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SUBSTANCES
IN INDUSTRY
OBJECTIVE :
CONCEPT MAP
Synthetic polymers
MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN
INDUSTRY
Alloys Ammonia
Composite Materials
Sulphuric Acid
Uses of Sulphuric Acid
Sulphuric acid is very important industrially, and has many uses including:
a. The production of fertilisers such as ammonium sulphate, potassium sulphate, calcium
superphosphate (Ca(H<2PO4)2), etc.; these are straight fertilisers, as they supply one of
the important elements of nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium (NPK);
b. The manufacture of non-soapy detergents: modern detergents are organic compounds
'sulphonated' with concentrated sulphuric acid;
c. The making of artificial silks like rayon: here, the fine threads in the alkaline cellulose
solution are neutralised by passing them through a bath of sulphuric acid;
d. The cleaning of metals by removing the surface oxide coating: this is called pickling and
is important in preparing articles for electroplating.
e. Its use as an electrolyte inside batteries for cars: most car batteries are made up of lead
plates in a sulphuric acid electrolyte; occasionally, the electrolyte needs to be 'topped
up' with distilled water ; this is because small amounts of hydrogen and oxygen gases are
given off by the chemical changes inside the battery, and therefore the sulphuric acid
loses water and becomes too concentrated ; in the manufacture of drugs, paints, dyes
and many other chemicals .
The large-scale manufacture of this acid is extremely important as it is the most common
acid used in industry, with over 1 000 million metric tonnes being produced annually.
It is manufactured by the Contact Process.
Stage 1
Combustion of Sulphur sulphur + oxygen sulphur dioxide
S (s) + O2 (g) ---> SO2 (g) or
Heating of metal sulphide such as lead(II) sulphide
2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) ---> 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)
or Combustion of hiydrogen sulphide
2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) ---> 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(ce)
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The raw materials are sulphur and air (oxygen). Sulphur dioxide is produced by burning either
sulphur or ores which contain sulphur.
1. The sulphur dioxide is then purified, by removing impurities like arsenic compounds which
would otherwise poison the catalyst.
2. It is then passed through an electrostatic dust precipitator, which, as its name implies,
charges dust particles which are then removed by being attracted to oppositely charged
plates.
Stage 2
Formation of Sulphur trioxide sulphur dioxide + oxygen ---> sulphur trioxide 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ---> 2SO3 (g)
Temperature: 450°C
Sulphur dioxide and air are then washed, dried and passed over a vanadium(V) oxide catalyst at
450°C and 2-3 atmospheres.
The reaction is reversible but at these temperatures and pressures, 98% conversion to sulphur
trioxide is achieved:
This reaction is exothermic, which means it favours a low temperature for high conversion to
sulphur trioxide.
Stage 3
Formation of oleum H2S2O7
sulphur trioxide + concentrated sulphuric acid ¾¾®oleum
The next step is to dissolve the sulphur trioxide produced in concentrated sulphuric acid, to
form oleum, or fuming sulphuric acid.
Stage 4
This oleum is then diluted with water to the required strength of acid:
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[MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY]
Although this may seem a roundabout route to take to form the acid, it is necessary because
sulphur trioxide cannot be dissolved directly in water as it reacts too violently, forming tiny droplets of
sulphuric acid which are very difficult to remove.
to make fertilisers,
polymers, manufactured by the
Sulphuric acid
detergents, contact process
pigments
T : 450°C-550°C
Catalyst : V2O5
P : 1 atm
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Example ;
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4
H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(aq) --->(NH4)2SO4(aq)
Urea NH2CONH2
CO2(g) + NH3(g) ---> CO(NH2)2(p) + H2O(l)
IV. They are solids for ease in handling and water soluble so that they seep into the soil to be
absorbed by the roots of the plant.
V. Nitrogen is an essential element for healthy plant growth as we saw earlier with the nitrogen
cycle. Nitrogen is essential for making proteins which are needed for healthy growth of stems
and leaves. The proportion of nitrogen present in a particular fertilizer can be calculated and is
usually quoted as an 'N' value on the fertilizer bag.
b. Solvent Uses
1. Aqueous ammonia is used as a degreasing agent, as it is a good solvent of grease and
fat.
2. Many household cleaners boast of the 'power of ammonia' for removing grease stains
around the kitchen.
3. However, it is wrong, as stated in some commercials, to talk of 'liquid ammonia'.
4. It is more accurate to say 'ammonia solution', as ammonia does not liquefy until a
temperature of -34 °C is reached.
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MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY] September 20, 2010
Characteristic of ammonia
React with acid to form salt and water
1. As an alkali, ammonia can react with acid to form salt and water.
Example
H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(aq) ---> (NH4)2SO4(aq)
HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq) ---> NH4NO3(aq)
H3PO4(aq) + 3NH3(aq) ---> (NH4)3PO4(aq)
Ammonia solution react with positive ions
2. Ammonia dissolve into water to form ammonium and hydroxide ion.
-
NH3 + H2O ---> NH4+ + OH
3. The hydroxide ion can react with many kinds of positive ion to form precipitate.
Example
2+ -
Mg + 2OH ---> Mg(OH)2
2+ -
Fe + 2OH ---> Fe(OH)2
3+ -
Al + 3OH ---> Al(OH)3
1. Ammonia is the only common alkaline gas, so it can be identified with moist red litmus paper
turning blue.
2. However, a more specific chemical test is to hold close to the suspected ammonia, a glass rod
dipped into some concentrated hydrochloric acid.
3. This will give off fumes of hydrogen chloride gas which, in the presence of ammonia, form a
dense, white 'smoke' of ammonium chloride:
4. ammonia gas + hydrogen chloride gas ---> ammonium chloride
NH3 (g) + HC1 (g) ---> NH4C1 (s)
5. In the same way, mixing a gas jar of hydrogen chloride and ammonia gas produces the same
dense, white smoke. The smoke again is the fine-particled solid called ammonium chloride.
