1.

Morphology and syntax as be expressed in all forms of the of the whole differs from the contact comb(N+N)-stone wall
parts of gr. Main units and word mng of its parts) – is writing 3. 5. Parts of speech. Principles of constr(speech sound), comb with
types of relations between gr. asked- past tense, non-cont within a cat anal f should be classification art & other determiners
units in language and speech aspect, non-perfect order, activeopposed to synth ones(is writing- A part of speech-grammatically b)syntactic: subj, obj, other funct
Units of gr: morpheme, word, w voice. writes) 4. funct as 1 memb in the relevant class of ws which is less typical.
group, sentence, suprapharsel Gr categories are revealed on thesent 5. aux are lexically empty 6 specified on the basis of gr, Ns denoting things- nucleus of
unities. Every unit stays in basis on the method of lex mng is understood from the semantic & lexical properties. the fild, marginal-process,
relations with other units of the oppositions. Types of opp: 1) notional part 7. aux change Criteria for grouping into quality, abstract notions.
same level. Synt-linear rel, in acc to the number of members( grammatically classes:1)Semantic(mng)- Classification : common/
speech. Paradigm- rel outside the binary, ternary, quaternary) is more difficult an analytical generalized mng which is an proper; in/animate,
lines, in lang. 2)-//- quality: privative (strongcomparative degree or is more abstraction from lexical mngs of un/countable, concrete/abstract
Funct word- a unit of lang both memb(special marker)<-> weak- difficult a free phrase? constituent ws( N-substance) Category of NUMBER. Tree
gr & lexical, sem & struct unity, dog-dogs); equipollent-both an analytical form: 1) The actual 2)Formal(morphological)- ( weak form ) vs trees
ready-made u, naming u=> membs strong & marked(am-is); meaning of formations like more inflectional(form-b feat: fights) ( marked form)
nominative func. Sentence u of gradual- degrees of comparison. difficult, (the) most difficult does & derivational(w-b feat: The grammatical category of
lang & u of speech, not a ready- Oppositional reduction: not differ from that of the whitness) features number( in all languages)
made u, naming & 1.neutralisation- the weak degrees of compar larger, (the) 3)Functional(syntactic). Synt depends on the physical nature
communicative u => memb acquires the mng of the largest. 2) Qualitative adjectives, properties are: distribution(set of of the object. The object can be:
nominative& communicative strong one(Tonight we start for like difficult, express properties all possible environments of a Discrete vs indiscrete
func. London) 2)Transposition-the which may be present in w=> combinability: adj with N) Discrete ( it has no plural
Grammar is devided into:- strong memb is used in the different degrees, and therefore Typical syntactic func(N-subj, number; it consists of the
morphology -syntax context typical for the weak they are bound to have degrees obj) number of homogeneous
Morphology studies memb(She is always of comparison. POS-as a field: central elements separated by visible
paradigmatic rel of ws (structure, complaining of smth) a free phrase: 1) The words & marginal(substantivized adj) bounds)Nouns:  discrete ( can
forms, classific of ws) Syntax more and most have the same 1-criterion classifications: be count( sg and pl) and
studies syntagmatic rel of ws & meaning in these phrases as in 1)Morphological(Sweet):in(parti uncount.(always pl “police”) 
paradmatic& synt rel of other phrases in which they may cles)/declinable(N-ws, adj-ws…) indiscrete ( are always
sent(structure, forms, classific of 3. Structure of words. Types of appear, e.g. more time, most 2)Syntactico- sg,uncount)
sents) morphemes. people, etc. 2) there are also the distributional(Fries)-each class Plural form of the noun can be
Paradigmatic syntax-diff forms The main task of morphology is phrases less difficult, (the) least of ws is characterized by a set of lexicalized,it develops a new
of sents(- ? !) Syntagmatic the study of the structure of ws. difficult, and there seems to be positions in a sentence=> 4 main lexical meaning Ex: colour<->
morphology –linear connection The smallest meaningful unit of no sufficient reason for treating classes of ws(1-N, 2-V, 3-adj, 4- colours- flag  lexicalization
of ws gr-morpheme. Free m-can occur the two sets of phrases in adv) & funct ws(15 classes)
The basic units are:morphemes as separate ws <-> bound. different ways, saying that more
and words. Monomorphemic <-> difficult is an analytical form, 8. The noun. The category of
A paradigm-is a set of unit polymorphemic w. while less difficult is not. case.
related to each other by Morph: lexical(roots), lexico- Besides, the very fact that more 6. Notional and functional I)Sem cr-substance & thinghs,
association with some distinctive gramm(w-build affixes) & and less, (the) most and (the) classes of words human beings, animals
features.: gr(form-building aff). least can equally well combine All the words of the English II)Morph:a)inflectional(the cat
teachers learns writes speaks Positional variants of with difficult, would seem to language are grouped into of number, case, gender, article
grammeme-is a paradigme based morpheme- allomorphs( cats, show that they are free phrases different types of classes. This determination) b)derivational
on the sameness of grammar dogs, foses, oxen.) and none of them is an analytical classification is based on three (suffixation, compounding,
forms. Lexeme 3types of morphemic form main principles: 1) their conversion)
distribution: grammatical meaning; 2) their III)Func: a) left-hand prep
contrastive(position same< mng form and 3) their syntactical combinability with N, adj, v, adv,
2.Main gr notions.gr mng and –diff: charming-charmed), non- characteristics. casal comb( N’s +N), contact
gr.form. Gr categories. Method contrastive (position&mng- Criteria for differentiating N & F comb(N+N)-stone wall
of opposition. same: learned-learnt), ws: 1)the prominence of their constr(speech sound), comb with
Gr mng.- plane of content. It is complementary( posit-diff, mng- lexical mng 2) peculiarities of art & other determiners
general, abstract, same: asks-theaches) their combinability 3) ability to b)syntactic: subj, obj, other funct
indirect(connected with Zero morpheme-mengful be substituted by a w of a more less typical.
