r

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND

W   qo Eq .dx
CAPACITANCE

r
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
dW  qo  Eq dx cos180

Definition: Potential at a point in a field is defined as
r
1 q
the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive dW  qo   dx
test charge, from infinity to that point along any 
4 o x 2
r
arbitrary path (infinity is point of zero potential). qqo 1
Electric potential is a scalar quantity, it is denoted
dW 
4 o x

2
dx
W
by V; V 
qq  1
r
q0
dW   o  
4 o  x  
Note:
W q 1 
  0
1. S. I. unit :
Joule
 volt qo 4 o  r 
Coulomb
W
2. C.G.S. unit : Stat volt (e.s.u.); 1 volt 
1
Stat volt By Definition, V
300 qo
3. Dimension : [V ]  [ML2T 3 A 1 ] 1 q
V
4. According to the nature of charge potential is of 4 o r
two types
a. Positive potential: Due to positive charge. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
b. Negative potential: Due to negative charge.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT
CHARGE

Consider a charge q at point O. A Test Charge qo is

Consider a charge q at point O. A Test Charge qo is
moved from infinity to P. Upon reaching point A let
the charge move by a small distance dx. A Small
amount of work is done in moving the charge. The
movement is against the force exerted by the charge
at O. Thus, the external force applied to move the
test charge without acceleration is given by:
moved from infinity to P. Upon reaching point A let
the charge move by a small distance dx. A Small
amount of work is done in moving the charge. The
movement is against the force exerted by the charge
at O. Thus, the external force applied to move the
test charge without acceleration is given by:
Fext   Fq

Fext   Fq The Work done in moving the charge due to the

external force is given by:
The Work done in moving the charge due to the dW  Fext .dx
external force is given by:
r
dW  Fext .dx W   Fext .dx

r
W   Fext .dx
r
W    Fq .dx


r
W    Fq .dx

 Fq  qE

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 B
W  q  E.dr
A

To find Electric Potential energy at point B

exclusively, we assume that point A lies at Infinity.
Since Electric Field at infinity is zero, this can be
written as:
B
WB  U B  0  q  E.dr


This Work done is equal to the Electrostatic

Potential energy at point B.
B
U B  q  E.dr


ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Since electric potential obeys superposition
Definition: Potential Difference between any two principle as potential due to electric dipole as a
points in an electric field is defined as the work whole would be sum of potential due to both the
done in moving a charge from one point to another charges +q and -q. Thus
against the electrostatic force of the field
irrespective of the path followed.
U B
V  VB  VA   q  E.dr
q A where r1 and r2 respectively are distance of charge
+q and -q from point R.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT ANY POINT DUE
TO A DIPOLE Now draw line PC perpendicular to RO and line
QD perpendicular to RO as shown in figure. From
We already know that electric dipole is an
triangle POC
arrangement which consists of two equal and
cosθ=OC/OP = OC/a
opposite charges +q and -q separated by a small
therefore OC=acosθ
distance 2a. Electric dipole moment is represented
Similarly OD=acosθ
by a vector p of magnitude 2qa and this vector
Now,
points in direction from -q to +q.
r1 = QR≅RD = OR-OD = r-acosθ
To find electric potential due to a dipole
r2 = PR≅RC = OR+OC = r+acosθ
consider charge -q is placed at point P and charge
+q is placed at point Q as shown below in the
figure.

since magnitude of dipole is

|p| = 2qa

If we consider the case where r>>a (Short Dipole)

then

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again since p cos   p.r where, r is the unit vector dW  F .dr  qE.dr
along the vector OR then electric potential of dipole  qEdr cos180o
is dW
  Edr
q