1. The reaction
Ammonia is made by the Haber process from nitrogen and hydrogen:
The reaction is exothermic, and involves a decrease in the number of moles of gas.
[MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY] 20, 2010
Catalyst Iron
Promoter Aluminium oxide
Ratio of Hydrogen and The two gases are combined directly in a ratio of 3 : 1
Oxygen
Temperature At 450 °C
An application of Le Chatelier's shows that the forward reaction should be assisted by a
low temperature.
At low temperature, the rate of attainment of equilibrium is low. At high temperature,
the position of equilibrium is over to the left.
A compromise temperature is adopted, and a catalyst is employed to speed up the
attainment of equilibrium concentrations.
Pressure At 200-1000 atm
An application of Le Chatelier's shows that the forward reaction should be assisted by a
high pressure.
4. Products
The yield is about 10%, and unreacted gases are recycled
When the ammonia has been produced, it is liquefied 'out', by reducing the temperature to -
34°C(239 K)
T : 450°C-550°C
Catalyst : Iron
P: 200-500 atm
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Alloys
1. An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals mixed in a certain percentage.
Characteristic of metal
A pure metal has the following characteristics:
I. Many metal are also soft. Metals like iron and copper also form oxides easily.
II. As a result, the uses of pure metals are limited, and alloys are made to improve the malleability,
ductileness and hardness of a metal.
III. A pure metal is composed of layers of atoms which are arranged in an even, orderly and close
manner at fixed positions (see Figure 9.8). Each atom is surrounded by 8-12 atoms.
IV. This arrangement of atoms causes the metal to be very dense with high melting and boiling
points. The strong forces of attraction between atoms require a great amount of heat to
overcome.
V. However, in spite of strong forces of attraction between atoms, the metal is not hard. If a force
is applied on the metal, the layers of atoms can glide and slide on top of each other, causing
them to move to new positions. This allows the metal to be drawn into wires (ductile). (See
Figure 9.9.)
VI. The spaces left naturally between layers of metal atoms also make it easy to be beaten into
sheets (malleable).
VII. The formation of alloys occurs when these empty spaces between metal atoms are filled with
atoms of another metal, which may be higher or smaller than the original metal atoms. (Figure
9.10)
VIII. The foreign atoms are usually another metal but sometimes a non-metal, like a carbon or silicon
is used.
[MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY] Septer 20, 2010
Purpose of Making Alloys
Alloys are made to
steel,
bronze,
to prevent
brass,
magnalium,
Alloys corrosion
pewter
to improve
the
appearance
Synthetic Polymers
1. Synthetic polymer is a polymer that is manufactured in industry from chemical substances
through the polymerisation process. Through research, scientists are now able to copy the
structure of natural polymers to produce synthetic polymers.
2. Plastics, synthetic fibres and elastomers are examples of synthetic polymers.
3. The raw materials for the manufacture of synthetic polymers are distillates of petroleum.
4. The two types of polymerisation are:
5. Polymerisation by addition
6. Polymerisation by condensation
7. Polymerisation by addition involves monomers with >C = C< bonding, where the monomers join
together to make a long chain without losing any simple molecules from it. Examples of
polymers produced through this process are polythene, PVC perspex and other plastics.
8. Polymerisation by condensation involves the elimination of small molecules like water,
methanol, ammonia or hydrogen chloride during the process. Examples of products of this
process are terylene and nylon-66.
[MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY] September 20, 2010
PVC : to make
water pipes,
polypropene : rain clothes,
and wire
to make plastic
casing
bottles, tables,
and chairs
polythene : to
make plastic
bags,container
and toys
MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY]
Glass
1. It is a mixture of two or more types of metallic silicates but the main component is silicon(IV)
dioxide.
2. Glass has the following properties:
3. Transparent and not porous
4. Inactive chemically
5. Can be cleaned easily
6. Good insulators of heat and electricity
7. Hard but brittle
8. Can withstand compression but not pressure
9. Due to the above reasons and the low cost involved to produce glass, it is used in industry to
make bottles, cooking utensils, plates and bowls, laboratory apparatus (such as conical flask,
beakers and test tubes), window panes, bulbs and others.
10. Different types of glass can be obtained depending on the composition of substances in it.
Summary
Construction
materials,
household items, Fused glass, soda
laboratory glass, borosilicate
apparatus glass, lead glass
Glass and
Ceramics
Composite Materials
1. Composite materials are substances which contain 2 or more materials that combine to produce
new substances with different physical properties from the original substances.
2. They are used to make various substances in daily life because of the following reasons:
3. Metals corrode and are ductile and malleable
4. Glass and ceramics break easily
5. Metals are good conductors but have high resistance, leading to loss of electrical energy as heat
6. Plastics and glass can withstand heat to certain level only.
7. Composite materials have been created to overcome these problems and to make materials
stronger, more long-lasting and light for specific purposes.
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[MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY] September 20, 2010
1. Reinforced concrete
2. Optical fibre
3. Photochromic glass
4. Plastic reinforced with glass
5. Superconductor
reinforced
concrete
photocromic
superconductors
glass
Conclusion
1. Chemical processes change raw materials into materials with certain properties that can we use
2. As technology evolves, new uses for existing materials would be found in many areas such as
household use aerospace modern architecture, microelectronics, telecommunication and
scientific research.
3. In many cases synthetic polymers, alloys and composites can be manufactured to meet our
needs.
4. However, they can never totally replace the traditional materials that we have been using for
many generations like wood and steel.
5. The synthetic materials, if not managed properly, will harm the environment.
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