objective reality through the absence of m(book-books) general mng 4)ability to Ns denoting things- nucleus of
lexical mng), obligatory, Semi-bound m-word m(funct of add(create new items) the fild, marginal-process,
relative(it is revealed in relations the m performed by a separate w N ws:1)complete nominative quality, abstract notions.
of w forms: speak-speaks) : will work) mng 2) self-dependent fnc, can Classification : common/
Gr form- plane of expression- Means of form- b & gram f are be used in isolation 3)subst by a proper; in/animate,
wide sence: all means of divided: 1)synthetical (bound w with more general mng 4)open un/countable, concrete/abstract
expressing gr mngs.; narrow s- m: inflextions, sound class. The category of case.Case is a
denote means of exp a particular interchange, suppletivity) F ws: 1)incomplete nominative gr category which shows rel of
gr mng. 2)analytical 1.2 parts(w- fnc 2)obligatory combinability, nouns towards other words in a
In En no direct correspondence operator& notional p) 2.anal f linking/ specifying fnc 3)cannot sentence.Ex: boy ( no visible
btw gr mng & gr form=> 1.2 or develop gr idiomaticity – is be -//- 4)closed class mark) vs boy’s ( reflects the
more units of th e plane of writing 3. within a cat anal f F ws(Fries): 1.with unilateral syntactic function) Not every
expression mau correspond to 1 should be opposed to synth combinability(art, aux, modals, noun changes according to the
unit of plane of ones(is writing-writes) 4. funct particles) 2.with bilateral case. Gen. case in En can denote
content(allomorphs)-boys- as 1 memb in the sent 5. aux are comb(prep, conj which connect the following semantic relation:
children. 2. 2 or more units of lexically empty 5. lex mng is 2 or more not ws) 3. -possession (general): student’s
the plane of content -//-1 unit of understood from the npotional heterogeneous(interrogative ws, book --subjective genitive: the
plane expression (polysemy, part 6. aux change it/there) student’s answer -objective
homonymy) –s: boy’s, dogs, grammatically. genetive: Napoleon’s defeatness
asks. -genitive of origin: sh’s plays
A gr category - is a generalized 7. The noun. The category of --descriptive genetive: a girl’s
gram mg revealed through 4. Means of form-building. number. school –genetive of measure(ten
formal & meaningful opposition Synthetic and analytical forms. I)Sem cr-substance & thinghs, day’s journey)--social relation:
of variants of 1 & same unit. Means of form- b & gram f are human beings, animals Jack’s wife --part of a whole:
The features of gram category: divided: 1)synthetical (bound II)Morph:a)inflectional(the cat dog’s tail
1.is represented by 2 gramm m: inflextions, sound of number, case, gender, article Sometimes a noun in genitive
form( at least) 2.one word can interchange (sell-sold), determination) b)derivational case can be used independently.it
represent diff gram categories: suppletivity) (suffixation, compounding, has a locative meaning. It is the
boy’s (number and case) 3.one 2)analytical (with the help of conversion) case of lexicalization.: I’m going
word form can express only one semi-bound m) 1.2 parts(w- III)Func: a) left-hand prep to the bacher’s( a shop).
gram mg of the same category operator& notional p) 2.anal f combinability with N, adj, v, theory of positional
4.one particular gram mg can not develop gr idiomaticity(the mng adv, casal comb( N’s +N), cases(nesfield) of the functional
1
positions occupied by the N in
the
sentence. besides the inflexional
genitive case, purely positional
cases: nominative, vocative,
dative, and accusative(the cat
caught a rat).
theory of prepositional cases
(curm)combinations of N with
prep in certain object and
attributive collocations should be
understood as morphological
case forms: "dative" case
(to+Noun, for+Noun) and the
"genitive" case (of+Noun).
limited case theory (Sweet, O.
Jespersen) : the possessive or
genitive form as the strong
member of the categorial
opposition and the common, or
"non-genitive
Post-positional case
theory(Воронцова)s’-special
type of postposition
9. The noun. The category of
article determination.
I)Sem cr-substance & thinghs,
human beings, animals
II)Morph:a)inflectional(the cat
of number, case, gender, article
determination) b)derivational
(suffixation, compounding,
conversion)
III)Func: a) left-hand prep
combinability with N, adj, v,
adv, casal comb( N’s +N),
contact comb(N+N)-stone wall
constr(speech sound), comb with
art & other determiners
b)syntactic: subj, obj, other funct
less typical.
Ns denoting things- nucleus of
the fild, marginal-process,
quality, abstract notions.
Classification : common/
proper; in/animate,
un/countable, concrete/abstract
The category of article
determination Art determination-
binary opposition which
contrasts the N with the def art
against the N with ind/zero art.
Zero article- meaningful
absence of the article ( is
equivalent for indef. Article for
uncount nouns).
