CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTS AND

THEIR REPRESENTATION
Objective
- To know the objectives of performing
experiments
- To identify the functional elements in
instruments
- Objectives of performing experiments:-
• Measurements of system parameters
information
• Control of a certain process or operation
• Simulation of system conditions
• Experimental design studies
• To perform various manipulation
• Testing material, maintenance of standard and
specifications of product.
• Verification of physical phenomenal/scientific
theories
• Quality control in industry.
 WHY WE PERFORMED EXPERIMENTS?

 To validate and verify theoretical concepts

 To develop new methods and products

 To evaluate the performance and behavior of

existing products
TYPICAL APPLICATION AREAS OF INSTRUMENTS
SYSTEMS
BASIC AND AUXILIARY FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENT OF THE INSTRUMENTS
 Transducer element
 Signal conditioning
element
 Data presentation
element
TRANSDUCER ELEMENT
SIGNAL CONDITIONING ELEMENT

 Amplification
 Mechanical Amplifying elements
 Hydraulic/Pneumatic Amplifying elements
 Optical Amplifying Elements
 Electrical Amplifying Elements

 Signal Filtration
 Mechanical filters
 Pneumatic filters
 Electrical Filters
DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT

 The output of the signal conditioning elements

are presented to be read or seen.
 Fast

 Little
drag
 Small inertia, friction
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

 Deflection and Null Types

 Manually Operated and Automatic Types

 Analog and Digital Types

 Self Generating and Power Operated Types

 Contacting and Non Contacting Types

 Dumb and Intelligent Types

Deflection type

 Null type
Manual type
Block diagram
Automatic type
Analog signal to Digital Value
Self –generating type

Non contacting type

STANDARDS AND CALIBRATION

 Measurement – the act of quantitative

comparison between a predefined standard
and the unknown magnitude of a physical
quantity
 Standard – the physical representation of the
unit of measurement
National prototype kilogram
K20, one of two prototypes
stored at the US National
Institute of Standards and
Technology in Gaithersburg,
Maryland, which serve as
primary standards for
defining all units of mass and
weight in the United States.
This is a replica for public
display, shown as it is
normally stored, under two
bell jars
STANDARD OF MEASUREMENTS

 International Standards-International Bureau of

Weights ad Measure at Sevres, France
 Primary Standards – Standards
organization/national laboratories in different
parts of the world – (SIRIM)
 Secondary Standards- Industrial
measurements laboratories
 Working standard
CALIBRATION

 The act or result of quantitative comparison

between a known standard and the output of
the measuring system measuring the same
quantity
CALIBRATION PROCEDURE

 Measurement is an act of a quantitative

comparison between a predefine standard and
unknown magnitude of a physical quantity

Unknown magnitude Predefined standard

STANDARD OF MEASUREMENTS

 International Standards
 Primary Standards

 Secondary Standards

 Working Standards
CALIBRATION
 Calibration is the act or result of quantitative
comparison between a known standard and the output
of the measuring the same quantity
 Calibration Procedures
 Primary calibration-calibrated against primary standards
 Secondary calibration-calibrated against primary calibration
device
 Direct calibration with known input source
 Indirect calibration
 Routine calibration
 THE ENGINEER SHOULD KNOW WHAT

 to look for before beginning the experiments.

 to measure skillfully certain physical variables
 to specify the degree of accuracy
 the limitation of the apparatus
 the expected error and deviations from true
measurements
 Experiment is not mainly to measure physical
variables but also to control its.

 The accuracy of control is dependent on the

accuracy of measurement.

 Statistical techniques - to analyze measured

data to determine expected error and deviation
from true measurements.