By Definition Work Done per unit charge is the

for r>>a Electric Potential. Therefore,

dV  Edr
Note: From above equation we can see that potential
dV
due to electric dipole is inversely proportional to E
r2 not to r which is the case for potential due to dr
single charge. The negative sign indicates that electric field
Potential due to electric dipole does not only intensity is in the direction if decreasing electric
depend on r but also depends on angle between
Potential.
position vector r and dipole moment p.
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE
For a given charge distribution, locus of all points
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF
having same potential is called “equipotential
POINT CHARGES
surface”. Regarding equipotential surface following
Consider P is a point at which net electric potential is properties should be kept in mind:
P to be determined due to
r1 1. The density of the equipotential lines gives an
several charges. So net idea about the magnitude of electric field.
+Q1 r2 r
r3 4
potential at P Higher the density larger the field strength.
+Q2 – Q4
+Q3 2. The direction of electric field is perpendicular to
V k
Q1 Q Q
k 2 k 3 k
Q4   ... the equipotential surfaces or lines.
r1 r2 r3 r4 3. The equipotential surfaces produced by a point
n
kQi charge or a spherically charge distribution are a
In general V  
i 1 ri family of concentric spheres.
4. For a uniform electric field, the equipotential
RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD
surfaces are a family of plane perpendicular to
INTENSITY AND POTENTIAL the field lines.
5. A metallic surface of any shape is an
equipotential surface.
6. Equipotential surfaces can never cross each
other
Consider a charge q at point O. A Test Charge qo is 7. The work done in moving a charge along an
moved from infinity to P. Upon reaching point A let equipotential surface is always zero.
the charge move by a small distance dx. A Small V = V2
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
amount of work is done in moving the charge. The
V = V1
movement is against the force exerted by the charge
at O.

The Work done in moving the charge due to the Equipotential

surface
external force is given by: Spherical E quipotential V1 > V2 > V3 > V4 > V5
Surface for a point
charge

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 Potential Energy due to a system of three charges

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential Energy due to a system of two charges

We have to consider three charges q1, q2 and

We have to consider two charges q1, q2, located at
r1 and r2 respectively. The work done in bringing
charge q1 from infinity to r1 is zero because there is
no potential in absence of electrical field.
Work done in bring the charge q2 from infinity to
r2 against the field due to charge q1 is W2= q2V
where V is potential at point r2 due to the charge q1.
q3, located at r1 and r2 respectively. The work done
in bringing charge q1 from infinity to r1 is zero
because there is no potential in absence of electrical
field.
Hence, W1=0
Work done in bring the charge q2 from infinity to
r2 against the field due to charge q1 is W2= q2V
where V is potential at point r2 due to the charge q1.

1 q1 1 q1
As, V  As, V 
4 o r12 4 o r12

where 'r12' is the distance between charge 'q1 ' and where 'r12' is the distance between charge 'q1 ' and
'q2 '. 'q2 '.

1 q1q2 1 q1q2
Therefore W2  Therefore W2 
4 o r12 4 o r12
Therefore, potential energy of the system is given Work done in bring the charge q3 from infinity to
by the total work done in bring the two charges r3 against the field due to charge q1 and q2 is
from infinity to their respective points. W3= q3(V1+V2)
where V1 is potential at point r3 due to the charge q1
U  0  W2 and V2 is the potential at point r3 due to charge q2.
q1q2 1 q1
U  0
1 V1 
4 o r12 4 o r13
1 q2
U
1 q1q2 V2 
4 o r12 4 o r23

1  q1q3 q2 q3 
Therefore W3    
4 o  r13 r23 

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Therefore potential energy of the system is given by
the total work done in bringing the three charges
from infinity to their respective points.
U  W1  W2  W3
1 q1q2 1  q1q3 q2 q3 
U  0    
4 o r12 4 o  r13 r23 
1  q1q2 q2 q3 q1q3 
U    
4 o  r12 r23 r13 
Potential Energy due to a point charge in the
presence of an external Electric Field
The external electric field E and the corresponding
external potential V may vary from point to point. By
definition, V at a point P is the work done in bringing
a unit positive charge from infinity to the point P.
Work done in bringing a charge q from infinity to the
point P in the external field is qV. This work is stored
in the form of potential energy of q. If the point P has
position vector r relative to some origin, we can
write:
Potential Energy due to a system of two charges in
the presence of an External Electric Field
Work done in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to
r1 is q1 V(r1). Consider the work done in bringing
q2 to r2. In this step, work is done not only against the
external field E but also against the field due to q1.
Work done on q2 against the external field
Work done on q2 against the field due to q1
By superposition principle for fields, add up the
work done on q2 against the two fields. Work done
in bringing q2 to r2
Thus, Potential energy of the system = the total work
done in assembling the configuration
CHIMALGI PU COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
BEHAVIOR OF CONDUCTORS IN EXTERNAL
ELECTRIC FIELD
1. Total charge inside a conductor is zero.
2. In case of conductors charge is present only on
the outer surface. Whenever we try to charge a
conductor then extra charge remains on the
surface of conductor. This case has again proved
that the charge inside a conductor is zero.
3. Electric field which is present outside of a
conductor which is fully charged is always
perpendicular to the surface of the conductor at
each and every point.
4. At different points of conductor the density of
the surface is different. When an external
electric field is applied on a conductor then all
the charges present on the surface of conductor
gets rearranged due to the flow of the
negatively charged electrons.
5. Electric field inside a conductor is also zero.
6. As we talk about the electric potential of the
surface, it remains same throughout.
AS E=- dV/dr=0
Therefore, V= constant
ELECTRIC FIELD ON THE DURFACE OF THE
CONDUCTOR
We know that electric field inside a conductor is
zero and any charge the conductor may carry
shall be distributed on the surface of the conductor.
For our discussion consider a conductor carrying
charge on its surface again consider a small surface
element ds over which we can consider surface
charge density σσ to be approximately constant.
For positive charge distributed over the surface of
the conductor , electric field E would be directed at
right angels to the surface pointing in outwards
direction. Now E due to charge carrying conductor
can be calculated using Gauss’s law. For this draw a
Gaussin cylendrical surface as shown below in the
figure
Martin Ashwin Kumar
5
 and negative molecules will coincide with each other
is null or zero.