Peculiarities: 1)spelt separately,
2)can be separated from N by
other ws, 3)its position can be
occupied by demonstr/
possessive pronoun 4)does not
change grammatically as I
French 5)Art has its own
meaning. Ind art – oneness,
classification. Def art-
definiteness, specification.
Art help to structure inf(theme-
def art rheme-ind art)
10.The adjective. The category
of degree of comparison
The adjective expresses the
categorial semantics of property
of a substance (either permanent
or temporary). It presupposes
relation to some noun the
property of whose referent it
denotes (material, colour,
dimension, position, state, etc.).
Form: invariable, but some form
degrees of comparison( for
qualitative adj.).
Derivational features: suff and
pref: -ful, -less, -ish, -un, -un, -
Combinability: nouns both
preceding and occasionally
following them; with link-verbs
(functional and notional); with
modifying adverbs (very large)
Function: either an attribute or a
predicative , an objective
predicative (painted the door
green).
two large subclasses: qualitative
and relative
There are three degrees of
comparison: positive (or
absolute), comparative and
superlative.
an analytical form: 1) The actual
mng of formations like more
difficult, (the) most difficult does
not differ from that of the
degrees of compar larger, (the)
largest. 2) Qualitative adj, like
diff, express properties which
may be present in diff degrees,
and therefore they are bound to
have degrees of comparison.
a free phrase: 1) The words
more and most have the same
mng in these phrases as in other
phrases in which they may
appear, e.g. more time, most
people, etc. 2) there are also the
phrases less difficult, (the) least
difficult, and there seems to be
no sufficient reason for treating
the two sets of phrases in diff
ways, saying that more difficult
is an analytical form, while less
difficult is not. Besides, the very
fact that more and less, (the)
most and (the) least can equally
well combine with difficult,
would seem to show that they
are free phrases and none of
them is an analytical form
There are 3 ways of forming the
comparative and the superlative
degrees: synthetic, analytical and
suppletive. Synthetic: suffix –er
to the comparative degree and
the suffix -est to the superl degr.
Analytical: comp word more, the
superlative ― most:
Suppletive (Irregular):good ―
better ― best
be substantivized -become nouns
by conversion (zero-derivation)
=> adjs acquire some
morphological charact of N: sg
or pl,used with or without an art
& other determiners
Adjectivization of nouns -N
becoming adj. A N may stand
before another N & modify it:
stone wall, speech sound.
11. The verb. The category of
tense.
I)Sem cr-prosses developing
dynamically in time II)Morph
a)form build(Cat of tense,
person, number, aspect, order,
posteriority, mood, voice,
representation) b) wd-build
derivational zero-suffixation( to
park) sound interchange(feed) –
ate (cultivate), -en (broaden
be- ( befriend) and prefixes are:
re- (remake)III)Synt(funct
predicate, non-finite verb
performs different functions,
combinability:N, adv, prep)
The gr category denoting time is
called tense.it reflects the
objective category of time and
expresses the relation between
the time of the action and the
time of the utterance.
time denoted absolutely(with
regard to the moment of
speaking) & relatively(-// to a
certain moment) In most
langs:future,past,present tense.
(Russian).
Future tense. It’s analytical form
( will do). This form developed
from the modal form and doesn’t
cover modal verbs and it’s
homonemous with modal verbs .
( will \shall). According English
scolars, it is not analytical form,
it’s modal verb. I will have to go
back to the hotel.
Time in English expressed by 3
categories : -absolute category of
tense (present\past) -relative
category of posteriority ,which
denotes absolute post(will come)
& relative (would come) -the
category order( denotes prior
action is marked by perfect form
have\has\had) –the cat of aspect
12. The category of order \
correlation.
I)Sem cr-prosses developing
dynamically in time II)Morph
a)form build(Cat of tense,
person, number, aspect, order,
posteriority, mood, voice,
representation) b) wd-build
derivational zero-suffixation( to
park) sound interchange(feed) –
ate (cultivate), -en (broaden
be- ( befriend) and prefixes are:
re- (remake)III)Synt(funct
predicate, non-finite verb
performs different functions,
combinability:N, adv, prep)
In English there’re special forms
for expressing relative priority-
perfect forms→express
1)time(actions preceding a
certain moment);2)the way the
action is shown to proceed(the
connection of the action with the
indicated moment in its results
or consequences).So the mng of
the perfect forms is constituted
by 2 semantic
components:temporal(priority)
& aspective (result,current
relevance)=>perf forms have
been treated as tense-forms or
aspect-forms.
oppositions: comes-has come, is
coming-has been coming. These
oppositions reveal the cat of
order(correlation, retrospect,
taxis). Tense &order are closely
connected but they’re different
categories, revealed through
different oppositions: comes-
came, comes-has come.
The fact that verbals have the
category of order(to come-to
have come, coming-having
come)& have no category of
tense also shows the difference
of these categories. The mng of
perfect forms may be influenced
by the lexical mng of the
verb(limitive/unlimitive), tense-
form, context & other factors.
13. The category of aspect.
( vid)
I)Sem cr-prosses developing
dynamically in time II)Morph
a)form build(Cat of tense,
person, number, aspect, order,
posteriority, mood, voice,
representation) b) wd-build
derivational zero-suffixation( to
park) sound interchange(feed) –
ate (cultivate), -en (broaden
be- ( befriend) and prefixes are:
re- (remake)III)Synt(funct
predicate, non-finite verb
performs different functions,
combinability:N, adv, prep)
Aspect denote the manner or
way in which the action is
experienced or regarded: as a
mere fact or as taken in progress.
