Colonial 1

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FRANCIS C. MACANSANTOS
PRISCILLA S. MACANSANTOS
The existing literature of the Philippine ethnic groups at the time of conquest and conversion into
Christianity was mainly oral, consisting of epics, legends, songs, riddles, and proverbs.
The conquistador, especially its ecclesiastical arm, destroyed whatever written literature he could
find, and hence rendered the system of writing (e.g., the Tagalog syllabary) inoperable. Among the
only native systems of writing that have survived are the syllabaries of the Mindoro Mangyans and
the Tagbanua of Palawan.
The Spanish colonial strategy was to undermine the native oral tradition by substituting for it the
story of the Passion of Christ (Lumbera, p. 14). Although Christ was by no means war-like or sexually
attractive as many of the heroes of the oral epic tradition, the appeal of the Jesus myth inhered in the
protagonist’s superior magic: by promising eternal life for everyone, he democratized the power to
rise above death. It is to be emphasized, however, that the native tradition survived and even
flourished in areas inaccessible to the colonial power. Moreover, the tardiness and the lack of
assiduity of the colonial administration in making a public educational system work meant the survival
of oral tradition, or what was left of it, among the conquered tribes.
The church authorities adopted a policy of spreading the Church doctrines by communicating to
the native (pejoratively called Indio) in his own language. Doctrina Christiana (1593), the first book to
be printed in the Philippines, was a prayerbook written in Spanish with an accompanying Tagalog
translation. It was, however, for the exclusive use of the missionaries who invariably read them aloud
to the unlettered Indio catechumens (Medina), who were to rely mainly on their memory. But the task
of translating religious instructional materials obliged the Spanish missionaries to take a most practical
step, that of employing native speakers as translators. Eventually, the native translator learned to
read and write both in Spanish and his native language.
This development marked the beginning of Indio literacy and thus spurred the creation of the first
written literary native text by the native. These writers, called ladinos because of their fluency in both
Spanish and Tagalog (Medina, pp. 55-56), published their work, mainly devotional poetry, in the first
decade of the 17th century. Among the earliest writers of note were Francisco de San Jose and
Francisco Bagongbata (Medina). But by far the most gifted of these native poet-translators was
Gaspar Aquino de Belen (Lumbera, p.14). Mahal Na Pasion ni Jesu Christo, a Tagalog poem based
on Christ’s passion, was published in 1704. This long poem, original and folksy in its rendition of a
humanized, indeed, a nativized Jesus, is a milestone in the history of Philippine letters. Ironically —
and perhaps just because of its profound influence on the popular imagination — as artifact it marks
the beginning of the end of the old mythological culture and a conversion to the new paradigm
introduced by the colonial power.
Until the 19th century, the printing presses were owned and managed by the religious orders
(Lumbera, p.13). Thus, religious themes dominated the culture of the Christianized majority. But the
native oral literature, whether secular or mythico-religious continued. Even among the Christianized
ethnic groups, the oral tradition persisted in such forms as legends, sayings, wedding songs such as
the balayan and parlor theater such as theduplo (Medina, p. 32).
In the 18th century, secular literature from Spain in the form of medieval ballads inspired the
native poetic-drama form called the komedya, later to be called moro-moro because these often dealt
with the theme of Christians triumphing over Moslems (Lumbera, p. 15).
Jose de la Cruz (1746 – 1829) was the foremost exponent of the komedya during his time. A
poet of prodigious output and urbane style, de la Cruz marks a turning point in that his elevated diction
distinguishes his work from folk idiom (as for instance, that of Gaspar Aquino de Belen). Yet his appeal
to the non-literate was universal. The popularity of the dramatic form, of which he was a master, was
due to it being experienced as performance both by the lettered minority and the illiterate but
genuinely appreciative majority.
Francisco Baltazar (1788 – 1862), popularly called Balagtas, is the acknowledged master of
traditional Tagalog poetry. Of peasant origins, he left his hometown in Bigaa, Bulacan for Manila, with
a strong determination to improve his lot through education. To support his studies, he worked as a
domestic servant in Tondo. He steeped himself in classical studies in schools of prestige in the capital.
Great social and political changes in the world worked together to make Balagtas’ career as poet
possible. The industrial revolution had caused a great movement of commerce in the globe, creating
wealth and the opportunity for material improvement in the life of the working classes. With these
great material changes, social values were transformed, allowing greater social mobility. In short, he
was a child of the global bourgeois revolution. Liberal ideas, in time, broke class — and, in the
Philippines — even racial barriers (Medina). The word Filipino, which used to refer to a restricted
group (i.e., Spaniards born in the Philippines) expanded to include not only the acculturated wealthy
Chinese mestizo but also the acculturated Indio (Medina). Balagtas was one of the first Indios to
become a Filipino.
But the crucial element in Balagtas’ unique genius is that, being caught between two cultures
(the native and the colonial/classical), he could switch codes (or was perceived by his compatriot
audience to be switching codes), provide insight and information to his oppressed compatriots in the
very style and guise of a tradition provided him by a foreign (and oppressive) culture. His narrative
poem Florante at Laura written in sublime Tagalog, is about tyranny in Albanya, but it is also
perceived to be about tyranny in his Filipino homeland (Lumbera).
Despite the foreign influence, however, he remained true to his native traditions. His verse plays
were performed to the motley crowd. His poems were sung by the literate for the benefit of the
unlettered. The metrical regularity and rhyme performed their age-old mnemonic function, despite
and because of the introduction of printing.
Printing overtook tradition. The printed page, by itself, became the mnemonic device, the stage
set for the development of prose. The first Filipino novel was Ninay, written in Spanish by Pedro
Paterno, a Philippine-bornilustrado (Medina p. 93). Following the sentimental style of his first
book Sampaguitas (a collection of poems in Spanish), the novel endeavored to highlight the
endearingly unique qualities of Filipinos.
National Hero Jose Rizal (1861 – 1896) chose the realistic novel as his medium. Choosing
Spanish over Tagalog meant challenging the oppressors on the latter’s own turf. By writing in prose,
Rizal also cut his ties with the Balagtas tradition of the figurative indirection which veiled the supposed
subversiveness of many writings at that time.
Rizal’s two novels, the Noli Me Tangere and its sequel El Filibusterismo, chronicle the life and
ultimate death of Ibarra, a Filipino educated abroad, who attempts to reform his country through
education. At the conclusion of the Noli, his efforts end in near-death and exile from his country. In
the Filibusterismo, he returns after reinventing himself as Simoun, the wealthy jeweler, and hastens
social decay by further corrupting the social fabric till the oppressed react violently to overthrow the
system. But the insurrection is foiled and Simoun suffers a violent death.
In a sense, Rizal’s novels and patriotic poems were the inevitable conclusion to the campaign for
liberal reforms known as the Propaganda Movement, waged by Graciano Lopez Jaena, and M.H. del
Pilar. The two novels so vividly portrayed corruption and oppression that despite the lack of any clear
advocacy, they served to instill the conviction that there could be no solution to the social ills but a
violent one.
Following closely on the failed reformist movement, and on Rizal’s novels, was the Philippine
revolution headed by Andres Bonifacio (1863 – 1897). His closest aide, the college-bred Emilio
Jacinto (1875 – 1899), was the revolutionary organization’s ideologue. Both were admirers of Rizal,
and like Rizal, both were writers and social critics profoundly influenced by the liberal ideas of the
French enlightenment, about human dignity. Bonifacio’s most important work are his poems, the most
well-known being Pag-Ibig Sa Tinubuang Lupa. Jacinto wrote political essays expressed in the
language of the folk. Significantly, although either writer could have written in Spanish (Bonifacio, for
instance, wrote a Tagalog translation of Rizal’s Ultimo Adios), both chose to communicate to their
fellowmen in their own native language.
The figure of Rizal dominates Philippine literature until the present day. Liberalism led to
education of the native and the ascendancy of Spanish. But Spanish was undermined by the very
ideas of liberation that it helped spread, and its decline led to nativism and a renaissance of literature
in the native languages.
The turn of the century witnessed not only the Philippine revolution but a quieter though no less
significant outbreak. The educated women of the period produced significant poetry. Gregoria de
Jesus, wife of Andres Bonifacio, wrote notable Tagalog poetry. Meanwhile, in Vigan of the Ilocano
North, Leona Florentino, by her poetry, became the foremost Ilocano writer of her time.
21st Century Literature in Various Regions

Topics under this module
 Philippine Literature during the Precolonial Period

 Philippine Literature during the Spanish Colonial Period
 Philippine Literature during the American and the Japanese Periods
 Philippine Literature in the Postwar and Contemporary Period
 Life and Works of Jose Garcia Villa
 Life and Works of Carlos P. Romulo
 Life and Works of Francisco Arcellana
 Life and Works of Nestor Vicente Madali (N.V.M.) Gonzalez
 Life and Works of Edith L. Tiempo
 Life and Works of F. Sionil Jose
 Life and Works of Virgilio S. Almario
 Life and Works of Alejandro Roces
 Life and Works of Bienvenido S. Lumbera
21st Century Literature in Various Regions, 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and
the World
Philippine Literature during the Precolonial Period
Chapter 1
 At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the characteristics of precolonial literature of the
Philippines.
 What texts are considered precolonial literature?
Chapter 2
The precolonial literature includes all literature produced before the Spanish colonization like chants, proverbs,
songs, and folk narratives. These were all passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth.
Philippine folk narratives are varied and distinct. They depict the people’s livelihood, customs, and traditions.
1. Folktale – This is a characteristically anonymous, timeless, and placeless tale circulated orally among a
people.
2. Fable – This features animal characters or inanimate objects that behave like people.
3. Legend – This is presented as history but is unlikely to be true.
4. Myth – This is told to explain a belief, a practice, or a natural phenomenon.
5. Epic – This narrative poem celebrates the adventures and achievements of a hero.
Chapter 3
Folktales
 Folktales about Juan are very popular. Some emphasize certain virtues, and some serve as warning about
behavior. Also, some are for the reader’s amusement.
Example 1:
Juan Gathers Guavas (A Tagalog Folktale)
One day several neighbors came to Juan’s home to visit. His father wanted to give the guests something to eat,
so he sent Juan to get some ripe guavas for them.
Full of mischief, Juan decided to play a joke on his father’s guests. He went to get the guavas and ate all of them
while thinking of a good joke. Then he saw a wasp’s nest hung nearby. With some difficulty he managed to take it
down and put it into a tight basket. He hastened home and gave the basket to his father. Quickly he left the room
where the guests were and closed the door and fastened it.
As soon as Juan’s father opened the basket, the wasps flew over the room. With the door locked, the people
fought to get out of the windows. After a while Juan opened the door. When he saw the swollen faces of the
people, he cried.
“What fine, rich guavas you must have had! They have made you all so fat!”
Example 2:
Juan Pusong and His Father’s Cows (A Visayan Folktale)
One day Juan Pusong's father put his cows out to pasture. Juan slipped away from home and took the cows into
the forest and tied them there. When his father found out that the cows were missing, he looked around for them.
While looking, he ran into his son.
“Where did you come from?” he asked.
“I just came from school, Father. How about you, where are you going?”
“I am looking for our cows.”