Now S is the area of cross-section of the surface. The

flux due to cylindrical surface is zero because
electric field and the normal to the surface are The reason why the polar molecules do not coincide
perpendicular to each other. Since electric field with each other is due to their shape. (That is they all
inside the conductor is zero hence only contribution are asymmetric in shape.)
to the flux is due to the charge on area S lying
Examples: H2O, CO2, NO2 etc.
outside the surface of the conductor. So total flux
through the surface would be: When the electric field is not present that is if it is
absent then, it causes the electric dipole moment of
From Gauss’s law,
these molecules in random direction which is
responsible for cancellation of these molecules with
q
E.dS  each other. So, the average dipole moment is zero.
o
 dS If the external electric field is present, the molecules
EdS cos 0o 
o assemble in the same direction as electric field.
 dS
EdS 
o

E
o

DIELECTRICS

Dielectrics are non-conducting substances which

are the insulating materials and are bad conductor
of electric current. Dielectric materials can be made
to hold an electrostatic charge while dissipating
minimal energy in the form of heat.
Examples of dielectric are Mica, Plastics, Glass,
Porcelain and Various Metal Oxides and even dry
air is also example of dielectric.

Dielectrics can be classified as:

1. Polar Molecules
2. Non-Polar Molecules
Polar Molecules: Polar Molecules are those type of
dielectric in which the possibilities that the positive
Non-Polar Molecule: Unlike polar molecules in non-
polar molecules the center of positive charge and
negative coincide, that is it is not zero. The molecule
then has no permanent (or intrinsic) dipole moment.

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 When a dielectric slab is placed in an electric field,
then the dipole moment is gained by the molecule
and the dielectric is said to be polarised.

The Electric Polarization is dipole moment per unit

volume of a dielectric material.

The polarization is denoted by P.

Example: O2, N2, H2 etc.

Induced Electric Dipole Moment

When in a non-polar molecule, all the protons are
pulled in the direction as of electric field and
electrons are pulled in opposite direction as of
electric field, when an external electric field is
applied. Due to the presence of electric field, this
process continues unless the internal forces balance
them. Due to this two centers of charge are created;
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
the molecules are known as Polarized and is known
as Induced Electric Dipole. The dipole moment is When Dielectric slab is placed between parallel plate,
known as Induced Electric Dipole Moment. the ratio of the applied electric field strength to the
strength of the reduced value of electric field
Polarisability capacitor is called Dielectric Constant that is:

Applied field is directly proportional to induced

dipole moment and is independent of the
temperature. The direction of induced dipole E is always less than or equal to E.
moment (x) is parallel to the direction of electric
Where Eo is dielectric
field E and for a single polar atom.
And E is net field
Polarizabilities determine the dynamical response of
a bound system to external fields, and provide The larger the dielectric constant, the more charge
insight into a molecule's internal structure. In a solid, can be stored.
polarizability is defined as the dipole moment per THE POLARISATION VECTOR
unit volume of the crystal cell.
It is defined as the dipole moment per unit volume
of the polarised di-electric.

where '  ' is known as Atomic Polarisability P  np

2
SI Unit: Cm
The S.I. unit of polarisability is m and it’s 3
Let qp=magnitude of the polarization induced
dimensions as same as it’s volume.
charge on the polarized dielectric
A=Area of the Dielectric Slab
d=Thickness of the Dielectric (Also the distance
between the induced charges)
Let  p be the surface charge density on the
Electric Polarisation