Aspect is a major category
denoting the character of the
action. ( continuous\ not contin.
common/cont) tense& aspect-
diff cat revealed in diff
oppositions( comes-came;
comes- is coming). Inf has the
cat of aspect.
Aspect denotes the manner,but
not the time. the category of
2
aspect is very closely connected
with the lexical meaning of the
verb. Dynamic <->stative
(perception, cognition: know,
like, see)Durative=>
Terminatice(limitive) V -action
implying a certain limit(close,
break) Durative(unlimitive)
don’t imply any such limit(walk,
read)
14.The Category of voice.
I)Sem cr-prosses developing
dynamically in time II)Morph
a)form build(Cat of tense,
person, number, aspect, order,
posteriority, mood, voice,
representation) b) wd-build
derivational zero-suffixation( to
park) sound interchange(feed) –
ate (cultivate), -en (broaden
be- ( befriend) and prefixes are:
re- (remake)III)Synt(funct
predicate, non-finite verb
performs different functions,
combinability:N, adv, prep)
The verbal category of voice
shows the direction of an action
as viewed by the speaker. .Act V-
action issuing from the Subj.
Pass V- action directed towards
its object. In pass constr the gr
subj is the object of the act.
absence of direct correspondence
btw meaning & form =>problem
of number of voices. Middle
voice.mng passive, form active;
no opposition in form=> no gr
category. The door opened It
differs from the act v in meaning
and syntactical construction.
Reflexive voice: He hurt
himself. Meaning – the action is
concentrated on one and the
same person. Form – verb +
reflexive pronoun. But reflexive
pronouns can be omitted and the
meaning of reflexivity remains:
He shaved and dressed. Prof.
Ilyish: He hurt himself and the
child. Besides: He makes toys –
He makes mistakes. And 15. The
caegory of mood.
I)Sem cr-prosses developing
dynamically in time II)Morph
a)form build(Cat of tense,
person, number, aspect, order,
posteriority, mood, voice,
representation) b) wd-build
derivational zero-suffixation( to
park) sound interchange(feed) –
ate (cultivate), -en (broaden
be- ( befriend) and prefixes are:
re- (remake)III)Synt(funct
predicate, non-finite verb
performs different functions,
combinability:N, adv, prep)
Cat of M denotes
modality(relation of the contents
of the utt to reality as viewed by
the speaker).Means of expr
modality: phonetic, lexical(mod
v), grammatical(mood).
imperative: let us let him do it.
but! don’t let us...
Diversiry of moods. causes: 1)
cat of mood is in state of
development. 2) homonymy of
forms(diff to distinguish aux &
mod v ; from indicative: do-ind,
subj, imper)
Principle for distinguishing
forms: meaning, form,
mng&form.( Ilyish 3 MOODS
(indicative, subjunctive,
imperative)- meaning; Prof.
Smirnitsky: 6 MOODS
(indicative, imperative,
subjunctive I, subjunctive II,
suppositional, conditional) -
form и meaning;
L.S.Barhudarov, D.A.
Shteling: 2 MOODS (indicative,
subjunctive)
Subj I(he be) Supp(he should
be)- problematic act, SubjII(he
were), Cond(should/would be)-
unreal act.
Subj have cat of aspect, order,
voice, prospect, person.
not always reflexive pronouns
can be omitted: He found
himself in a dark room. pronoun
is not lex empty(cat of gender)+
add elements Reciprocal voice:
They met each other at the
station. Meaning – mutuality of
the action. The subject is often
plural. Form – verb + reciprocal
pronoun. But They met at the
station.
The cup was broken-Бахударов-
pv, compound nominal
predicate(смирницкий).
100%Pass V when:1)doer of the
act 2)modifying adverbials
3)marked forms of the V( Has
been made) 4)madal verbs(can
be broken) 5)corresponding act
const.
get and become (He got
wounded in the war. He became
surprised). - the verbs get and
become retain to some extent
their lexical meaning; - though P
is a dependent form
Passive constructions: -Direct P
(The letter was written
yesterday) -Indirect P (I was
given a book) -Prepositional P
(The doctor was sent for)
-Phraseological P(Care should
be taken not to confuse these
words) -Adverbial P (The house
has not been lived in for many
years)
16.Verbals. The category of
representation.
Inf- properties of the V & N .
name the prosses.cat of asp,
order, voice. Comb:with finite
forms, non-processual parts of
sp. Func: subj, obj, adv mod, att. class of verbs, but they form a
The main theoretical problems
are the lexico-grammatical status
of the particle ‘to’ & whether the differences able to speak about
to-inf & the bare inf constitute 1 the category of finitude which is
form of the V
The Gerund is a non-finite form
of the V which like the inf
combines the properties of the V
with those of the N & primarily 17. Phrase. Principles of
serves as a verbal name of the classification.
process. It’s characterized by the Ph is a SYNTAGMATIC
categories of order (asking –
having asked) & voice (being
asked). The theoretical problem
– half G –categorial
neutralization(his yawing – him
yawing)– is related to ing-form
in general.
The Pr Part (P I) is a non-finite
form of the V, combines the
properties of a V with an adj\adv.
It serves as a qualifying
prossesual name. plane of
expression is homogeneous with
the G ending –ing &
distinguishing the same
grammatical category of order,
voice. It may combine with a N,
proN as direct, indirect,
prepositional Obj, adverb or a
prep phr as an adv modifier, or
with a N or adjective as a
predicative. G & PI: posess diff
categorical, funct, sem properties
The Past Participle (PII) - a
non-finite form of the V which
combines the properties of the V
with those of the adj. it serves as
a qualifying processual name.