“You don’t say!" said Juan.
By that time, everybody knew about Juan’s power as a seer. So, he took a little book from his pocket and looked
into it. He said, “Our cows are tied together in the forest.” So, his father went to the forest and found the cows.
Later on, people would discover that Juan could not read even his own name. Consequently, his father beat him
for the trick he had played on him.
Chapter 4
Fable
 The monkey is a common animal character in Philippine fables. It is often depicted as a cunning animal.
Example:
The Monkey and the Crocodile (A Tagalog Fable)
One day, a monkey saw a tall macopa tree laden with ripe fruits, which stood by a wide river. It was hungry, so it
climbed the tree and ate all of the fruits. When it climbed down, it could find no means by which to cross the river.
Then it saw a young crocodile who had just woken up from its siesta. It said to the crocodile in a friendly way, “My
dear crocodile, will you do me a favor?”
The crocodile was greatly surprised by the monkey’s amicable salutation. So, it answered humbly, “Oh, yes! If
there is anything I can do for you, I shall be glad to do it.” The monkey then told the crocodile that it wanted to get
to the other side of the river. Then the crocodile said, “I’ll take you there with all my heart. Just sit on my back, and
we’ll go at once.”
The monkey sat firmly on the crocodile’s back, and they began to move. In a short while they reached the middle
of the stream. Then the crocodile began to laugh aloud. “You foolish monkey!” it said, “I’ll eat your liver and
kidneys, for I’m very hungry.” The monkey became nervous. Trying to conceal its anxiety, it said, “I’m very glad
that you mentioned the matter. I thought myself that you might be hungry, so I have prepared my liver and kidneys
for your dinner. Unfortunately, in our haste to depart, I left them hanging on the macopa tree. Let us return, and I’ll
get them for you.”
Convinced that the monkey was telling the truth, the crocodile turned around and swam back to the direction of
the macopa tree. When they got near the riverbank, the monkey nimbly jumped up onto the land and scampered
up the tree. The crocodile came to realize what happened and said, “I am a fool.”
Legend
 There are different Filipino legends of the great flood. The story of Bukidnon, for instance, tells that a huge
crab caused the water to rise by going into the sea. On the other hand, the Igorot story tells that the sons
of Lumawig the Great Spirit caused the flood.
Example 1:
The Flood Story (A Legend of Bukidnon)
A long time ago there was a very big crab which crawled into the sea. When it went in, it crowded the water out so
that it ran all over the earth and covered all the land.
Now about one moon before the flood happened, a wise man had told the people that they must build a large raft.
They did as he commanded and cut many large trees until they had enough to make three layers. These they
bound tightly together; when it was done, they fastened the raft with a long rattan cord to a big pole in the earth.
Soon after the raft was done, the flood came. White water poured out of the hills, and the sea rose and covered
even the highest mountains. The people and animals on the raft were safe, but all the others drowned.
Soon the waters went down, and the raft was again on the ground. It was near their old home, for the rattan cord
had held.
The people on the raft together with the animals were the only ones left on the whole earth.
Example 2:
The Flood Story (A Legend of the Igorot)
Once upon a time, the world was flat, and there were no mountains. There lived two sons of Lumawig, the Great
Spirit. The brothers were fond of hunting; since no mountains had formed, there was no good place to catch wild
pig and deer. The older brother said, “Let us cause water to flow over all the world and cover it, and then
mountains will rise up.”
So, the brothers caused water to flow over all the earth. When it was covered, they took the head-basket of the
town and set it for a trap. They were very much pleased when they went to look at their trap, for they had caught
not only many wild pigs and deer but also many people.
Lumawig looked down from his place in the sky and saw that his sons had flooded the earth. However, there was
just one spot which was not covered. All the people in the world had been drowned except a brother and a sister
who lived in Pokis.
Then Lumawig descended, and he called to the boy and girl, saying, “Oh, you are still alive.”
“Yes,” answered the boy, “we are still alive, but we are very cold.”
So, Lumawig commanded his dog and deer to get fire for the boy and girl. The dog and the deer swam quickly
away. Lumawig waited a long time, but the dog and the deer did not return. All the time the boy and girl were
growing colder.
Finally, Lumawig himself went after the dog and the deer. When he reached them, he said, “Why are you so long
in bringing the fire to Pokis? Get ready and come quickly while I watch you, for the boy and girl are very cold.”
Then the dog and the deer took the fire and started to swim through the flood. When they had gone only a little
way, the fire was put out.
Lumawig commanded the dog and the deer to get more fire, and they did so. However, they swam only a little way
again when that of the deer went out. That of the dog would have been extinguished also had not Lumawig gone
quickly to him and taken it.
As soon as Lumawig reached Pokis, he built a big fire which warmed the brother and sister. The water evaporated
so that the world was as it was before, except that now there were mountains. The brother and sister married and
had children, and thus there came to be many people on the earth.
Chapter 5
Myth
 There are Philippine versions of the creation myth. The Igorot’s story tells that Lumawig the Great Spirit
created people. On the other hand, the Tagalog story tells that the first man and woman came from a
bamboo.
Example 1:
The Creation (An Igorot Myth)
In the beginning, there were no people on the earth. Lumawig, the Great Spirit, came down from the sky and cut
many reeds. He divided the reeds into pairs which he placed in different parts of the world, and then he said to
them, “You must speak.” Immediately the reeds became people, and in each place was a man and a woman who
could talk. However, the language of each couple differed from that of the others.
Then Lumawig commanded each man and woman to marry, which they did. By and by there were many children,
all speaking the same language as their parents. The children married and had many children of their own. In this
way, there came to be many people on the earth.
Now Lumawig saw that there were several things which the people on the earth needed to use, so he set to work
to supply them. He created salt and told the inhabitants of one place to boil it down and sell it to their neighbors.
However, the people could not understand the directions. The next time he visited them, they had not touched the
salt. So, he took the salt away from them and gave it to the people of a place called Mayinit.
The people of Mayinit did as Lumawig directed. Because of their obedience, he told them that they should always
be owners of the salt and that the other peoples must buy of them.
Then Lumawig went to the people of Bontoc and told them to get clay and make pots. They got the clay, but they
did not understand the molding; the jars were not well shaped. Because of their failure, Lumawig told them that
they would always have to buy their jars, and he removed the pottery to Samoki.
Lumawig told the people of Samoki what to do, and they did just as he said. Their jars were well shaped and
beautiful. Then Lumawig saw that they were fit owners of the pottery, and he told them that they should always
make many jars to sell.
In this way, Lumawig taught the people and brought to them all the things which they now have.
Example 2:
The Creation (A Tagalog Myth)
When the world first began there was no land. There were only the sea and the sky, and between them was a kite.
One day the bird which had nowhere to light grew tired of flying about, so she stirred up the sea until it threw its
waters against the sky. The sky, in order to restrain the sea, showered upon it many islands until it could no longer
rise, but ran back and forth. Then the sky ordered the kite to alight on one of the islands to build its nest, and to
leave the sea and the sky in peace.
Now at this time the land breeze and the sea breeze were married, and they had a bamboo as their child. One day
when the bamboo was floating about on the water, it struck the feet of the kite which was on the beach. The bird,
angry that anything should strike it, pecked at the bamboo. Out of one section came a man and from the other a
woman.
The earthquake called on all the birds and fish to see what should be done with the man and the woman, and it
was decided that they should marry. Many children were born to the couple, and from them came all the different
races of people.
After a while the parents grew very tired of having so many idle and useless children around. They wished to be
rid of them, but they knew of no place to send them to. Time went on, and the children became so numerous that
the parents enjoyed no peace. One day, in desperation, the father seized a stick and began beating them on all
sides.
The beating frightened the children so much that they fled in different directions. Some seek hidden rooms in the
house. Some concealed themselves in the walls. Some ran outside, while others hid in the fireplace. Several fled
to the sea.
Now it happened that those who went into the hidden rooms of the house later became the chiefs of the islands;
and those who concealed themselves in the walls became slaves. Those who ran outside were free men; and
those who hid in the fireplace became negroes; while those who fled to the sea were gone many years, and when
their children came back they were the white people.
Epic
 The Philippine epics are sung or chanted in episodes. They feature supernatural characters and reflect the
society where they originated. Also, there are different versions of a story.
Examples:
Biag ni Lam-ang
This Ilocano epic tells the adventures of Lam-ang, a man with supernatural powers. He goes to war at nine-
months-old and seeks the killers of his father. He embarks on a quest with his animal friends and meets his future
wife, Innes Kanoyan. He is swallowed by a fish and resurrected from death by his animal friends.
Hinilawod
This epic is of the Sulod, a group of people living in the mountains of central Panay. It tells the story of three very
strong men, namely, Labaw Donggon, Humadapnon, and Dumalapdap. They are the sons of Datu Paubari, the
ruler of Halawod, and the goddess Alunsina. The exploits of each son concerns beautiful women that he wants to
have as a wife.
Darangan
This Maranao epic depicts the adventures of a brave warrior named Bantugan. He owns a magical sword
protected by a spirit. After a battle, he rests and accidentally falls into the water. A crocodile finds him and brings
him to the enemies. He fights, regains his strength, and wins the war.
ChPTER 6
The precolonial literature of the Philippines includes all literature produced before the Spanish colonization. It
includes chants, proverbs, songs, spells, and different folk narratives like folk tales, fables, legends, myths, and
epics that were all passed down from generation to generation through the word of mouth..
Q1
This story is passed down from generation to generation, and it becomes part of a tradition of a community. What do you call this narr
ative?
Q2
This story is told to explain a belief, a practice, or a natural phenomenon. What do you call this narrative?
Q3
This story is presented as history but is unlikely to be true. What do you call this narrative?
Q9
Fables often teach a lesson. What is likely the lesson taught by “The Monkey and the Crocodile”?
Q10
What does the excerpt suggest about the society of the native Filipinos?
21st Century Literature in Various Regions, 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the
World
Philippine Literature during the Spanish Colonial Period
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
 name some literary works published during the Spanish Colonial Period, and
 analyze some literary works.
What literary works were published during the Spanish occupation of the Philippines?
What do those works reflect about the life of Filipinos during this period in history?
Notes on the Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898)
 Expeditions to the Philippines were sent by Spain in the 16th century. In their conquest, the Spaniards
brought Christianity with them. The clergy made a great impact on faith, education, and government.
 Through the Manila-Acapulco trade (1565–1815), liberal ideas entered the country. Also, the trade gave
rise to a wealthier middle class. Children in middle class families could then be sent to Europe to get an
education. Upon their return, they brought European ideals of liberty and freedom with them. Such ideals
would then give rise to Filipino nationalism.
Philippine Literature
during the Spanish Occupation
The Spanish missionaries taught the gospel through the native language, so they hired natives to translate
Spanish religious instructional materials. Eventually, the natives became fluent in Spanish and became known as
ladinos.
Ladinos mainly wrote devotional poetry. Two of them were Fernando Bagongbanta and Gaspar Aquino de Belen.
Bagongbanta wrote “Salamat nang walang hanga/gracias de sin sempiternas,” which appeared in Memorial de la
vida cristiana en lengua tagala (1605), a book containing basic Catholic doctrines. On the other hand, de Belen
wrote “Ang Mahal na Passion ni Jesu Christong Panginoon natin na tola” (1704), the earliest version of pasyon.
Also, the native drama called the komedya or moro-moro was popular. It depicted the war between Christians and
Muslims, wherein the former always wins. The poet Jose de la Cruz (1746–1829) was a master of such art form.
Native literature continued. Though the Spaniards destroyed the written literature in their effort to replace it with
their own, the oral tradition survived and flourished in areas beyond the reach of the Spaniards.
Francisco Baltazar (1788-1862), the master of traditional Tagalog poetry, became well-known for his
work Florante at Laura (1838–1861), the most famous metrical romance of the country.
Pedro Paterno (1857–1911) wrote Sampaguitas y poesias varias (1880), the first poetry collection in Spanish by
a Filipino; and the novel in Spanish Ninay (1885), considered to be the first Filipino novel.
Jose Rizal (1861–1896), a prominent ilustrado and the country’s national hero, is famous for the novels Noli Me
Tangere and El Filibusterismo. These novels portray the corruption and abuse of the Spanish officials and the
clergy.
Andres Bonifacio (1863–1897), the founder of the Katipunan, wrote the poem “Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa.”
This poem appeared in the Kalayaan, the official newspaper of the Katipunan, in March 1896.
Leona Florentino (1849–1884), known as the “mother of Philippine women’s literature,” was a poet in both
Ilocano and Spanish. Twenty of her poems were preserved and exhibited in Europe. The poems were included in
the Encyclopedia International des Oeuvres des Femme in 1889.
Summary
Philippine Literature during the Spanish occupation was mostly influenced by Christianity as well as the European
ideals of liberty and freedom through trade. Filipino writers either wrote in Spanish or in their own tongue or both.
Q1
What are the factors that greatly influenced the Philippine Literature during the Spanish occupation?
Q2
Published in 1605, this book contains basic Catholic doctrines. What is the title of this book?
Q3
These natives could speak and write in both Spanish and their own language. What do you call them?
Q4
Complete the following analogy:
Jose Rizal : Noli Me Tangere : : Pedro Paterno : _
Q5
Jose de la Cruz : _________ : :

Francisco Baltazar : _________
Q8
What kind of poetry is de Belen’s poem?
Q9
In this excerpt, why does the poet regard the love for one’s country as pure and noble?
and explanations, to prevent students from cheating.

Report errors in this content
Q10
In this excerpt, Crisostomo Ibarra and Elias are having a conversation about the demands of the tulisanes or the bandits. Which of th
ese statements tells Ibarra’s viewpoint on such demands?
World
Philippine Literature during the American and the Japanese Periods
Objectives
 identify some Filipino writers who produced significant works of literature during the American and
Japanese Periods (1898–1945), and
 analyze a poem by the Filipino poet Fernando Maramag.
Who wrote during the American and Japanese Periods?

What kind of literary forms did they produce?
What were the usual themes in their works?
Notes on the American Occupation

(1898–1940)
 The US established a civil government in 1901. Free public education was introduced. Also, English was
the medium of instruction.
 In 1934, President Roosevelt signed a bill making the Philippines a commonwealth. On May 14, 1935
Manuel L. Quezon was elected president.
Literary Works Produced

The production of literary works in English is the direct result of the American colonization of the Philippines. The
first collection of poetry in English is Filipino Poetry (1924), edited by Rodolfo Dato. The short story “Dead Stars”
(1925) by Paz Marquez Benitez is considered as the first Filipino modern short story in English. A Child of
Sorrow (1921) by Zoilo M. Galang is the first Filipino novel in English. The novel His Native Soil (1940) by Juan C.
Laya won first prize in the First Commonwealth Literary Awards in 1940.
Filipino writers in English during the apprenticeship period (1900–1930) imitated American writing. The poet
Fernando Maramag writes in the Romantic tradition in his sonnet “Moonlight on Manila Bay” (1912). Filipino
fictionists copied Sherwood Anderson, William Saroyan, and Ernest Hemingway. Jose Garcia Villa used the
Anderson pattern. Manuel Arguilla and N. V. M. Gonzalez were influenced by Anderson and Hemingway.
Francisco Arcellana was influenced by Saroyan.
(1941–1945)
 On December 8, 1941, the Japanese attacked Manila.