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dielectric. Then, ELECTRICAL CAPACITANCE
qp   p A
Capacitors and Capacitance
Therefore, Dipole moment of the di-electric =  p Ad A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated
=  pV by an insulator.
Note:
Therefore, Polarisation vector is given as:
1. The total charge of a capacitor is zero while the
Dipole Moment
P conductors have charge Q and –Q.
Volume
2. A single conductor can be considered as
 pV
P capacitor with other conductor at infinity.
V 3. Electric field in the region between the
P p conductors is proportional to the charge Q.
ELECTRIC SUSCEPTIBILITY Capacitance is denoted by, C = Q/V. It depends on:
When a dielectric material is placed in ae electric field. It 1. Geometrical configuration (shape, size,
becomes electrically polarized. For most material the separation) of the system of two conductors.
polarization is proportional to electric field E i.e. 2. Nature of insulator/dielectric separating
3. Charge on the capacitor leaks away due to
P  o E reduction in the insulating power of the
P  e o E intervening medium. This happens due to
higher potential difference causing strong
Where  e is constant, characteristic of material electric fields.
called the electric susceptibility 4. Maximum electric field which a dielectric
medium can withstand without breakdown
That is, the electric susceptibility may be defined
and prevent leaking of charge is
as the ratio of polarization to electric field strength
called dielectric strength. Air dielectric
in the dielectric.
strength is 3 x 106 Vm-1.
Electric Susceptibility is dimensionless. 5. SI unit of capacitance is F (Farad).
Relation between dielectric constant and ISOLATED SPHERICAL CONDUCTOR
susceptibility
A conducting sphere of radius R carrying a
We know that Reduced Electrical Field is given by: charge q can be treated as a capacitor. The high-
E  Eo  EP potential conductor is the sphere itself and the low
Eo  E  EP potential conductor is a sphere of infinite radius. The
potential difference between these two sphere is
p
Eo  E  V
q
0 
q
o 4 o R 4 o R
P
Eo  E  Hence, its capacity is (the capacitance of an isolated
o conductor is normally called capacity)
Magnitude of Polarisation Vector= P   e o E q
C
 e o E V
Eo  E 
o C  q4 o R
Eo  E 1  e 
Eo
 1   e 
E
E
Now, o  K
E
K  1  e 

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CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE Due to polarization of the dielectric the electric field
CAPACITOR is reduces to E from E0.

Consider a parallel plate capacitor having plate area

A and charge Q. Its surface charge density is given
by:
Q

A So the potential difference between the plates is,
Q   A
Also, Electric Field between the Plates is given by:

E
o
The Voltage difference between the plates is given
by:
Work Done
V
Charge
Fd EQd
V   Ed
Q Q
Therefore, the Capacitance of the Parallel Plate
Capacitor is given by:
Q Now if the inserted slab is conducting then electric
C
V field inside slab will be zero.
A Thus,
C
Ed
A
C
 
 d
 o 
o A
C
d
So by inserting a conducting slab capacitance
CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE increases as the effective separation between the
CAPACITOR WITH DIELECTRIC plates decreases.

When there is vacuum between the plates of a
parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance of the
parallel plate capacitor is,
'
Note:
If two capacitors of capacitances C1 and C2 and
Potentials V1 and V2 are connected in parallel then
the common potential achieved by both capacitors
is:

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 C1V1  C2V2
V
C1  C2
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
Figure below shows two capacitors connected in
parallel between two points A and B

In series combination of capacitors right hand plate

of first capacitor is connected to left hand plate of
In this case potential difference VAB would be same next capacitor and combination may be extended
across both the capacitors, and charges Q1 and for any number of capacitors.
Q2 on both the capacitors are not necessarily equal.
So, In series combination of capacitors all the capacitors
Q1=C1V and Q2=C2V would have same charge. Now potential difference
Thus charge stored is divided amongst both the across individual capacitors are given by
capacitors in direct proportion to their capacitance. VAR=Q/C1
Total charge on both the capacitors is, and,
Q=Q1+Q2 VRB=Q/C2
=V(C1+C2) Sum of VAR and VRB would be equal to applied
and potential difference V so,
Q/V=C1+C2 V=VAB=VAR+VRB
So system is equivalent to a single capacitor of 1 1 
= Q  
capacitance  1 C2 
C
C=Q/V or,
Hence, C= C1+C2

