once again.
Pin 8 known as ground pin and Pin 16 known as Vdd
it should be connected to power supply.

11.2 INTERFACING

11.2.1 Interfacing with 7 Segment Display

The circuit describes below count numbers from 0 to 9

and display the same on 7 segment display. Whenever
you press the switch, clock input receives the signals and
its counter advances one by one.

And it will count up to 9 and again start counting from 0

on each successive pressing of switch. Pin configuration
of 7 segment display can be obtained from the fig.
shown below.
Fig-11.2 (Interfacing of 7 segment display and IC-4033)

1.2.2 Interfacing with Timer IC 555

In the following circuit we have used a 555 timer in a

stable oscillator mode to provide clock signal to input of
IC CD-4033 to start its counting which can be display on
7 segment displays. Here reset switch is used to reset the
counting any time needed by the user.
You can also interface two CD-4033 ICs if you want to
increase the counting beyond 9. This can be done by
cascading 2 CD-4033 IC, connect the carry out of first
IC to the clock input of second IC. Now when first IC
completes its counting than second IC will start the
counting. Connect reset pin of both the IC together and
ground it with the help of resistor.

CHAPTER-12

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND WORKING OF SYSTEM

There are two independent circuits one is Laser security

alarm and another one is counter system which are as
follows-
12.1 Laser Circuit

Fig-12.1 (laser system circuit)

12.2 Working of Circuit

This is a remarkably easy LASER BASED SECURITY
ALARM using only 4 components. A Transistor,
resistor, LDR and a buzzer as an output signal.

A simple idea of potential divider circuit is used here.

When the the light from the source (LASER LIGHT)
comes in contact with the LDR, its resistance decreases
and hence the voltage across it decreases.

There is a 1K Ohm resistor in series with the LDR so

that the voltage across the 1K Ohm resistor increases
when the voltage across the LDR decreases. When the
connection breaks between the LASER and the LDR,
the voltage across the LDR increases (as its resistance
increases) and that gives the input signal to the source
and gate terminal of the transistor and then the output
from the drain terminal gives the input to the negative
terminal of the BUZZER, the positive terminal of the
buzzer is connected to the Battery itself. An LED can be
added to the circuit in Parallel to the buzzer to indicate
the output signal in the form of LIGHT.

A resistor is used in series with the LED to limit the

current through the led. A buzzer is used instead of a
speaker because of the low output POWER. The heart of
the Circuit is the N-P-N

The N-P-N transistor is used for low-power switching

applications. It is a 60 V device, capable of switching
200 mA , with a maximum on-resistance of 5 Ω at 10
V.A typical use of this transistor is as a switch for
moderate voltages and currents, including as drivers for
small lamps, motors, and relays. In switching circuits,
this transistor can be used much like bipolar junction
transistors, but have some advantages: Low threshold
voltage means no gate bias required

12.3 Counter System Circuit

Laser counter circuit consists of:

1. Analog counter IC CD 4033

2. Timer IC 555

3. Seven segment display

4. Transistors

5. Voltage regulator

6. Light emitting diode

7. Capacitors & resistor

Fig-12.2 (Circuit diagram of counter

System)
 Working Laser Counter

In this circuit the IC 358 is working as a comparator and

IC 555 is wired as a bistable multi-vibrator. The
transistor BC-548 is wired as a switch to provide the
negative trigger at pin 2 of 555. The 50K pot is used to
adjust the sensitivity of the circuit.

When any one interrupts the laser beam, the LDR will
go to darkness which increases the resistance across
LDR, which in turn increases the voltage across it.
When the voltage at Non-Inverting terminal (PIN 3) will
greater than inverting terminal (PIN 2) the output of the
comparator goes high. Thus the output of transistor goes
low and triggers the 555, which sounds the buzzer. Here
is the circuit diagram of a seven segment counter based
on the counter IC C. This circuit can be used in
conjunction with various circuits where a counter to
display the progress adds some more attraction.

IC 555 is wired as an astable multi-vibrator for

triggering the CD 4033. For each pulse the output of CD
4033 advances by one count. The output of CD 4033 is
displayed by the seven segments LED.

CHAPTER-13

METHODOLOGY AND FUTURE SCOPE

The main part of this light activated alarm circuit is

LDR and transistor. Transistor is mainly used in
switching applications. It produces the output
required. This can be operated in two modes. These
two modes are off mode, on mode. In this circuit, it is
operated in both modes. In this mode no external
triggering is required. One terminal which is emitter
connected to the +ve terminal of battery through the
led and beeper combination.

When light is strike at the LDR the transistor is

remain in off mode and circuit complete through 1K
resistance and LDR. When the light of laser getting
brake the transistor comes in on mode than led will
grow and beeper rings. This is all about the laser
security system.

The circuit mainly depends on the light dependent

resistor for varying the sound in the circuit. These are
also called photo resistors. Generally, light dependent
resistors will have high resistance in darkness and it is
decreased when they are illuminated with the light.
The photo resistors used here are two mega ohm
resistors i.e. they have resistance in the range of mega
ohms in darkness. In the present circuit, two resistors
LDR and the 1K ohm resistor are connected in series.

Speaker is another component that plays a vital role in

the circuit. It takes the electrical signals and translates
it into physical signal. This acts as a transducer.
Inside the speaker there will a permanent magnet and
the moving magnet.

These vibrations are heard at output. Here the speaker

used is a buzzer. We have one another circuit in our
project it may be known is simple counter this circuit
have a timer IC 555 and a counter IC and seven
segment display and resistances and capacitors to
make the operation of counting easy and safely. it also
have a laser light which produce the beam and strike
at the laser receiver and when it is interrupted by any
object the display show the no. of brake of beam so
we can see that how time laser beam is broken by any
object .IC 555 and counter IC and seven segments
have interface in between.

This is all about the whole system which is capable

the count the entry of threats to a particular secured
area.

The final product will be the model of "laser security

alarm". The project model consists of mainly two
parts-
 1. laser security alarm

2. person counter

Laser security alarm will notify that someone has

trespassed secured area and analog counter will give
the count that how many persons have trespassed that
particular area.

This project will give us effective protected area to us.

Once this protected area will be breached, the alarm
will sound.

We made the laser security in low budget. It had been

protect in full security. Laser security systems are a
high tech technology that used to be a part of home
security only available to the wealthy. It is manually
switch dependent sensors and a basic alarm unit.
Laser has several advantages as compared to other
light sources like cheap, less manpower; efficient,
easily available, design is quite easy.
 REFERENCES

1. www.wikipedia.com
2. www.engineersgarage.com
3. www.mouserelectronics.com
4. www.allelectronics.com
5. www.digikey.com
41