 On January 2, 1942, Japanese occupied Manila. They set up a Council of State in the country and started
propaganda to remold the Filipinos.
 In October 1943 the Japanese declared the Philippines “independent.” On September 20, Jose P. Laurel
was elected president.
 MacArthur and his Allied forces returned to the country in 1944. They landed on Leyte on October 20, and
the biggest naval battle in history ensued.
 The Japanese surrendered formally on September 2, 1945.
Literary Works Produced

During the occupation, publications were censored by the military. Also, Tagalog was declared an official
language (together with Nihonggo). In effect, Philippine literature in English came to a halt. Some Filipino writers
then turned to writing in Filipino.
The Tagalog short story reached its maturity during the period. The best works were compiled by
the Liwayway magazine editors in Ang Pinakamabuting Maikling Kathang Pilipino ng 1943, which came out in
1944. It is a collection of stories that won a contest sponsored by the Japanese. The top four stories were “Lupang
Tinubuan” by Narciso G. Reyes, “Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa” by Liwayway Arceo, “Nayon at Dagat-dagatan” by N.
V. M. Gonzalez, and “Suyuan sa Tubigan” by Macario Pineda.
Summary
The American occupation of the Philippines spurred the writing of Filipinos in English. On the other hand, the
Japanese occupation censored literary works yet contributed to the maturity of the Tagalog short story
Q1
What was the medium of instruction in public schools during the American occupation of the Philippines?
Q2
What is considered to be the first modern Filipino short story?
World
Philippine Literature in the Postwar and Contemporary Period
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify postwar and contemporary literary authors and their works
and name their contributions to the development of literature in the Philippines.
What are the literary works published during the postwar and contemporary period in literature?
Postwar and Contemporary Literature

Postwar and contemporary literature include all literary works written and published in the Philippines from
1946.
After World War II, the Philippines had to deal with the economy and the need for rehabilitation and reconstruction
of infrastructures. There was political, economic, and social confusion, as well as great poverty, and these issues
found their way into the short stories and novels during that time.
Learn about it!

During the postwar period, Filipino writers got their inspiration from American teachers and were able to learn their
techniques, which also helped in mastering the English language.
Writers wrote fiction that focused on courageous deeds as well as the sacrifices and suffering in the lives of
Filipinos. It was also common for writers to write about the experiences of the Filipino people under the Spanish
and American rule and the Japanese Occupation. Other subjects and themes include:
 religious faith
 superstitions
 fantasy
 social problems
 poverty
 politics
 nationalism
 morality
Literary Works
Philippine literature flourished even more during the postwar and contemporary period. Writers were able to
produce short stories, novels, essays, and poems that continue to be read by Filipinos today.
Examples:
Some works written in the postwar and contemporary period are:
May Day Eve by Nick Joaquin, 1947

Waywaya by F. Sionil Jose, 1983
We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers by Alejandro Roces, 1948
The Return by Edith L. Tiempo
History and Philippine Culture by Horacio de la Costa, 1965
Without Seeing the Dawn by Stevan Javellana, 1947
Explanation:
Nick Joaquin, a National Artist for Literature awardee, wrote articles under the name of Quijano de Manila. His
short story "May Day Eve," published in 1947, is about love in a patriarchal society. It also made use of magic
realism.
F. Sionil Jose, one of the most widely read Filipino writers in English, wrote the short story "Waywaya," which is
about pre-Hispanic society and the people’s struggle for moral order.
Alejandro Roces, a Filipino author, essayist, and dramatist, wrote the short story "We Filipinos Are Mild
Drinkers." This story focuses on the drinking habits and culture of Filipinos and Americans.
Edith L. Tiempo's poem "The Return" is a sentimental piece that talks about life in old age.
Horacio de la Costa wrote the essay "History and Philippine Culture," which emphasizes the importance of
understanding and presenting a nation’s culture.
Stevan Javellana wrote the first postwar Filipino novel in English, Without Seeing the Dawn. This novel narrates
what people experienced during World War II under the Japanese rule in the Philippines.
Tip
To be able to fully appreciate literature in the Philippines, as a reader and a critic, you must also be aware of the
country’s history, culture, society, and psyche (human spirit).
21st Century Literature in Various Regions, 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World
Life and Works of Jose Garcia Villa
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to recognize Jose Garcia Villa’s contributions to the development of
Philippine literature.
Who is Jose Garcia Villa?

What are his contributions to Philippine literature?
Jose Garcia Villa
 Jose Garcia Villa was a Filipino literary critic, poet, painter, and short story writer. He was born on August
5, 1908 in Manila.
 He gained both local and international recognition for his works. He was named as the National Artist for
Literature in 1973, and he was also a recipient of the Guggenheim Fellowship.
 During his college years, he wrote Man Songs, a collection of controversial poems that was considered too
bold by the University of the Philippines and became the ground for his suspension from the said
institution.
 Some of his well-known literary works are "Mir-i-nisa" (won in the Philippines Free Press in 1929), and
"Footnote to Youth" (published in 1933).
Jose Garcia Villa as a Poet
 As a poet, Jose Garcia Villa is known for introducing the reversed consonance rhyme scheme. According
to Villa, in this method, the last sounded consonants of the last syllable, or the last principal consonant of a
word, are reversed for the corresponding rhyme. Thus, a rhyme for light would be words such as tile, tall,
tale, etc.
 He is also known for his comma poems, where he employed a comma after every word.
 He used the pseudonym Doveglion, which is derived from dove, eagle, lion.
 He died on July 7, 1997.
Analyzing a writer's works will help you understand and identify his or her contributions to Philippine literature.
Example:
One of Jose Garcia Villa's well-known works is "Footnote to Youth."
a. Setting
The short story is set in a small town.
b. Plot
 Exposition
Dodong, a seventeen-year-old boy, tells his parents that he wants to marry his girlfriend Teang.
 Rising Action
Teang secretly regrets marrying Dodong at a young age. She wonders what can happen if she has
married Lucio, who is nine years older than Dodong.
 Climax
Dodong wonders why life does not get to fulfill all of a youth’s dreams.
 Falling Action
Blas tells Dodong about his plan to marry Tona.
 Conclusion
Dodong wants to keep Blas from marrying Tona, but he cannot do anything about it. He feels sorry for
Blas.
c. Theme
The story focuses on the consequences of marrying at an early age and starting a family.
Explanation:
In the story "Footnote to Youth," Dodong is the symbol for the Filipino youth. His decision to marry his love
interest, Teang, at the age of seventeen demonstrates the passion of teenagers when it comes to relationships.
Those of the younger generation usually strive for new pursuits to learn things on their own, often rejecting their
elders’ guidance. From the story, it is depicted that lessons are learned through experience. Dodong, as well as
Teang, had many realizations when he became a parent.
 In analyzing a literary work, make sure that you read it thoroughly and analyze it well.
 Study the background of the author, as this will give you insights regarding the setting of the story and
the historical and/or social influences of the time and place in which the author lived.
 Analyze the concepts presented in the literary work by relating them to practices and traditions in the
Philippines or in the place used as the setting of the story.
He was named as the National Artist for Literature in 1973.

 Multiple Choice
 Q2
 Jose Garcia Villa pioneered on __________ where he places a comma after every word.
 Q3
 It refers to a series of controversial poems which led to Jose Garcia Villa’s suspension from the University of the Philippines.
 Q4
 "Must you marry, Dodong?"
 In the story "Footnote to Youth," the given line was uttered by Dodong's father when Dodong asked for his permission to get
married. Which of the following emotions is expressed in the statement of Dodong’s father?
 Q5
 Which of the following is not true about Jose Garcia Villa?
 Q8
 Your teacher asked you to write a poem that is inspired by Jose Garcia Villa's style. Which of the following would help make
your poem similar to his?
 From the information given about "Footnote to Youth," it can be inferred that local short stories are _.
 Q10
 Based on the story "Footnote to Youth," which of the following may be inferred about teenagers?
World
Life and Works of Carlos P. Romulo
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify Carlos P. Romulo's contributions to the development of
Who is Carlos P. Romulo?

What are his contributions to the development of Philippine literature?
Carlos P. Romulo
 Carlos P. Romulo was a Filipino diplomat, statesman, journalist, and soldier. He was born on January 14,
1898 in Intramuros, Manila and grew up in Camiling, Tarlac.
 He was the first Filipino journalist who was awarded with the Pulitzer Prize in Journalism. He was also the
first Asian who served as the president of the United Nations General Assembly.
 "I am a Filipino" is one of the many essays written by Carlos P. Romulo. It was published in The
Philippines Herald in August 1941.
 He also wrote the book entitled I Saw the Fall of the Philippines, in which he narrated his personal
experiences as an aide-de-camp to General Douglas MacArthur in Corregidor. This book was followed by
a sequel, I See the Philippines Rise, a journalistic account of the Philippine War in 1944.
 Among his other famous literary works are Mother America: A Living Story of Democracy, a discussion of
his political ideals about American democracy in the Philippines, and I Walked with Heroes, his
autobiography.
 He was conferred as National Artist for Literature in 1982.
 He died on December 15, 1985.
About the Essay I am a Filipino
 I am a Filipino is one of the valuable contributions of Carlos P. Romulo to Philippine literature. Analyzing it
would help one understand what he thinks of the Filipino and what it means to be one.
 In the essay, the author speaks of the pride and dignity of the Filipino race, which is something he wants
the future generation to uphold and cultivate.
 The essay also explains the Filipino identity as a product of the fusion of Western culture (Spanish and
American) and Eastern culture (Japanese occupation and Malayan roots).
 Carlos P. Romulo stresses that the fight for freedom sprung up from one’s pride of being a Filipino. He
takes pride in the bravery and sacrifices of the heroes who fought for freedom like Lapu-Lapu , Diego
Silang, Jose Rizal , Gregorio del Pilar, Antonio Luna, and Manuel L. Quezon.
 He also emphasizes the beauty of the Philippines as blessed with bountiful natural resources and colorful
history and culture.
Summary
Carlos P. Romulo is a profound writer who wrote the essay I am a Filipino, which is one of the great contributions
to Philippine literature not only because it shows one’s love for his country and freedom but also of being proud as
a Filipino.
He was the first Filipino journalist to be awarded with the Pulitzer Prize in Journalism.
Q2
It refers to a narration of Carlos P. Romulo's personal experiences as an aide-de-camp to General Douglas MacArthur in Corregidor.
Q3
Carlos P. Romulo was conferred as National Artist for Literature in __________.
World
Life and Works of Francisco Arcellana
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the contributions of Francisco Arcellana to Philippine
literature by analyzing his literary works.
Who is Francisco Arcellana? What are his contributions to Philippine literature?
Francisco Arcellana
 Francisco Arcellana is a Filipino teacher and a contemporary writer. He is one of the prominent Filipino
fictionists in English.
 He is known for innovating and exploring new literary forms and experimenting with different techniques in
short story writing.
 He was a member of the group The Veronicans, which was composed of influential Filipino writers who
aimed to use sensible literature in order to create a greater impact on the Philippines.
 He was also the first director of the University of the Philippines Creative Writing Center.
 Some of his well-known literary works are the short stories "The Man Who Would Be Poe," "Death in a
Factory," "A Clown Remembers," "The Mats," and "Lina."
 In 1990, he was awarded as the National Artist for Literature.
 His short stories "Flowers of May," "Christmas Gift," and "The Mats," were adapted as screenplays.
Analyzing a writer's literary works will help in identifying his contributions to Philippine literature.
Example:
Below are details regarding Francisco Arcellana's "The Mats."
a. Setting
The short story is set in the afternoon until evening at the house of the Angeles family.
b. Plot
 Exposition
Mr. Angeles comes from a periodic inspection trip in Mariveles. During the trip, he writes to his family and
gets them excited about the exceptionally beautiful and colorful mats he bought from an artist.
 Rising Action
Upon arriving, he gives the mats one by one to his children. Each mat is woven with his child’s name and
symbols. They are all happy to receive the mats.
 Climax
There are three mats that are to be unfolded. In a loud voice, he offers the three mats to his dead children
named Josefina, Victoria, and Concepcion.
 Falling Action
Nana Emilia, anguished, said he should not have bought mats for them, but Mr. Angeles insists that they
must be remembered.
 Conclusion
The children feel the tension and see the grief in the face of Mr. Angeles and the sadness of Nana Emilia.
The father unfolds the three mats in silence.
 c. Theme
Coping with the death of a loved one is a struggle. Commemorating his or her life is painful, but it must be
faced with courage and faith.
 Explanation:
 Francisco Arcellana presented the story using a distinct style. He focused on the characters' actions and
dialogues to reveal the innermost feelings and motives of the characters, which set the dramatic tone of
the short story.
Summary
Francisco Arcellana is a Filipino fictionist who demonstrated his craftsmanship in writing great literary pieces
such as "The Mats," a story that highlights Filipino family values and pictures an interesting character coping with
the death of loved ones. In this short story, he uses writing techniques such as emphasizing the characters’
actions and dialogues to reveal their inner motives and emotions.
Q7
Below is a line that Mr. Angeles said in "The Mats."
"Is it fair to forget them? Would it be just to disregard them?"
From the given information in the lesson regarding the short story, which of the following do you think Mr. Angeles is talking about?
Multiple Choice
We hide question answers, hints and explanations, to prevent students from cheating.
Q10
Rica likes the writing style of Francisco Arcellana and was taking inspiration from his short stories while writing a story of her own.
Which of the following would she most likely do?