The PII ia a single form, havinf
no paradigm of its own.
order&voice written(both)-
loved(pass)-gone(perf)
The cat of representation
(Finitute). the 2 subparadigms
are opposed both
morphologically & synthetically.
All finite forms (s) ÷all non-
finite forms (w). The differential
feature is constituted by the
expression of verbal time &
mood. The members of the opp
are contrasted as predicative &
non-predicative. Predicative are
marked morphologically through
the forms of tense, mood, person
& number (so they are strong
members) This form represents
purely verbal representation.
Non-predicative forms are
unmarked. They demonstrate 2
types of verbal Predicativity:
substantive representation (inf &
G) & adjectival representation
(PI &PII). Non-finite forms are
language specific.
The question arises whether
verbals should be included in the
class of verb? Whether they
should be considered as a
separate part of speech? They
should be included: 1.every stem
takes finite and non-finite forms
of the verb; 2. Criteria Principle:
a. processual meaning; b. they
have some of the v gr cat : voice,
order, aspect; c. many of the w-
building means are used in the
non-finite forms; d. the syntactic
functions are different e. the
combinability is similar. Non-
finite forms do not belong to the
subclass of its own, because they
have some specific features. The
built on the opposition of
finite/non-finite forms.
18. Phrase , Types of relations
between its constituents.
Ph is a SYNTAGMATIC
GROUPING OF 2
OR MORE WORDS
It’s important to
distinguish free word
combinations (phs)
&anal forms of a
word. There are 2
elements in an anal
form. The aux usu
carries the GM. The
notional part carries
the LM of the whole perform 1 syntactic
form. Moreover, they function in a S. Like
perform 1 syntactic a word, a Ph is a
function in a S. Like naming unit, but it
a word, a Ph is a performs the naming
naming unit, but it function in a different
performs the naming way. The naming
function in a different function of the Ph
way. The naming distinguishes it from
function of the Ph the S the main
distinguishes it from function of which is
the S the main communicative.
function of which is equal-coordination. not equal-
communicative. subordination(government (the
Class criteria:1)the inner use of certain form of
structure of ph. subordinate word required by its
a)synt rel btw head word but not coinciding
components with the form of the head word.
subordinative, Only case in ENG – personal
coordinative and pronouns // invite him),
predicative phrs agreement, apposition)
(subordination, Interdependence- a reciprocal
coordination, dominational relation within the
predicative) N+V group.
b)morphol Means of expressing synt rel:
expression of the word order, prepositions, conj,
components: noun case inflection-‘s , morphol
phrs, verb phrs, adv expression of the components.
phr, pronominal and agreement – method of
adjectival phr. expressing a synthectical
c)position of the relationship which consist in
adjunct: with making the subordinate word
prepositive adjunct take a similar form of the head
(cold weather), with word // this book, those books as
postpositive adjunct to the problem of agreement of
(money to spend), the verb with the noun and
with mitpositive pronoun denoting the subject of
adjunct (did not the action // a child plays,
know), frame children play – usually treated
structures (as good on the sentence level
as) d) according to adjoinment( primikanie) – the
the number of connection between these words
constituents: binary is preserved owning to the
(cold weather) and grammatical and semantic
multiple (a girl with compatibility of the adv. Only
blue eyes verb + adv
2)external functioning of ph: enclosure (zamikanie)– some
a)According to the element of a phrase is enclosed
syntactic function of between 2 parts of another
the adjunct: element
attributive (cold connection- (typically English)
weather), object by meand of formal words : cold
(writing letters), adv but clear ( with the preposition)
phrs (very
interesting)
Jesperson: nexus-predicative rel 19. Sentence as the main unit
& junction – of syntax.
attributive rel(связь и Sent-immediate integral unit of
соединение) speech built according to a def
Leo Bloomfield. Phrs: synt pattern & distinguished by a
endocentric (headed, contextually relevant
w gr takes the same communicative purpose. largest
position as itshead-w) unit of lang, smallest unit of
& exocentric (non- speech.
headed) The most essential feat of the
sent as a linguistic unit are a) its
structural characteristics –
subject-predicate relations
(primary predication) b) its
semantic characteristics – it
GROUPING OF 2 refers to some fact in the
OR MORE WORDS objective reality.
It’s important to 2 func: naming, communicat.
distinguish free word 3 main aspects of sent: synt(pre-
combinations (phs) func- ws/w gr; func-parts of
&anal forms of a sentence), sematic(reflection of a
word. There are 2 certain sit, prosses, doer, obj,
elements in an anal circum, condit), logico-
form. The aux usu communicative(2 parts the topic,
carries the GM. The the inform).
notional part carries
the LM of the whole 20. Predicativity. Primary and
form. Moreover, they secondary predication.
3
Compare the following
structures: (1)The doctor’s
arrival; (2)The doctor
arrived=>they name the same
event, but (1)is not correlated
with the situation of
speech,doesn’t convey
information about the reality or
the time of the event; (2)is
correlated with the situation of
speech & shows that the event
took place in the past.