If there are number of capacitors connected in

where
parallel then their equivalent capacitance would be
C=C1+C2+ C3...........
Note:
i.e., resultant capacitance of series combination
1. When capacitors are connected in parallel their
C=Q/V, is the ratio of charge to total potential
resultant capacitance C is the sum of their
difference across the two capacitors connected in
individual capacitances.
series.
2. The value of equivalent capacitance of system
Result in equation can be summarized for any
is greater than the greatest individual one.
number of capacitors i.e.,
CAPACITORS IN SERIES
Figure below shows two capacitors connected in
series combination between points A and B.
So, from equation we say that to find resultant
capacitance of capacitors connected in series, we
need to add reciprocals of their individual
capacitances and C is always less than the smallest
individual capacitance.

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ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR We know that, for a capacitor,
U = ½CV2
o A
When a capacitor is Here, C  and V = Ed
d
charged by a battery, Therefore,
work is done by the 1 o A
U  Ed 
2

charging battery at 2 d
the expense of its 1
or, U   o E V (where V=Ad)
2

chemical energy. This 2

work is stored in the
capacitor in the form of electrostatic potential
energy.
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C. Initial charge
on capacitor is zero. Initial potential difference
between capacitor plates = zero. Let a charge Q be
given to it in small steps. When charge is given to
capacitor, the potential difference between its plates
increases. Let at any instant when charge on
capacitor be q, the potential difference between its
plates .
Now work done in giving an additional infinitesimal charge dqto capacitor
Energy Density of a Capacitor is defined as the
Energy per unit volume of the capacitor.
Hence the required expression for the energy
density of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
U 1
 oE2
V 2
1
Energy Density  u   o E 2
2
VAN DE GRAFF GENERATOR
This is a machine that can build up high voltages of
the order of a few million volts. The resulting large
electric fields are used to accelerate charged particles
(electrons, protons, ions) to high energies needed for
experiments to probe the small scale structure of
matter.

The principle underlying the machine is as follows.

Suppose a large spherical conducting shell of
The total work done in giving charge from 0 radius R, on which we place a charge Q. This charge
spreads itself uniformly all over the sphere.
to Q will be equal to the sum of all such
infinitesimal works, which may be obtained by
integration. Therefore total work

If V is the final potential difference between

capacitor plates, then Q =CV
The field outside the sphere is just that of a point
charge Q at the centre; while the field inside the
sphere vanishes. So the potential outside is that of a
This work is stored as electrostatic potential energy
point charge; and inside it is constant, namely the
of capacitor i.e.,
value at the radius R. We thus have: Potential inside
conducting spherical shell of radius R carrying
charge Q is equal to constant.

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Suppose that in some way we introduce a small
sphere of radius r, carrying some charge q, into the
large one, and place it at the centre. The potential due
to this new charge clearly has the following values at
the radii indicated:
Potential due to small sphere of radius r carrying
charge q
Taking both charges q and Q into account we have
for the total potential V and the potential difference
the values
It is a machine capable of building up potential
difference of a few million volts, and fields close to
the breakdown field of air which is about 3 ×
106 V/m.
Construction of Van de Graff generator
A large spherical conducting shell (of few metres
radius) is supported at a height several meters above
the ground on an insulating column. A long narrow
endless belt insulating material, like rubber or silk, is
wound around two pulleys – one at ground level,
one at the centre of the shell. This belt is kept
continuously moving by a motor driving the lower
pulley. It continuously carries positive charge,
sprayed on to it by a brush at ground level, to the top.

Assume now that q is positive. We see that,

independent of the amount of charge Q that may
have accumulated on the larger sphere and even if it
is positive, the inner sphere is always at a higher
potential: the difference V(r)–V(R) is positive.
There it transfers its positive charge to another
The potential due to Q is constant upto radius R and conducting brush connected to the large shell. Thus
so cancels out in the difference. This means that if we positive charge is transferred to the shell, where it
now connect the smaller and larger sphere by a wire, spreads out uniformly on the outer surface. In this
the charge q on the former will immediately flow way, voltage differences of as much as 6 or 8 million
onto the matter, even though the charge Q may be volts (with respect to ground) can be built up.
quite large.

The natural tendency is for positive charge to move

from higher to lower potential. The potential at the
outer sphere would also keep rising, at least until we
reach the breakdown field of air.

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