World
Life and Works of Nestor Vicente Madali (N.V.M.) Gonzalez
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to analyze literary works by N.V.M. Gonzalez and name his
contributions to the development of Philippine literature.
What are N.V.M. Gonzalez's contributions to the development of Philippine literature?
N.V.M. Gonzalez
 Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzalez is an award-winning Filipino poet, essayist, fictionist, journalist, editor,
and teacher of creative writing.
 He is the first president of the Philippine Writers’ Association.
 He is also honored as one of the great Filipino writers who advanced literary traditions and culture.
 He was a recipient of the following awards: The Republic Cultural Heritage Award, the Jose Rizal Pro-
Patria Award, the Carlos Palanca Memorial Award for Literature, and the National Artist Award for
Literature in 1997.
 Some of his published works are Seven Hills Away (1947), Children of the Ash-Covered Loam and Other
Stories (1954), and The Bamboo Dancers (1949), which appeared in Russian translation in 1965 and
1974.
 Seven Hills Away is a collection of short stories that sketch the daily lives of the Filipino kaingeros in his
hometown province, Mindoro.
 The Bamboo Dancers is a diasporic novel that features the challenges faced by Filipinos in America.
Carefully analyzing the works of a writer will help in determining what his works have contributed to literature.
Example:
"Children of the Ash-Covered Loam" is a short story that depicts Filipino family practices and beliefs in a rural
setting.
a. Setting
The story is set in a provincial place where kaingin is a common practice.
b. Plot
 Exposition
The story begins one sunny afternoon when Tarang’s father arrives with a pig to be taken care of by
Tarang, a seven-year-old boy.
 Rising Action
Tia Orang, an old midwife, sees Tarang and tells him to inform his mother of her passing by.
 Climax
Tatay and Nanay, Tarang’s parents, together with their neighbors are all set for performing religious rites
after kaingin (burning of trees). They believe that these practices will take away all evil spirits and will give
them a bountiful harvest. Tatay lays the pullet’s neck and lets the streaks of blood drop on the ash-covered
loam.
 Falling Action
After the clearing of the land, Tia Orang visits the family and performs hilot on Nanay and tells her that she
is ready to bear a child. She also shares stories of evil ones and spirits.
 Conclusion
Tarang, half-awake, hears the noise outside, gets up, and accidentally strikes a tree stump with his big
toe. The hurt does not concern him, for he is more interested in seeing how life emerge from the land as
the rice grains peek through the dirt.
 c. Theme
Death forms new life. Death and new formations of life are recurring motifs in the story. When a living thing
dies, a new life emerges. The story paints a cycle of life and death for the family. The kaingin practice and
the killing of the pullet as a ritual are some forms of deaths that the family believes will bring new life like a
bountiful harvest and another child.
 Explanation:
 The use of words such as kaingin, hilot, Nanay, and Tatay is part of N.V.M. Gonzalez's writing style, as
even his other works showcase terms that are unique to the setting of the story. Analyzing a story will help
readers see details such as this that will give them ideas regarding the writer's contributions to Philippine
literature.
 N.V.M. Gonzalez is known as a local colorist writer. Local color is a literary technique that features the
unique regional traditions of people and emphasizes the ordinary events in their lives. This is used by
N.V.M Gonzalez to present the sociocultural dimensions of Filipino families and farmers in the provinces.
In "Children of the Ash-Covered Loam," words that show local color include kaingin, hilot,
Nanay, and Tatay.
World
Life and Works of Edith L. Tiempo
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify Edith L. Tiempo's contributions to Philippine literature by
analyzing her literary works.
Who is Edith L. Tiempo? What are her contributions to the development of Philippine literature?
Edith L. Tiempo
 Edith L. Tiempo was a Filipino writer in English. She was a poet, fiction writer, and literary critic.
 She was known for using intricate and witty representations to portray significant human experiences.
 Some of her well known poems are "The Return," a poem that describes the characteristics of old age,
"Lament for the Littlest Fellow," a poem that presents a metaphor to describe the plight of a submissive
wife under her domineering husband, and "Bonsai," a poem that gives a look at how tangible objects could
be keepers of memories and emotions.
 As a fictionist, she was known for her moral profoundness. One of her remarkable short stories, "The
Black Monkey," won third prize in the Carlos Palanca Memorial Award. "The Black Monkey," which is set
during the time when guerrillas were fighting against the Japanese during World War II, narrates the
tormenting encounter of a woman with a monkey.
 She also wrote the novel A Blade of Fern, which depicts the problems of Filipino miners of Nibucal in
southern Philippines.
 She was awarded as the National Artist for Literature in 1999.
 She founded with her husband the Silliman University National Writers Workshop, which produced great
young writers of her time.
 Analyzing the literary work of a writer would help in determining what her contributions are to literature.
 Example:
 Below is an excerpt of Edith L. Tiempo's poem "The Return."
 The Return
If the dead years could shake their skinny legs and run
As once he had circled this house in thirty counts,
he would go thru this door among those old friends and they would not shun
Him and the tales he would tell, tales that would
bear more than the spare
Testimony of willed wit and his grey hairs.
 And he would live in the whispers and locked heads.
Wheeling around and around turning back was where he started:
The turn to the pasture, a swift streak under a boy’s running;
The swing, up a few times and he had all the earth he wanted;
The tower trees, and not so tall as he had
imagined;
The rocking chair on the porch, you pushed it and it started rocking,
Rocking, and abruptly stopped. He, too, stopped in the doorway, chagrined.
He would go among them but he would not tell, he could be smart,
He, an old man cracking the bones of his embarrassment apart.
 The excerpts cited in this material are copyrighted by their respective authors. Quipper ensures that the
use of these works has permission from their authors and this effort is ongoing. Should you have concerns
regarding the proper use of these works, or if you have not received communication from us regarding this
matter, please let us know immediately.
Explanation:
Old age is the subject of the given poem. This poem describes the life of an old man who loved to travel in his
youth. The phrases dead years, skinny legs, and thirty counts denote the physical weakness and isolation that the
old man feels. The old man wants to visit his friends to bond with them and share to them his travel stories and
experiences. Hopelessly, he sees only the things associated with old age: irritability and illness, rocking chair,
pasture, and the tower tree.
The themes or messages of the poem are:
 Time is irreversible, and memories can only be remembered and cherished.

 Old people face physical weakness and emotional challenges such as feelings of isolation, sadness, and
frustration.
 Old age is an inevitable period in human growth and development.
World
Life and Works of F. Sionil Jose
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify F. Sionil Jose’s contributions to the development of
Who is F. Sionil Jose? What are his contributions to the development of Philippine literature?
F. Sionil Jose
 Francisco Sionil Jose, widely known as F. Sionil Jose, was born on December 3, 1924 in Rosales,
Pangasinan.
 His life and most of his works are influenced by Dr. Jose P. Rizal.
 He edited various literary and journalistic publications, and he founded the Philippine PEN, an organization
of poets, playwrights, and novelists.
 He opened Solidaridad Publishing House in 1965. A year after, he founded Solidarity, a magazine that
produces content mainly focused on "current affairs, ideas, and the arts."
 He was a recipient of numerous awards. Some of which are the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Journalism,
Literature, and Creative Communications in 1980, the Pablo Neruda Centennial Award in 2004, and the
Officer in the French Order of Arts and Letters in 2014.
F. Sionil Jose's Literary Works
 F. Sionil Jose’s are generally written in English and are translated to more than twenty languages and
produced worldwide.
 Among his most celebrated works is the Rosales Saga. It is a series of novels that are set from the
Spanish colonial period to the proclamation of Martial Law in the 1970s. This saga includes the following
novels: Po-on, Tree, The Pretenders, Mass, and My Brother, My Executioner.
 He has also written several short stories, including the notable "The God Stealer". It is a story about the
friendship of Philip Latak, an Ifugao, and Sam Christie, an American who wanted to buy a bulol, a
sculpture of an Ifugao god. The story depicts the relationship and truths about the colonizer and the
colony.
 Waywaya: Eleven Filipino Short Stories is a compilation of short stories about pre-Hispanic Philippine
society.
 In 2004, he published the children’s book The Molave and Other Children’s Stories.
 To identify a writer's contributions to Philippine literature, it is important to analyze and take a close look at
his literary works.
 Example:
 In a nutshell, F. Sionil Jose’s "The God Stealer" tells the story of Philip Latak and Sam Christie. Philip was
residing in the city for years against his family’s wishes. Sam, his colleague, was an American who wanted
a bulol, an Ifugao god sculpture, as a souvenir before he gets back to Boston. Philip stole his
grandfather’s bulol for Sam, as he felt indebted to repay Sam’s kindness. Then Philip’s grandfather died,
and he no longer wanted to come with Sam back in the city.
 Explanation:
 The story tackles one of the many effects of colonization, that is, losing one’s identity. Philip represents the
Philippines, while Sam represents America. Philip’s way of offering the bulol to Sam out of gratitude shows
how he tried to denounce his roots by embracing a new one, thus losing himself in the process.
 Q1
 Q7
 Through his works, F. Sionil Jose tries to _.
 Q9
 If Rosales Saga is set from the Spanish colonial period to the proclamation of Martial Law in the 1970s, Waywaya: Eleven Fi
lipino Short Stories is _.
 Q10
 Based on what you have learned about F. Sionil Jose and his works, which of the following would most likely not be a subje
ct of his stories?
World
Life and Works of Virgilio S. Almario
Objectives
 identify the valuable contributions of Virgilio S. Almario to Philippine Literature; and

 analyze one of his poems.
Who is Virgilio S. Almario?

What are his contributions to Philippine Literature?
Virgilio S. Almario
Virgilio S. Almario, popularly known by his pen name Rio Alma, is a Filipino artist known for his poetry and
literary criticism. He was proclaimed National Artist for Literature in 2003.
Almario, together with poets Rogelio Mangahas and Lamberto E. Antonio, pioneered the second modernist
movement in Filipino poetry. In his own words, he defines modernist poetry as sparing, suggestive, and restrained
in emotion; its vocabulary and subject are immersed in the now. Among his poetry collections are Makinasyon at
Ilang Tula (1968), his very first collection; Peregrinasyon at Iba Pang Tula (1970), which won first prize in poetry in
the Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards; Doktrinang Anakpawis (1979); Mga Retrato at Rekwerdo (1984); and Muli
Sa Kandungan ng Lupa (1994).
Almario’s earliest works of literary criticism were published in the Dawn, the weekly organ of the University of the
East. Some of those works were later included in Ang Makata sa Panahon ng Makina (1982), now considered as
the first book of literary criticism in Filipino. His other critical works include Taludtod at Talinghaga (1965), which
tackles the traditional Tagalog prosody; and Balagtasismo Versus Modernismo (1984), in which he presents the
two main directions of the Tagalog Poetry.
Almario performed significant deeds in the field of Philippine literature. He founded the Galian sa Arte at Tula
(GAT) with the other poets Teo Antonio and Mike Bigornia in 1970; and the Linangan sa Imahen, Retorika, at
Anyo (LIRA), an organization of poets who write in Filipino, in 1985. From 1986 to 1992, he served as chairman of
the Unyon ng mga Manunulat sa Pilipinas (UMPIL), considered to be the biggest umbrella organization of writers.
From 1998 to 2001, he served as executive director of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA).
In 2013 he became the chairman of the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino (KWF).
Example:
High Zoociety
Ni Rio Alma
Masdan ang tagak sa likod ng kalabaw,

Parang birheng-birheng manang
Na di-madapuan ng langaw
Sa ibabaw ng karosa patungong simbahan;
At ang mga dekadenteng gansa sa gilid ng lawa,

Maluluma ang mga donyang nakahilata
Habang ibinibilad ang kuto at muta.
Hayun ang mga maryakaprang paawit-awit,

Parang mga binibining umiikot ang puwit,
Sa bulwagang hitik sa masalapi’t makikisig;
At ang mga burukratang unggoy

Sa tuktok ng mala-palasyong kahoy,
Pulu-pulutong kung magpulong
Kung paanong mas lalapad ang papel at tumbong.
Naghahari’t matitikas na oso’t agila,

Nagkikikil lang ng kuko’t pangil tuwing umaga
Para isakmal sa karne’t isuob na barya
Kaya tumatambok ang tiyan at bulsa.
Samantala, matatalinong kuwago’y naghihilik,

Malalaki nga ang mata’y lagi namang pikit,
Marahil, bagong paraiso ang laman ng panaginip.
Di tulad ng buwayang laging abala

Sa paghanap ng kahit butiking mabiktima,
Bundat na’y lagi pa ring nakanganga.
Pero higit na mag-ingat sa hunyango’t ahas
Na sa damuhan ay nagkalat;
Tuwing maghuhunos ng kulay at balat,
Pakay ay kay-hirap madalumat.
Explanation:
The poem "High Zoociety" is part of the collection Doktrinang Anakpawis (1979). Published during the martial law
years (1972–1981), the poem and the rest of the collection are considered committed poetry, that is, of social
awareness and concern. The title is a play on the term "High Society," which refers to the rich and powerful.
"High Zoociety" has eight stanzas following this pattern of number of lines: 4-3-3-4-4-3-3-4. It uses what is called
in Tagalog poetry as "tugmang karaniwan," wherein the last word of each line has the same sound. The second,
fifth, and seventh stanzas use "tugmang patinig," wherein the last words of the lines have the same vowel wound.
On the other hand, the rest of the stanzas use "tugmang katinig," wherein the last words of the lines end in a
consonant preceded by the same vowel sound. However, the poem has no regular meter.
What is Virgilio Almario’s pen name?
Q2
For which field was Virgilio Almario proclaimed as National Artist in 2003?
Q3
From 1998 to 2001, Virgilio Almario served as executive director of NCCA or National Commission for ________ and the _______. W
hat do C and A stand for?
explanations, to prevent students from cheating.