The correlation of the thought
expressed in the sentence with
the situation of speech is called
predicativity→has 3
components: modality, time,
person expressed by the
categories of mood, tense &
person. The predicativity is
expressed by the subject-
predicate group(predication) &
is also expressed by intonation.
primary & secondary
predication: I heard someone
singing. ‘Someone singing’-the
secondary predication,as it
resembles the subject-predicate
group,or the primary predication,
structurally & semantically: it
consists of 2 main components
(nominal&verbal) & names the
event or situation. But it cannot
be correlated with reality directly
as verbals have no categ. of
mood, tense, person. The
secondary predication is related
to the situation of speech
indirectly, through the primary
predicationsand it cannot
constitute an independent unit of
communication.
21. Principles of classification
of the sentences.
Sent-immediate integral unit of
speech built according to a def
synt pattern & distinguished by a
contextually relevant
communicative purpose. Based
on 2 principles:
1)Communicative (declarative,
interrogat, imperative,
exclametary) 2)Structural
1.number of predication lines(1
→ simple S, 2 or more →
composite S), 2.the
completeness of the predication
line(only 2-member S can be
discussed here: complete &
incomplete (elliptical)), 3.the
ways of its expression(1-
member(nominal, adjective,
adverbial, verbal) & 2-member
S.), 4.in case of multiple
predication – all the types of
relations between the clauses(
1.equal -> coordination ->
compound S (parataxis)
2.unequal -> subordination ->
complex S (hypotaxis).
Incomplete (elliptical) 2-
member S is built on the model
of a 2-member S in which 1 or
both principal parts are missing
(in conversations, newspaper
headlines, ads, stage directions).
One-member Ss are those the
predication line of which
comprises only 1 principal part
which can’t be identified as a
subject or a predicate. they are
not context-dependent. Mainly
used to describe emotions, sub cl depends on the function of S is a structural, sem & transformations of kernel
subjective perception of reality. the correlative word. The communicative unit. It can be structures. This analysis,
connection is very tight. sub cl in analyzed at different levels. The showing derivational relations
22. Compound sentence. post-position (sometimes in most universally accepted are of sentences, is called TM→is
Semantic relations between the inter-position), but never syntactic, semantic & logical- based on ICM and it goes further
clauses.parataxis precedes the main cl: It was just communicative. showing semantic and syntactic
The compound sentence consists that which impressed me most. The term distribution total set relations of different sentence
of two or more clauses of equal 3. Ss with complement or of environments of a certain types. TM describes
rank which form one syntactical appositive connection. In this element. may be in:1)non- paradigmatic relations of basic
whole in meaning and type the main clause contains a contrastive distribn(the same and derived structures or the
intonation. Coordinate cls may word devoid of meaning like ‘it’ position,no difference in relations of syntactic derivation.
be linked syndetically, or with a very general meaning mng;variants of the same Transf-ions may be subdivided
asyndetically.Sem relations: (question, problem). The sub cl element):hoofs-hooves; into: intramodel or (1)single
1.Copulative coordination disclose its meaning. The word 2)contrastive d.(the same base(changing the kernel
implies that two events or ideas itselfis just an anticipatory position,different mngs):she’s structure) and (2)2-
conveyed by coordinate clauses element. The sub cl is often charming-she’s charmed; base(combining 2 structures).
are merely joined in time and joined asyndetically. It can never 3)complementary d.(the same (1)may be of 2 types: modifying
place.(and, nor, neither ... nor, be in preposition: She has a mng,different position;variants the kernel structure(ex: she’s
not only ...then, besides, again strange feeling as if smth has of the same element):cows-oxen. working hard-she’s not working
2. Adversative coordination joins happened. class 1-N, cl2- V, cl3-adj, cl4- hard) & changing it(ex: she’s
clauses containing opposition, 4. Ss with optional sub clause adv working hard-her working hard-
contradiction (adv cl of result, concession, The DM shows the linear order her hard work).
or contrast. (the conj but, while, cond). of sent constituents. The synt Some basic types of intramodel
whereas, the conj adv yet, still, 5. Ss with mutual dependent cls: structure of the sent is presented tr.:substitution, deletion(have
nevertheless the conjunctive proportional agreement or as a sequence of positional you seen him?-seen
particle only). comparison: The more I read the classes of words:The old man him?);movement (he is here-is
3. Disjunctive connection more I know.with patterns saw a black dog there (D A1 N1 he here?);nominalization (he
denotes choice, usually between expressing temporal rel: Hardly V D A2 N2 Adv)”+”Showing the arrived-his arrival);
two mutually exclusive had I entered the room the bell linear order of classes of words, 2-base transformations:
alternatives. (or, either ... or, the rang. “-“ doesn’t show how ws are embedding(I know that he has
conj adv else, otherwise): 24. Syntactical structure of the connected semantically; no inf come) and word-sharing(I saw
4. Causative-consecutive cl( simple sentence). The model about actual syntactic relations him cross the street)
coordination joins clauses of the members of the of sentence constituents. The TM shows that some sentences
connected in such a way that one sentence. police shot a man in the red are ambiguous because they
of them contains a reason and Parsing-the process of analyzing cap(in the right arm) derive from distinct deep
the other ― a consequence. The sent into their parts or ICM (based on binary principle, structures: Flying planes can be
second clause may contain either constituents. shows the hierarchy of members dangerous→1)Planes are
the reason or the result of the At the funct level the sss is of S). A sent is a structured string dangerous, 2)Flying is
event conveyed by theprevious described in terms of members of words grouped into phrases, dangerous. So TM is an effective
clause. (for.The days became of the s performing certain funct. so sent constituents are words & method of deciding grammatical
longer, for it was now Parts of the s –notional s word-group. The basic principle ambiguity.