Q5
Virgilio Almario founded two groups of writers and served two organizations as their chairman. What are those groups and organizati
ons?
Q6
Complete the following analogy.
Makinasyon at Ilang Tula : Poetry : : _ : Literary criticism
Q8
Which animal is described through the use of simile?

Q9
Which animal in this group is the odd one out?
Q10
Suppose the hunyango (chameleon) and the ahas (snake) are used as symbols by the poet. What kind of people do they suggest as
shown in the stanza?
World
Life and Works of Alejandro Roces
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify Alejandro R. Roces’s contributions to the development of
Who is Alejandro R. Roces?

What are his contributions to the development of Philippine Literature?
Alejandro R. Roces as a Filipino Writer
 Alejandro R. Roces was a Filipino literary writer. He was born on July 13, 1924.
 He was a playwright, an essayist, and a short story writer. He was also a columnist at the Philippine Star,
the Manila Times, and the Manila Chronicle.
 He attended the Ateneo de Manila University for his primary and secondary education and the University
of Arizona where he earned his degree in fine arts. He pursued further studies at the following institutions:
Far Eastern University (master’s degree); Ateneo de Manila University, Polytechnic University of the
Philippines, St. Louis University, and Tokyo University in Japan (doctorate).
 Alejandro R. Roces was known for his short story "We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers," a story about an
American soldier in the Philippines who brags about his drinking habits, but becomes overly drunk after
drinking lambanog offered by a Filipino farmer.
 From 1961 to 1965, he served as the Secretary of Education under the regime of former president
Diosdado Macapagal. He has also served as chairman of the Movie and Television Review and
Classification Board (MTRCB) in 2001.
 His other literary works are "My Brother’s Peculiar Chicken," a story which talks about two brothers who
were arguing whether the chicken they caught was a hen or a rooster; Something to Crow About, the
first Filipino zarzuela in English about a man named Kiko who earns a living by means of cockfighting;
and Fiesta, a collection of essays about various Philippine festivals.
 Alejandro R. Roces was conferred as National Artist for Literature in 2003.
 He died on May 23, 2011.
 Read the synopsis of “My Brother’s Peculiar Chicken” below, one of Alejandro R. Roces’ notable works.
 Synopsis:
 Kiko and his brother found a peculiar chicken. They argued whether it was a hen or a rooster. Kiko
believed that it was a rooster, while his brother thought otherwise. Kiko’s brother emphasized that it could
not be a rooster as the chicken has neither wattles nor comb. Their parents took turns in looking at the
chicken and had different thoughts about it; thus, they ended up arguing like their children. Kiko and his
brother asked the chieftain about it, and he thought that it was a bird of a different kind. They also asked
Mr. Eduardo Cruz, someone who studied poultry raising, and he suggested examining the insides of the
chicken, to which Kiko refused. They both agreed to bring the chicken to a cockpit and have it fight with a
rooster from Texas. However, the rooster performed a love dance around the peculiar chicken. It turned
out that the peculiar chicken was waiting for a chance to attack. It stubbed its spur into the rooster, and
won. Kiko’s brother was convinced that the chicken was a rooster. However, when he was holding the
chicken, it suddenly quivered and laid an egg.
Humor is a literary device which aims to make the audience or readers laugh or be amused. Alejandro R. Roces
employed humor in most of his works. There are various types of humor. Some of which are
exaggeration/hyperbole, surprise, and sarcasm.
 Sarcasm – is a literary device used to mock. In the story, the chicken crowed and Kiko triumphantly asked
his brother if he heard it. Kiko then mocked his brother by saying “I suppose you are going to tell me now
that hens crow and that carabaos fly.”
 Exaggeration/Hyperbole – is a literary device used to make an event appear better or worse than what it
really is. In the story, Kiko’s brother shared how they were almost whipped for arguing too much.
 Surprise – is a literary device commonly found in unlikely situation or an unexpected turn of events. As the
brothers ran from the mob, Kiko’s brother was convinced that the chicken was a rooster based on how it
defeated its opponent, until it laid an egg.
Alejandro R. Roces was best known for his short stories, "My Brother’s Peculiar Chicken" and "We Filipinos Are
Mild Drinkers." He employed humor in most of his works, usually tackling the Filipinos’ fascination of cockfighting.
Q1
He wrote the short story "We Filipinos Are Mild Drinkers."
Q2
It is a story which focuses on Kiko and how he earns a living through cockfighting.
Q3
It refers to the literary device used by writers to amuse the audience.
Q6
Kiko and his brother asked the following people to identify whether the chicken is a hen or a rooster except _.
Q8
Identify which literary device is used in this statement:
"I didn't attend the funeral, but I sent a nice letter saying I approved of it." – Mark Twain
Q9
After walking for hours, Mimi said, "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse!" This statement is an example of _.
Q10
Calvin was late in class. When he arrived, the class was already taking the exam. He tried to recall if his teacher announced anything
about an exam yesterday, but he was sure that there was none. What literary device is used in the situation?
World
Life and Works of Bienvenido S. Lumbera
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the valuable contributions of Bienvenido S. Lumbera in the
development of Philippine literature, and analyze two of his poems.
Who is Bienvenido S. Lumbera?

What are his important contributions to the Philippine Literature?
What theme do his works have in common?
Personal Life
 Lumbera, who was called Beny when he was a young boy, was born in Lipa, Batangas on April 11, 1932.
His parents had passed away before he turned five.
 Beny and his older sister were raised by Eusebia Teru, their paternal grandmother.
 When Eusebia died, Beny came to live with his godparents, Enrique and Amanda Lumbera.
 Beny showed natural aptitude for English. In sixth grade, his writing impressed his teacher so much that
she once asked him, in an accusatory tone, if he did write his composition himself. In his third year in high
school, his teacher gave him difficult works of literature to read.
 Lumbera took a degree in journalism at the University of Santo Tomas in 1950 and graduated cum laude
in 1954. A year before his graduation, his first published work, the poem “Frigid Moon,” appeared in the
Sunday magazine of the Manila Chronicle.
 On a full scholarship granted by the Fulbright Committee, Lumbera obtained his masters and doctorate
degrees at Indiana University.
Literary Background
Lumbera writes in English and Filipino. Below are some of his works.
Poetry Collections
Likhang Dila, Likhang Diwa (1993)
Balaybay: Mga Tulang Lunot at Manibalang (2002)
Critical Works
Abot Tanaw: Sulyap at Suri sa Nagbabagong Kultura at Lipunan (1987)
Writing the Nation/Pag-Akda ng Bansa (2000)
Tagalog Poetry, 1570–1898: Tradition and Influences in Its Development (2001)
Librettos
Tales of the Manuvu (1977)
Rama Hari (1980)
Sa Sariling Bayan: Apat na Dulang May Musika (2003)
 Lumbera is a strong advocate of the Filipino language. According to him, the gap between the well-
educated Filipinos and the majority cannot be bridged until Filipino becomes their true lingua franca.
 Lumbera has received numerous awards for his work. The most notable ones were the Special Prize from
the Palanca Awards for his poetry collection Sunog sa Lipa at Iba Pang Tula in 1975, the Ramon
Magsaysay Award for Journalism, Literature, and Creative Communication Arts in 1993, and the Philippine
Centennial Literary Prize for Drama in 1998.
 Lumbera received the title of National Artist for Literature in 2006.
 A Eulogy of Roaches
by Bienvenido Lumbera
 Blessed are the cockroaches.
 In this country they are
the citizens who last.
They need no police
to promulgate their peace
because they tolerate
each other’s smell or greed.
 Friends to dark and filth,
they do not choose their meat.
Although they neither sow
nor reap, a daily feast
is laid for them in rooms
and kitchens of their pick.
 The roaches do not spin,
and neither do they weave.
But note the russet coat
the sluggards wear: clothed
at birth, roaches require
no roachy charity.
 They settle where they wish
and have no rent to pay.
Eviction is a word
quite meaningless to them
who do not have to own
their dingy crack of wall.
 Not knowing dearth or taxes,
they increase and multiply.
Survival is assured
even the jobless roach;
his opportunities
pile up where garbage grows.
 Dying is brief and cheap
and thus cannot affright.
A whiff of toxic mist,
an agile heel, a stick
—the swift descent of pain
is also final death.
 Their annals may be short,
but when the simple poor
have starved to simple death,
roaches still circulate
in cupboards of the rich,
 the strong, the wise, the dead.
 (Reproduced by permission of National Artist, Dr. Bienvenido S. Lumbera.)
Analysis of the Poem

Published in 1965, “A Eulogy of Roaches” is a piece of Bagay poetry. Its subject, the roaches, represents a
deeper meaning. However, the poet merely focuses on giving precise visual images of the subject and not on
explicitly stating its representations.
The poet uses imagery, a literary technique in which figurative language is used to appeal to the reader’s physical
senses. An example is the poet’s description of roaches as “friends to dark and filth.”
Also, the poet uses juxtaposition, a literary technique in which two (or more) ideas are placed side by side for
comparison and contrast. In the last two stanzas, the poet draws both a comparison and a distinction between the
roaches’ life and the life of the poor: that the poor die simply of starvation, but the roaches still go on living their
short lives in the “cupboards of the rich, the strong, the wise, the dead.”
Bienvenido S. Lumbera is a poet, critic, and librettist. He has made valuable contributions in the development of
Philippine literature especially in the vernacular language. He has published works in English and Filipino and
received numerous awards including the National Artist for Literature title in 2006.
Literary Texts of Different Regions and Genres

Topics under this module
 Poetry
 Fiction
 Drama
 Creative Nonfiction
 Popular Fiction
 New and Emerging Literary Forms in the 21st Century
 Literary Works by Writers from Luzon
 Literary Works by Writers from Visayas and Mindanao
 Electronic Literature
Literary Texts of Different Regions and Genres, 21st Century Literature from the Philippines
and the World
Poetry
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to compare and contrast two poems published in different periods.
What do the poems published in different periods have in common?
How are they different from one another?
Philippine Literature during the American Occupation of the Philippines (1898–

1940)
With English as the medium of instruction in public schools, Filipino literary works in English were produced. In the
first decade, poetry and prose in English appeared in student publications like the UP College Folio and The
Coconut of Manila High School. By the 1930s and 1940s, Filipino writers in English came into their own.
Philippine Literature in the 21st Century (2001 up to the present)

This body of literature includes digital writings, graphic novels, textula, hypertext, and other emerging literary
genres at present.
In this lesson, you will compare and contrast Amador T. Daguio’s poem “Man of Earth” and a piece of textula by
Frank Rivera.
At 20, the poet Amador T. Daguio wrote “Man of Earth” in 1932. According to Dr. Gemino Abad, a well-known
Filipino poet and critic, “Man of Earth” marks a turning point in Filipino poetry. Daguio’s poem words in English are
reinvented to establish a native idiom.
Textula is poetry written and read on a mobile phone. It is popularized by the playwright Frank Rivera, who came
to be known as the “makata sa cell phone.” His works of textula and other poems are performed in different
occasions, such as rallies, school programs, and contests; published in newspapers; heard on radio; and shared
on social media or through text messaging.
Poetic Terms
Allusion – Using this literary device, the writer refers to a significant person, place, thing, or idea in culture,
history, literature, or politics briefly and indirectly.
Apostrophe – With this literary device, the writer addresses someone or something that is not present in his work.
End rhyme – This rhyme occurs in the last syllables of verses.
Lyric poetry – This traditional poetry is characterized by its brevity, emotional intensity, and musical quality.
Example 1:
Man of Earth
By Amador T. Daguio
Pliant is the bamboo;

I am man of earth.
They say that from the bamboo
We had our first birth.
Am I of the body,
Or of the green leaf?
Do I have to whisper
My every sin and grief?
If the wind passes by,

Must I stoop, and try
To measure fully
My flexibility?
I might have been the bamboo,
But I will be a man.
Bend me then, O Lord,
Bend me if you can.
Explanation:
 The lyric poem has a varied rhythm. It is composed of four stanzas, each one with five to seven syllables.
 The poem contains end rhymes.
 The poem contains an allusion to a Philippine creation myth that tells that the first man and woman came
from a bamboo. The speaker is aware of his own pagan heritage.
 The poem uses apostrophe. The speaker addresses a spiritual being he calls “Lord” in the last two lines of
the fourth stanza.
Example 2:
A Textula
By Frank Rivera
Merong himala, hindi totoong wala

Ituro ma’y mali, alam nati’y tama
Kahit walang sagot itong panalangin
Hindi tumitigil ang ating paghiling.
Walang nagturo na tayo’y makibaka

Ngunit sulirani’y ating binabata
Kahit may pangakong laging napapako
Sa anumang init, handa ring mapaso.
Sa ating puso’y may awit ng pag-asa

Kahit titik nito’y hindi makabisa
Ang katotohana’y lalaging totoo
Basta maniwalang mayroong milagro.
(Reproduced by permission of Frank Rivera)
Explanation:
 The poem is a piece of lyric poetry. It is composed of three stanzas, and each stanza has four lines. It has
a regular meter; each line consists of twelve syllables.
 The poem uses what is called in Tagalog poetry as “tugmang karaniwan,” wherein the last word of each
line has the same sound. Except the last two lines of the first stanza, the rest of the poem uses “tugmang
patinig,” wherein the last words of the lines have the same vowel sound.
 Q1
 What period of Philippine history did Amador T. Daguio write the poem “Man of Earth”?
 Q2
 What poetry is written and read on a mobile phone?
 Q3
 What title has been given to Frank Rivera for popularizing textula?
 Q5
 All pairs of words form end rhymes except one. Which pair of words is it?
 Q6
 All pairs of words form “tugmang patinig” except one. Which pair of words is it?
Literary Texts of Different Regions and Genres, 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the
World
Fiction
Objectives
 define literary meaning, and

 determine how the literary devices of a work of fiction work together to convey its literary meaning.
What is "literary meaning"?

How does one determine the "literary meaning" of a work of fiction?
Literary elements – These devices are inherent in a literary text. Some examples are the characters, setting,
conflict, plot, and theme of a short story.
Literary techniques – These devices are used deliberately by a writer in his or her work to convey a particular
meaning. Dialogue is an example.
The literary meaning of a work is conveyed through its elements and the literary techniques that the writer used. In
a short story, for instance, the writer weaves a story, putting elements and techniques together in a specific
arrangement to convey its meaning.
Consider Francisco Arcellana’s short story "The Mats." Arcellana focused on the character’s actions and dialogues
to reveal their innermost feelings, which can be clues to the literary meaning of the work.
"The Mats" (A Summary)

By Francisco Arcellana
The short story "The Mats" is about the Angeles family. As the title suggests, their story unfolds like the unfolding
of a sleeping mat. It begins with Emilia and her children waiting excitedly for Mr. Jaime Angeles’s return from a
business trip. In a letter, Mr. Angeles told his wife that he had asked a mat weaver to make decorative sleeping
mats for each one in the family. To some degree, the children knew what those mats would look like because their
mother kept one herself. This mat was a gift from Emilia’s mother. It had been a witness to the couple’s wedding
night as well as to the illnesses and even deaths in the family. Then the day came when Mr. Angeles arrived home
at last. The family had a long dinner. The table was cleared right after, and Mr. Angeles had a cigar. When it was
time to untie the mats, Mr. Angeles cut the cord that held the bundle with scissors. He began unfolding the mats
one by one. He handed the first one to Emilia; the second one to himself; the third one to his eldest, Marcelina; the
fourth one to his son, Jose; and three more to his children Antonia, Juan, and Jesus. Each mat had the name of
the family member on it as well as something special like the cadena de amor on Emilia’s mat, a lyre on
Marcelina’s, and the symbol of Aesculapius on Jose’s. Then Emilia noticed the other three mats that were not yet
unfolded. In a different voice, Mr. Angeles told her that they were for those who were not there. Emilia was
speechless, and the children fell silent. Mr. Angeles unfolded the first of three remaining mats; it revealed a name
that the children knew, but it seemed strange to them. Nana Emilia told her husband, "You know, Jaime, you didn’t
have to. You didn’t have to." To this Mr. Angeles only said, "Do you think I’d forgotten? Do you think I had
forgotten them? Do you think I could forget them?" Then he called out the names of his dead children, namely,
Josefina, Victoria, and Concepcion, as if they were there to get the mats themselves. Emilia pleaded with him to
stop. To this he only said, "Is it fair to forget them? Would it be just to disregard them?" The children wanted to
turn away from their father, but they did not. Emilia held back her frustration. Mr. Angeles unfolded the remaining
mats in silence.
Literary Meaning of "The Mats"

It is shown through the characters Emilia and her husband that coping with the death of loved ones is a
struggle. Emilia seemed to lead a normal life from the beginning of the story until the moment her husband told
her that he had the mat weaver made three mats for their three dead children. Forced to remember their dead
children, she could only hold back from feeling frustration perhaps with her husband. On the other hand, Mr.
Angeles dealt with the death of his children in a way that he knew how, that is, remembering them on special occ
The literary devices, elements and techniques, that are present in a work like a short story, bring about the literary
meaning of the work. This meaning can be about people or life in general.asions even if that made his wife and
children uncomfortable.
Q1
What literary devices are used on purpose by a writer in his work to convey its meaning?
Q2
What kind of narrative is "The Mats" by Francisco Arcellana?
Q3
Jaime, his wife Emilia, and all of their children, living and dead, had their sleeping mats. How many mats did the mat weaver make for
them?
Q5
Two of the given names are of the dead Angeles children. Which ones are those?
Q7
Which word completes the following analogy?
Emilia : cadena de amor : : Marcelina : ______
Q8
Which one of these statements is true for the characters Jaime and Emilia of the short story?
The literary meaning of a work is conveyed through the literary devices which the writer puts together in a random_ arrangement.
World
Drama
Objectives
 identify the Filipino dramatists or playwrights in English during the Postwar Period in the Philippines
(1946–1960); and
 analyze a Filipino drama or play in English published during that period.
What is a drama?
What are the elements of a drama?
Drama
Drama is a literary work that tells a story through actions and dialogues. It is usually performed on stage.
Elements
Characters – These actors set the scene and flow of the story.
Dialogues – These are conversations between the characters.

Plot – This is the series of events that take place.
Stage directions – These statements tell the actors how they should look, move, and speak. They also give the
director a picture of how the setting looks like, and what music and other sounds would set the mood of the play.
are the Filipino dramatists in English that emerged during the Postwar Years?
Philippine Drama in English During the Postwar Period (1946–

1960)
By the 1940s and 1950s, dramas in English had been performed on stage in the Philippines. During that time,
three notable Filipino dramatists emerged. They were Severino Montano, Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero, and Alberto S.
Florentino.
Severino Montano (1915–1980) established the Arena Theatre at the Philippine Normal College in 1952. Almost
two hundred performances were staged there from 1953 to 1964. Among those performances were the staging of
Montano’s four major dramas, namely, Parting at Calamba (1953), Sabina (1953), The Ladies and the
Senator (1953), and The Love of Leonor Rivera (1954).
Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero (1910–1995) was a prolific playwright. He wrote over a hundred plays; most of them were
staged. His plays portray the educated middle class. Among his popular works are Wanted: A
Chaperone (1940), The Three Rats (1948), and Condemned (1943).
Alberto S. Florentino (1931– ) became known for his drama The World Is An Apple. It won first prize in the
Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature in 1954 and was published in the Sunday Times Magazine that
same year. The play as well as the others like Cavort with Angels (1959) and Oli Impan (1959) is set in Tondo
slums.
During the period, the theater was moribund in the cities, however. One reason is that the language used, which
was English, made the plays only accessible to the educated Filipinos.
"The World Is an Apple" by Alberto S. Florentino is a one-act play. As the term suggests, a one-act play is
composed of only one act or part. Its story has a few characters; it is condensed and has a single effect.
Florentino’s play only has three characters, namely, Gloria, Mario, and Pablo. The story takes place one evening
in an improvised home in Intramuros. Gloria and Mario are a poor couple. Their poverty forces Mario’s hand both
literally and figuratively. So, he returns to his old life of stealing and joins his old friend Pablo for a heist.
The World Is An Apple: A Synopsis
It is payday, and Mario comes home without any money to give his wife Gloria for their sick daughter named Tita.
At first, he tells his wife that he spent all of his money on a few drinks with his friends. However, Gloria does not
believe him because he does not look intoxicated. Then Mario attempts to lie the second time by telling her that he
spent it all on a woman. Once again, Gloria does not believe him because she knows Mario loves their daughter
very much that he could not have done it. Finally, Mario tells her that he lost his job a week ago and that he has
been looking for a new one ever since. Gloria is shocked to hear the news and worried that Mario would not be
able to find a job soon. Mario, however, assures her that it will not take long for him to get a new job.
Gloria then asks Mario why he lost his job. Mario relates that he was accused of pilfering (stealing a small amount
of something) at work. He took an apple that rolled out of a broken crate and thought of giving it to their child. The
people at his work kept the apple, though, for evidence. Gloria wants Mario to ask those people for a second
chance, but Mario is convinced that they want to throw him out so that they could bring their own men into the job.
When Gloria suggests that Mario complain, he does not want to do so for fear of those people finding out about
his police record. Then he tells Gloria that he has found a good job. He is to be a night watchman for a company.
Gloria is thankful to God, though she feels uncertain because she will be alone at night without Mario by her side.
Then comes Pablo, Mario’s friend. Mario becomes nervous, and Gloria is not very happy to see him. Pablo asks
about their child’s condition and offers money to Gloria so that she can take her to a doctor, but Gloria refuses it.
She is convinced that Pablo has come to lead Mario back to his old ways. Soon enough, she discovers that Mario
has indeed decided to go back to stealing for their sake. She tries to stop him from going, but Mario leaves with
Pablo anyway. Before he leaves, he tells Gloria to take care of their daughter and herself, and he will take care of
himself. The story ends with Gloria shouting Mario’s name as she watches him walk away with Pablo.
There are only three characters in Alberto Florentino’s "The World Is an Apple." Two of those are the couple Mario and Gloria. Who is
the third character?
Q8
At the beginning of the story, Mario lied to his wife Gloria when he told her why he did not have any money to give her. What is his ulti
mate reason for lying?
Q9
Why is Gloria not happy to see Pablo?
Q10
Which statement tells the theme of Alberto Florentino’s "The World Is an Apple"?
World
Creative Nonfiction
Objectives
 identify some Filipino writers of creative nonfiction and their works; and
 analyze a few selected Filipino works of creative nonfiction.
What makes a work of creative nonfiction?

What are the different kinds of creative nonfiction?
Creative Nonfiction
It is a major genre of literature. It refers to narratives of real events told in a literary style.
Kinds of Creative Nonfiction