springtime.) constituents as they name for grouping words into
elements of the sit named by the phrases(endo- or exocentric) is
23. Complex sentence. sent: prosses, participants, cohesion(the possibility to
Structural classification of circumst. They are in diff substitute a word for the whole
complex sentences.Hypotaxis relations to other parts of the group without destroying the
Complex sent consists of 2 or sent. Trad parts of the structure of the sentence).
more clauses the rel bw which sent:principal(predication. Subj- Ex:The old man(NP) saw a
are dominational. structural center, pred- black dog there(VP)→2
Complex Ss are often classified semantic& communicat) & immediate constituents –NP &
according to the type of sub cls. secondary (obj, att, adv VP, each has constituents of its
2 approaches: 1)on categorical mod(they extend the basic own. Constituents which
principal (on analogy with class structure). The model of parts of cannot be further divided are
of ws: noun cl, adjective cl) speech the basic relation of called ultimate (UC). The ICM
2)functional principal (the notional sent constituents (show exists in 2 main versions:1)the
position of what member of the the linear order of const) analytical model & 2)the
S the cl fills: except predicate). Dep on synt-semanti properties derivation tree. 1)divides the
To characterize the complex S as of the v: obligatory (princip sentence into IC-s & UC-s.
a complex & to work out the part& complem) & optional. 2)shows the syntactic
classif of the structural patterns Structurally members: dependence of sentence
of complex Ss the following simple(single w), phrasal, constituents.So the ICM shows
criteria are taken into complex(secondary predict both the syntactic relations &
consideration: 1)the structural constr), compound (sub cl) the linear order of elements.
completeness of the main part; Objs:in/direct, prep.
2)the means of connection & the Complements- oblig constituent
way the parts are linked; 3)The of s , completes the pred , cannot 26. Transformational model
relative importance of the main become a Subj in a passive (TM)
& the sub cl.=>Types (structural constr.( subj compl:She is a IC analysis is supplemented with
patterns:1.Inclusive type. The teacher. obj compl: He painted rules for transforming1 S into
sub cl performs the function of a the door green; predicate another Sentences. TM
missing part in the main cl & is compl:The table costs $100) investigates relations between
included into the structure of the Adverbials: adjuncts(additional various derivation trees. in
main cl. The main clause is inf: he briefly..), disjunct which all constituents are
incomplete without the sub.The (speaker’s attitude: obligatory are called basic
position of the sub cl results undoubtedly ), conjunct(logical structures or elementary
from its function.: What I want link: he was wrong so he kept sentences or kernel
to know is why he didn’t come. silent) sentences.Linguists single out
2. Ss with pronominal from 2 to 7 kernel
correlation. conj opening the sentences:1)NV 2)NVN
sub cl is correlated with some 3)NVPrepN 4)NisN 5)NisA
pronominal element (a pronoun 25. Structural models of sent 6)NisAdv 7)NisPrepN. The
or an adv) in the main cl. The analysis. Distributional model. structure of all other sentences
meaning & the function of the IC-mode may be explained as a result of
4
27.Semantic structure of the
sentence.
Case gr:semantic—deep
underlying structure; syntactic-
surface structure.
The sem structure of the S was
1st described by Fillmore in his
book ‘The Case for Case’. The 2
main components of the sem
structure are: modality – the
features of mood, tense, aspect,
negation relating to the S as a
whole ; proposition – a tenseless
set of relationships . The
proposition is constituted by the
sem predicate & a set of
nominative elements called
arguments. S = modality +
proposition; P = V +n1+n2+n3
(nominal elements)
a deep case is a certain sem role
performed by a nominative
component in the act or state or
processnamed by the sem
predicate. Types of arguments
(Fillmore): 1) agent- does the
action, usu animate: Sam planted
a tree. 2) Object – smth affected
by the action Tom broke the
window 3) patient smbd affected
by the action 4) instrument He
opened the door with the key 5)
beneficiary smbd who gains
(for) 6) factitive (result) smth
that comes into being as a result
of the action & didn’t exist
before 7) force элементатив) the
wind broke the window 8)
locative some place experienced
as a substance Minsk is a big
city 9) temporative some
moment or period of time
experienced as a substance
Yesterday was a busy day.:
Types of pred: material actions,
states & processes, mental
processes.
The proposition is a reflection of
situations & events of the
outside world. The semantic
predicate determines the number
of arguments, or opens up places
for arguments.=> types of pred:
1.no participant pred(it rains),
2.1-placepredicates(she cried) 3.
2-place pred(she broke the cup).
4. 3-place pred(she gave me the
cup) 5participant unexpended(do
you drive(a car))
Chafe (case frame & sem feat of
the V)=>types:states (wood is
dry), processes (the wood is
dried), actions (sang), act-
process (he dried the wood),
ambient state (it’s hot), ambient every type of sentence and
act (it’s raining).
28.Communicative structure of The most common pattern for
the sentence. Functional
sentence perspective (FSP).
Linguistic analysis of utterances Subject-Predicate-
in terms of the information they (Object),which is called direct
contain is called the actual
division or the analysis of the
Functional Sentence
Perspective (FSP).
FSP refers to the way the
speaker structures the
information, the way he
identifies the relative importance nurse gave Mary her daughter))
of utterance parts. Usually the
utterance consists of 2 parts: the
topic of discussion: smth about
which a statement is made & the
new information, which adds
most to the process of
communication. These 2 sections
are called the theme & the
rheme, or topic & comment.