 Memoir - This account is narrowly focused on a single event in a person’s life.
 Biography - This is a detailed account of a person’s life written by another person.
 Autobiography - This is a written account of the life of a person written by the subject himself or herself.
 Diary - This is a collection of discrete accounts of a person’s experiences and thoughts each day.
 Essay - This writing features any subject that the writer personally comments about or describes.
 Philippine Creative Nonfiction
 The American Occupation (1898–1940)
 The essay in English proved to be an influential medium. The first volume of essays was Life and
Success (1921) by Zoilo Galang. The earliest travel writing was Notas de Viaje (1930) by Maria Paz
Mendoza-Guazon. The essay “Literature and Society” by Salvador Lopez sparked a debate on socially
relevant literature versus aesthetic value. It won in the first Commonwealth Literary Awards in 1940.
 The Japanese Occupation (1941–1945)
 Because of censorship, only a few essays in English were published. Horizons from My Nipa Hut,
published in 1941, is a collection of humorous essays by Francisco B. Icasiano. I Am a Filipino, the most
famous essay of Carlos P. Romulo, was published the same year.
 1960s and 1970s
 Literary journalism came into its own. It appeared in some publications like the Philippines Free Press and
the Philippine Graphic. It attracted some of the best Filipino writers. Nick Joaquin, who sometimes used
the pen name Quijano de Manila, was the most prolific among those writers.
 1990s
 A few autobiographies and memoirs were published like Memory’s Fictions: A Personal History (1993)
and Postscript to a Saintly Life (1994) by Bienvenido Santos. Also, there were works on wars like Living
With the Enemy: A Diary of the Japanese Occupation (1999) by Pacita Pestaño-Jacinto, and Breaking the
Silence (1996) by Lourdes Reyes Montinola.
 Also, published in this period were travel writings by Filipino women like Sylvia Mayuga’s Earth, Fire &
Air (1992) and Kerima Polotan’s Adventures in a Forgotten Country (1999).
 Early 21st Century
 This period saw the publication of collections of short essays and narratives of young writers. Their works
were Wala Lang (2004) by Bud Tomas; Love, Desire, Children, Etc.: Reflections of a Young Wife (2005)
by Rica Bolipata-Santos; The King of Nothing To Do (2006) by Luis Katigbak; and Stressed in the
City (2007) by April T. Yap.
Creative nonfiction refers to narratives of real events told using a literary style of writing. Some of its
forms are the memoir, the biography, the autobiography, the diary, and the essay. In Philippine Literature,
the essay is the most common form of creative nonfiction.
Q2
Supposed a woman writes about her own life from her birth up to the present. What do you call her work?
Q3
What kind of creative nonfiction is “I Am a Filipino” by Carlos P. Romulo?
Q6
In the essay “Literature and Society,” Salvador P. Lopez says of the writer, “He is no longer a florist, scissors in hand gathering lovely
blossoms; he has become a tiller of the soil, spade in hand, digging into the roots of things and planting seeds.”
What kind of figure of speech does Lopez use to describe the writer?
Q7
In the essay “Where Is the Patis,” Carmen Guerroro Nakpil asserts that travel has become the great Filipino dream. To elaborate on
her statement, she says, “In the same way that an American dreams of becoming a millionaire or an English boy dreams of going to o
ne of the great universities, the Filipino dreams of going abroad.”
How does she elaborate on her assertion?
Q8
In one of Nick Joaquin’s essays, he makes the following assertions about Filipinos: “Society for the Filipino is a small rowboat: the bar
angay . . . Enterprise for the Filipino is a small stall: the sari-sari . . . And commerce for the Filipino is the smallest degree of retail: the
tingi.”
What do his assertions say about the Filipinos in general?
Q9
In the essay “I Am a Filipino,” Carlos P. Romulo ends with this statement: “I am a Filipino born to freedom, and I shall not rest until fre
edom shall have been added unto my inheritance—for myself and my children and my children’s children—forever.”
What is the tone of his statement?
Q10
In the collection Stressed in the City, April Timbol Yap tells about her experience on the road while driving. Once she turned her atten
tion to a sign that said “Basura Mo, Alagaan Mo.” She took it literally, saying, “Of course the MMDA wasn’t very specific about how on
e exactly should go about doing this. It might help if they published manuals that contained instructions on the care of trash—like sho
uld it be watered or fed or taken for walks like the city?”
What does the comment reveal about the writer?
World
Popular Fiction
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to name some genres of the popular fiction.
What makes a piece of fiction popular?

What are the different genres of the popular fiction?
In this lesson, you will learn about popular fiction and three of its genres, namely, the science fiction, chick
literature, and ghost stories.
Popular fiction, also called genre fiction, refers to works of literature that are intended for the masses or large
audience. Its main purpose is to appeal to the general public. Below are a few features of popular fiction:
 Its story is plot-driven.

 Its characters are mostly stock figures.
 Its setting is either familiar or exotic.
 Its language is closer to everyday spoken language.
 It contains a lot of dialogues.
 Science fiction, also called sci-fi, at its core, deals with science and technology. It is often lumped with
the fantasy and horror genres under the broader term “speculative fiction.” As this term suggests, sci-fi
writers are often preoccupied by the question “what if.”
 Pocholo Goitia’s short story “An Introduction to the Luminescent” is an example of science fiction. It was
published in Philippine Speculative Fiction volume 1 in 2005. The story is set in the year 2105 in a mall
described as an “ultrasaur,” a massive structure that towers at two kilometers and stretches at half
kilometer. Magenta, one of the characters, is a member of La Luminosa, a group of biogenetically
engineered people that live in the mall. This mall is protected by “clone warriors” that hover in the air using
devices called gravity disruptors.
 Chick literature, or chick lit, is written by women who write for women. The usual target readers are
young and single women, especially in their 20s or 30s. The stories deal with real life, usually love and
relationships, and they are written in a light-hearted tone.
 Tara Sering’s Getting Better is an example of chick literature. The novella was published in the October
2002 issue of Cosmopolitan Philippines, a magazine that targets contemporary women and that mostly
features topics regarding relationships, beauty, fashion, and health. Told in the second person point of
view, the story tackles the life of a single woman named Karen—how she was as a girlfriend, how she
dealt with cheating, and how she moved on.
 Ghost stories are part of Filipino pop culture. They are a specific kind of stories in the horror fiction genre.
As the name suggests, a ghost story features a ghost as one of its characters. Like any story in the horror
fiction genre, a ghost story is meant to scare its reader.
 Joel P. Salud’s “The Haunting at Concha Cruz Drive” is an example of a ghost story. It was published
in True Philippine Ghost Stories Book 1 in 2002. It tells the story of three friends driving along a road
named Concha Cruz Drive which is known to be haunted by ghosts of a young couple who were victims of
drag racing accident.
Popular fiction refers to works of literature whose main purpose is to appeal to the general public. It includes the
science fiction genre, chick literature, and ghost stories.
What is the main purpose of writing popular fiction?
Q4
Which fiction genres are called “speculative fiction”?
Q5
An Introduction to the Luminiscent : Science fiction : : The Haunting at Concha Cruz Drive : _
Q6
An Introduction to the Luminescent : ___________ : : Getting Better : ___________
Q7
Is the following statement true?
Ghost stories are a specific kind of stories in the fantasy_ genre.
Type “true” if the statement is indeed true. Otherwise, type the correct word that replaces the underlined word to make the statement
true.
Q8
All statements support that “An Introduction to the Luminescent” by Pocholo Goitia is a work of science fiction except one. Which is it
?
Q10
Suppose a novel is about a young woman named Juliet who moves out of her parents’ house and moves into a new apartment owne
d by Romeo, with whom she feels an unexpected emotional connection. What genre of popular fiction is the novel likely?
World
New and Emerging Literary Forms in the 21st Century
Objectives
 identify new and emerging literary forms at the present time, and
 analyze some selected works written by present-day Filipino writers.
What new literary forms are emerging at present?

What are the distinct qualities of such literary forms?
Literary Genre
This refers to a type or category of literature. It has a specific form, content, and style. The four main genres of
literature are poetry, fiction, nonfiction, and drama. Under each of those genres are different genres. For example,
fiction includes speculative fiction, fantasy, and science fiction.
Literary Technique
This is a literary device deliberately used by a writer to convey a specific idea or meaning. An example is motif,
an object or idea that is repeated in a literary work. Another literary technique is the use of figurative language, an
example is personification, a figure of speech in which an inanimate object is given human qualities.
Introduction
Many works of literature produced at present are characterized by the writers’ use of unconventional techniques.
For instance, the illustrated novel, the graphic novel, and doodle-fiction present narratives using pictures or
images. The illustrated novel presents images that tell some parts of the story, while the other parts are told in
words. The graphic novel tells a story in comic book format. A work of doodle fiction contains doodles and hand-
written graphics.
Besides the illustrated novel, the graphic novel, and doodle-fiction, there are other literary forms or genres
emerging at present, such as the flash fiction, slipstream, metafiction, and magic realism.
Flash Fiction
Flash fiction is known for its extreme brevity. A typical work of flash fiction is only a few hundred words long.
Examples are the stories in Fast Food Fiction: Short Short Stories To Go (2003), edited by Noelle Q. de Jesus.
The collection features stories written by well-known Filipino writers like Gemino H. Abad, Gregorio Brillantes,
Jose Dalisay, Jr., Jessica Zafra, and Lakambini Sitoy.
Slipstream
Slipstream, or the “fiction of strangeness,” features elements of fantasy, science fiction, and serious fiction. For
many, works of slipstream are difficult to categorize because of their similarities with speculative fiction. The
collection Philippine Speculative Fiction, edited by Dean Francis Alfar and Nikki Alfar, contains stories that are
slipstream fiction.
Metafiction
Metafiction is about fiction itself. A work of metafiction can be a story about a writer who writes a story or a story
about another work of fiction. Some works of metafiction by Filipinos are the novel Ilustrado (2010) by Miguel
Syjuco and Hari Manawari (2011) by German Gervacio.
Magic Realism
Magic realism is a fiction genre in which magical elements are blended with reality. It is characteristic of the
stories by Latin American writers like Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Jorge Luis Borges, and Isabel Allende. The short
story “The Death of Fray Salvador Montano, Conquistador of Negros” by the Filipino writer Rosario Cruz Lucero
has elements of magic realism.
Q3
Brevity is the main characteristic of this genre of fiction. What genre is it?
Q4
Suppose a short story has elements of both magic and reality. What genre would you classify it?
Q8
In her 124-word story “What Is to Come,” Lilledeshan Bose tells the story of a woman whose husband, a congressman, has another
woman.
Which genre is the most appropriate classification for it?
Q9
Anne Lagamayo’s “Hopscotch” is a story about a group of children who are dressed in suits, and they breathe oxygen in them. One d
ay, the children saw an object coming out of the ground. One of the boys wanted to keep it, but the other did not. So, to settle the mat
ter, the boys played hospscotch, and whoever won would have the object to himself.
The story was published in Philippine Speculative Fiction IV (2009), and the editors of the collection say that Lagamayo’s short story i
s a work of slipstream.
Which of the statements tells the reason why Lagamayo’s story is a work of slipstream?
Q10
The story of Rosario Cruz Lucero’s “The Death of Fray Salvador Montano” begins with the plague of locusts. During this time, men an
d women came to Fray Montano to confess that they and their wives or husbands were making love like locusts for the past week.
Based on the information, what makes the story a work of magic realism?
World
Literary Works by Writers from Luzon
Objectives
 analyze selected literary works by writers from Luzon,

 identify the context of a given literary text,
 relate the context of a literary text to its meaning, and
 situate or place the literary text in the context of the region where the writer is from and of the nation.
As a reader, why do you have to make sense of the context of a literary work?
How is each literary work representative of the region where the writer is from and of the nation?
The literary works in this lesson are by writers from Luzon. The writers used the Filipino cultural elements below:
 Kundiman - This is a genre of Tagalog folk love songs that express an intense longing for a beloved, a
cause, or the motherland. They are usually played in minor chord, giving them a sad, melancholic sound.
 Kambubulag - This is the Kapapampangan term for a type of native moth. It comes from the root word
“bulag” meaning “blind,” and there are Filipino superstitions about becoming blind after encountering
moths.
 Mikael de Lara Co is a writer and musician. He was born in Makati City and graduated with a degree in
Environmental Science from Ateneo de Manila University. His English and Filipino poetry collections have
received awards including Palanca Awards and the Meritage Press Holiday Poetry Prize. He was also a
member of the Los Chupacabras band. At present, he works for the Presidential Communications
Development and Strategic Planning Office at the Malacañang.
 Example:
 Kundiman (An Excerpt)
By Mikael de Lara Co
 I ate alone. I grew old. I grew older.
I said hold in my own language
again and again, hawak, kapit,
tahan na, uwi na. Then strained
to hear all the engines in this city
droning in A minor. A knife
scraped against marble. A stick
rattled towards stillness. A minor.
All the lullabies ever hummed
coming together to vibrate
in the saddest of frequencies.
Your keys dangled by the sink.
Somewhere a chord is diminished
to static. Kundiman means
the opposite of if ever.
 (Reproduced by permission of Mikael de Lara Co)
 Explanation:
 Co used diction to create a specific tone for “Kundiman” (2014). He used Tagalog words and
phrases: kundiman; hawak (hold); kapit (hold on); tahan na (stop crying); and uwi na (go home now).
These words, which have an emotional ring to them like the words in a kundiman, create a mood
reminiscent of Filipino sentimentality. Also, the mention of the A minor chord evokes sad, longing feelings
that contribute to the sentimental tone of the poem.
 Catherine Batac Walder hails from Pampanga. She graduated from the University of the Philippines and
moved to Europe in 2005 to pursue a Master of Philosophy degree. Her works have been featured in local
publications including Inquirer’s Youngblood, Philippines Free Press, and Philippine Speculative Fiction 8.
Also an avid reader, her letters have been published in international magazines like Reader’s Digest and
Time. She is now a blogger and a full-time mother based in South East England.
 Example:
 The Kambubulag (An Excerpt)
By Catherine Batac Walder
 “I can’t believe that woman,” Delia said.
 “What woman?” Odessa asked.
 “Oh, one I met while smoking just now. Kept asking if we passed Kambubulag Road on the way here.
‘Never heard of the road,’ I told her. She said it’s four kilometers from the hotel and mentioned how we
should be careful because we might encounter the kambubulag. ‘Most residents here have resigned
themselves to the fact that they have more chances of dying on that road than any other non-resident. But
as anyone would say, if it’s your time, then it is,’ she said [. . .]”
 (Reproduced by permission of Catherine Batac Walder)
 Explanation:
 In “The Kambubulag” (2013) the writer used a Filipino cultural symbol of bad luck, the kambubulag, to
create the fictional urban legend of the Kambubulag Road. Old folk legends of the moth being a harbinger
of death is prevalent in Luzon. It signals the reader to regard the woman and her superstition as out of the
ordinary.
 Context is the background of the text which may have been influenced by the author’s life, language,
society, and culture.
 Diction is the choice of words that suit the writer’s intended purpose.
 Kundiman and kambubulag folk tales are part of Filipino folk literature. They can be a source of inspiration,
or they can be used as literary devices. Also, writing a poem or a story around those cultural symbols
reawakens interest in those literary forms.
 Q1
 What is referred to as the background of the text including biographical, linguistic, and sociocultural factors surrounding it?
 Q2
 What do the works of Mikael de Lara Co and Catherine Batac Walder have in common?
 Q3
 How did Mikael de Lara Co use diction in “Kundiman”?
 Q4
 In “The Kambubulag,” how does using the kambubulag symbol help in establishing the context of the story?
 Q5
 A kundiman is a song of longing. Which of the following lines from “Kundiman” hints at what the persona is longing for?
 Q6
 In the poem “Kundiman,” what is the significance of choosing the Tagalog term kundiman over an equivalent English term lik
e “serenade” or “ballad”?
World
Literary Works by Writers from Visayas and Mindanao
Objectives
 analyze selected literary works by writers from Visayas and Mindanao,