Some sentences contain only the
rheme, they are monorhematic:
It is getting dark. In the majority
of sentences the constituents are
either rhematic or thematic.
There are also transitional
elements. Sentences containing
the theme & the rheme are called
dirhematic.
Thematic elements are marked
by the definite article, loose
parenthesis (as for
me…),detached parts of the
sente;
rhematic elements: by the
indefinite article, particles (even,
only),negations(none of us can
fly), emphatic constructions (It
is he, who…).
Progressive information
structure- Th-rh.
Some means of preserving the
progressive information
structure: 1.passive
transformations (UNESCO took
the first steps. → The first steps
were taken by UNESCO) 2.the
use of conversives (20 people
died in crush. → The crush
killed 20 people). 3)The use of
personal subject & the nominal
predicate –( It was silent in the
room. → The room turned
silen)t.
Some means of making the
subject rhematic: the
constructions there is/there are,
it is necessary, inversion,etc.
Thematic elements contribute
little to the meaning of the
utterance as they reflect what has
already been communicated, in
other words they have the lowest
degree of communicative
dynamism (CD). Rhematic
elements, containing new
information which advances the
communicative process have the
highest degree of CD.
29. Word order
The words in an English
sentence are arranged in a
certain order which is fixed for
is,therefore,meaningful. There
exist two ways of arranging
words-direct order and inverted
order.
the arranfement of the main parts
in a declarative sentence is
word order.
func: gram, communicat,
emphatic
Gr: 2)distinguish bw declar & ?
sent 2)differentiate synt rel(bw
Subj & Direct O(Tom loves
Mary) bw Indir O & Dir O(the
3)to express attributive
connections(People here rise
early)
Commun( disting bw TH &RH,
connecting sent in the text)
Emph(subjective wo: the new
preceeds the given- Very tired
she looked)
fixed word order: in many cases,
speakers can choose between
different constituent orderings or
constructional alternations as
exemplified in the following
sentence pairs: John gave the
book to Fred vs. John gave Fred
the book, John picked up the
book vs. John picked the book
up, the President's speech vs. the
speech of the President.
30. TEXT In modern linguistics
text is considered to be the main
unit of linguistic analysis.
Discourse refers to a
continuousstrech of utt larger
than a sent.text<->discourse(t-
physical product, surface
structure, monologue, discourse-
dynamic process, deep structure,
dialogue)
Supraphrasal unity-2 or more
connected sent characterized by
the topical unity & semantic-
syntactic cohesion.upraph u ch-
ed by communicative dynamism:
new inf is based on the inf which
has been communicated in the
previous sent.
A text has texture (текстура,
или фактура), and this is what
distinguishes it from other
linguistic units. The texture is
provided by the cohesive relation
(когезивные отношения,
связующие отношения,) or the
co-reference (отнесённости к
объекту внеязыковой
действительности - реальной
или воображаемо) of two
elements appearing in anaphoric
or cataphoric relations .
Grammatical Cohesive
Devices:Anaphora (анафора) is
a kind of mng rel bw speech
expressions where a subsequent
element is interpreted with
reference to an initial one.
Anaphora is pointing back to
some previous item. The
presupposed element may be
located elsewhere in the
preceding context
Cataphora (катафора) is a kind
of mng rel where the
presupposing element
preceding the presupposed one.
Thus cataphora is pointing
forwards.
Tie (связка, связь) is a single
instance of cohesion (отдельны»
случай когезии) and the rel bw a
pair of elements standing in
anaphoric or cataphoric relations
Personal reference (референция,
производимая при помощи
личных и притяжательных
местоимении) is reference by
means of function in the speech
situation, through the category of
person. This reference
performed by personal and
possessive (including absolute)
pronouns.
Demonstrative reference
(указательная референция) is
reference by means of location,
on a scale of proximity. It is a
form of verbal pointing
Comparative reference
(сравнительная референция) is
indirect reference by means of
identity or similarity. It is based
on comparison
1.Morphology and syntax as
parts of gr. Main units and types
of relations between gr. units in
language and speech
2.Main gr notions.gr mng and
gr.form. Gr categories. Method
of opposition.
3. Structure of words. Types of
morphemes.
4. Means of form-building.
Synthetic and analytical forms.
Means of form- b & gram f are
divided
5. Parts of speech. Principles of
classification
6. Notional and functional
classes of words
7. The noun. The category of
number.
8. The noun. The category of
case.
9. The noun. The category of
article determination.
10.The adjective. The category
of degree of comparison
11. The verb. The category of
tense.
12. The category of order \
correlation.
13. The category of aspect.( vid)
14.The Category of voice.
16.Verbals. The category of
representation.
17. Phrase. Principles of
classification.
18. Phrase , Types of relations
between its constituents.
19. Sentence as the main unit of
syntax.
20. Predicativity. Primary and
secondary predication.
21. Principles of classification of
the sentences.
22. Compound sentence.
Semantic relations between the
clauses.parataxis
23. Complex sentence. Structural
classification of complex
sentences.Hypotaxis
24. Syntactical structure of the
cl( simple sentence). The model
of the members of the sentence.
25. Structural models of sent
is analysis. Distributional model.
IC-mode
26. Transformational model
(TM)
27.Semantic structure of the
sentence.
28.Communicative structure of
the sentence. Functional
sentence perspective (FSP).
29. Word order
30. TEXT
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