 identify the context of a given literary text,
 relate the context of a literary text to its meaning, and
 situate or place the literary text in the context of the region where the writer is from and of the nation.
As a reader, why do you have to make sense of the context of a literary work?
How is each literary work representative of the region where the writer is from and of the nation?
Merlie M. Alunan was born in Dingle, Iloilo and graduated with a Creative Writing degree from Siliman University.
She is Professor Emeritus at the University of the Philippines and promotes writing in the mother tongue. Her
poems are in English, Cebuano, and Waray. At present, she resides in Tacloban City.
Example:
Old Women in Our Village (An Excerpt)
By Merlie M. Alunan
Old women in my village say

the sea is always hungry, they say,
that’s why it comes without fail
to lick the edges of the barrier sand,
rolling through rafts of mangrove,
smashing its salt-steeped flood
on guardian cliffs, breaking itself
against rock faces, landlocks, hills,
reaching through to fields, forests,
grazelands, villages by the water,
country lanes, towns, cities where
people walk about in a dream,
deaf to the wind shushing
the sea’s sibilant sighing
somedaywecome
somedaywe come
someday . . . .
Only the old women hear

the ceaseless warning, watching
the grain drying in the sun,
or tending the boiling pot
or gutting a fish for the fire, fingers
bloody, clothes stained, scent of the ocean
rising from the mangled flesh into their lungs.
Nights, as they sit on their mats

rubbing their knees, waiting for ease
to come, and sleep, they hear the sea
endlessly muttering as in a dream
someday someday someday . . . .
Nudging the old men beside them,
their mates—empty-eyed seafarer,
each a survivor of storms, high waves,
and the sea’s vast loneliness,
now half-lost in their old age
amid the household clutter—
old women in my village
nod to themselves and say,
one uncharted day, the sea
will open its mouth and drink in
a child playing on the sand,
a fisherman with his nets,
great ships laden with cargo,
and still unsated, they say,
suck up cities towns villages—
one huge swallow to slake its hunger.
As to when or how it would happen,
who knows, the women say, but this much
is true—no plea for kindness can stop it—
nodding their heads this way and that,
tuning their ears to the endless mumbling . . . .
somedaywecomewecomewecome
somedaywecomewecomewecome
somedaysomedaysomeday
(Reproduced by permission of Prof. Merlie M. Alunan)
Explanation:
The imagery in “Old Women in Our Village” (2012) is heightened through the use of sound devices. For instance,
the cacophony in the first stanza implies strong feelings, like in the line “against rock faces, landlocks, hills.”
Then euphony in the next stanza evokes pleasant feelings as in the line “the sea’s sibilant sighing.” This suggests
an impending disaster, which is echoed in the rest of the poem.
Gutierrez Mangansakan II, an advocate of the Moro culture, is a filmmaker and writer from Pagalungan,
Maguindanao. In 2001, his film House under the Crescent Moon won the grand prize for video documentary from
the Cultural Center of the Philippines Prize for Independent Film and Video. Since then, he has made films that
focus on the plight of women and children. Also, he was the editor of Children of the Ever-Changing Moon (2007),
a collection of essays by young Moro writers. He became a fellow at the University of Iowa’s International Program
in 2008.
Mangansakan wrote a short story entitled “A Harvest of Sorrows” for the collection Peace Mindanao edited by
Jaime An Lim, a multi-awarded writer, it is also published by UST Publishing House in 2013. The story features a
narrator whose experience mirrors Mangansakan’s experience in relief work. For him, the issue and images of
refugees and displacement have always been a consistent element in both his films and writing.
Example:
A Harvest of Sorrows
by Gutierrez Mangansakan II
“A Harvest of Sorrows” begins with the narrator’s arrival at an evacuation center at 9 AM in a remote village in
Mindanao. He has come to give away several sacks of rice to the refugees in the center. The refugees have fled
their homes because fighting broke out in their villages. At the center he meets his friend Ayesha, the social
worker who is in charge of supervising relief operations. Ayesha tells him that a woman in the center gave birth to
a stillborn child, and the father does not know it yet. The father, together with the other men, has gone back to the
village to guard the rice fields, where crops are ready for harvest in ten days. Later, while the narrator and Ayesha
are having coffee, the latter announces that the father will be sent for and that the child will be buried after the
noon prayer.
Key Points
 Each writer in the lesson tackles a theme that situates his or her work in a context specific to the region.
 Merlie Alunan’s poem “Old Women in Our Village” depicts sea, an important part of life of the Visayans, as
an agent of destruction and death. On the other hand, Gutierrez Mangansakan II’s short story “A Harvest
of Sorrows” highlights the plight of refugees from war.
 Context – This is the background of the text which may have been influenced by the author’s life,
language, society, and culture.
 Imagery – This language awakens the reader’s sensory perceptions through words and phrases.
 Cacophony – This sound device refers to words or phrases with harsh sounds that create a disturbing
tone.
 Euphony – This sound device refers to words or phrases with melodic sounds that create a calming tone.
Tips
To know the context of any literary work lets you gain a deeper insight into its theme and meaning. Here are two
ways to get the context of a literary work:
 by doing a close reading of the text

 by looking at the history and culture of its place of origin
 Which is not part of the context of a literary work?
 Q2
 Complete the following analogy:
 Merlie Alunan : ____________ : : Gutierrez Mangansakan II : ____________
 Q3
 Complete the following analogy:
 Old Women in Our Village : poem : : A Harvest of Sorrows : __________
 Q4
 What is the dominant literary device in the lines below?
 Old women in my village say
the sea is always hungry, they say,
 Q5
 According to Gutierrez Mangansakan II, what element is consistent in both his films and writing?
 Q7
 What is the setting of “A Harvest of Sorrows” by Gutierrez Mangansakan II?
 Q9
 Why has the narrator of the short story “A Harvest of Sorrows” come to the evacuation center?
World
Electronic Literature
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to analyze two sample works of electronic literature by Filipinos.
What is electronic literature?

What are the different kinds of electronic literature?
Electronic literature refers to works commonly published and shared on the Web. Unlike traditional printed
literature, it has features that could only be presented through multimedia.
Kinds of Electronic Literature

 Hyperpoetry – This is a kind of graphic poetry, which combines words with images. It has no standard
lines or verses, but its words are arranged in a way that it creates meaning and visual effect.
 Hyperfiction – This contains hyperlinks. When readers click on a hyperlink, they go to another Web page
that contains the next part of a story.
 Photo poem – This uses real-life images or electronically generated images as representation of the
textual poem.
 Silent comics – These have no verbal dialogues. The dialogues are presented through symbols.
 Textula – This poem is intended to be shared through the SMS.
 Blog – This Web site is where a person writes about his or her personal opinions, activities, and
experiences.
 Vladimeir Gonzales
 Filipino fictionist and playwright Vladimeir Gonzales is known for his short stories in Filipino, as well as his
works of nonfiction compiled in his books Isang Napakalaking Kaastigan and A-side/B-side: ang mga Piso
sa Jukebox ng Buhay Mo.
 He has also published several hyperfiction works in his site, [%\underline{\text{vladgonzales.net}}%]. One
of them is entitled “Mga Tala ng Buhay ni Edward Elric, Dating State Alchemist, bilang State University
Instructor 1.” A work of fan fiction, the story features Edward Elric from the Japanese manga Fullmetal
Alchemist. Elric is the youngest alchemist working for the state of Amestris. In Gonzales’s story he has
come to the Philippines through a magical portal.
 Access to parts of the story is through the embedded hyperlinks on the human transmutation circle, which
is used by Elric in the original story to resurrect his mother. The hyperlinks are signs of metals in alchemy.
To begin reading the story, one clicks on the hyperlink of Tin and goes clockwise.

 The hyperlinks lead to these portions:

 Example:
 Ang Transmutation Circle (An Excerpt)
By Vladimeir Gonzales
 Hindi kaagad naalala ni Ed ang mga huling naganap bago siya mapunta sa Pilipinas. Lumipas pa ang
ilang araw bago magkaroon ng saysay ang mga naganap sa kanya. Oo, napunta na siya sa kabilang
panig ng lagusan upang muling mabuhay ang kapatid niyang si Al sa orihinal nitong katawan, at hindi ang
katawang bakal na matagal nitong pinaglagian bilang kapalit sa pagtatangkang resureksyon ng kanilang
ina. Wala nang alchemy sa mundong nakita niya
pagkagising. Si Edward Elric na dati’y isang alchemist ay si Edward Aquino na, isang estudyante ng Fine
Arts sa Unibersidad ng Pilipinas. Sa pamilyang Aquino, siya lang daw ang nalinya sa kursong may
kaugnayan sa Sining. Ito ang nakuha niya mula sa mga pira-pirasong sermon ng kanyang ina sa mundong
napuntahan niya. Ang kanyang ama, tulad ng sa mundong pinanggalingan niya ay nawawala. Kapag
tinatanong niya sa kanyang ina kung nasaan ang kanyang ama, lagi lang siyang minumura nito. Malayo
sa inang nakagisnan niya’t tinangkang buhayin.
 Naging katulad siya ng maraming mag-aaral. Mas nakaaangat nga lang ang hilig sa pag-aaral lalo na sa
kanyang mga major. Sa mga lumipas na taon ng kanyang buhay undergrad, nakilala siya sa kanilang
kolehiyo sa kanyang mga eskultura’t installation pieces. Pinakapopular ang ginawa niyang serye ng mga
installation art na gumagamit ng mga sipilyo, kubyertos at picture frames na nakapaloob sa iba’t ibang
baryasyon ng transmutation circles. Para sa mga kritiko, ang kanyang mga piyesa’y isang dekonstruksyon
ng kalikasan ng tao, isang paghihimay ng mga batayang pagpapahalaga, ng mabuti’t masama, ng liwanag
at dilim, sa isang dinamikong mundong hinahati ng noon, ng ngayon, ng bukas; para kay Ed, simpleng
pagpapaalala lang ito ng mundong kanyang iniwanan, ng mundo kung saan naroon si Al, ang kaibigang si
Winry, ang mga kaibigang state alchemist. Magkaiba man ang mga dahilan, ito ang nagbigay-daan kay Ed
upang makalabas siya ng Pilipinas at makabisita sa iba pang mga bansa sa kanyang bagong mundo.
Naging laman siya ng mga diyaryo’t magasin, ng telebisyon at radyo. Nabansagan siyang isa sa mga
pinakamahusay na artista ng kanyang panahon.
 Nagtapos siya ng kanyang undergraduate degree nang walang karangalan. Dahil sa paglibot ng kanyang
installation pieces sa iba’t ibang bansa’y nakatanggap siya ng forced drop sa ibang mga asignatura’t na-
underload din nang ilang beses. Bukod doon ay hindi pa niya maipasa-pasa ang kanyang Math 1 (naiwan
din yata sa kabilang dimensyon ang kanyang husay at interes dito). Pero kahit na walang anumang ‘laude’
na natanggap, nakapasok naman siya sa kanilang kolehiyo bilang isang university instructor. Isang taon
pa lang siyang nagtuturo’y nagkaasawa na siya’t nagkaroon ng anak. Co-teacher niya sa departamento’t
isang fresh grad din ang kanyang naging kabiyak. Sa puntong ito’y nakaramdam nang kaunting
kapanatagan si Ed, halos katumbas ng ligayang naramdaman niya noong nagawaran siya ng titulong
state alchemist.
 (Reproduced by permission of Vladimeir Gonzales)
Frank Rivera
Frank Rivera, a playwright, received recognition for a number of his plays like Ambon, Ulan, Baha: Sarsuwelang
Pinoy (2003) and Oyayi, Ang Zarzuela (2004). Also, he received awards for the Makata sa Cellphone (2005), a
collection of poetry which includes his popular textula. For his works of textula, he was dubbed as the “makata sa
cell phone.”
Example:
A Textula (2013)
by Frank G. Rivera
Bayang mahilig sa ganda

Inuuna ang postura
Walang laman ang bituka
Kundi gasgas na pag-asa.
Si MEGAN YOUNG nang manalo

Nagbunyi ang Pilipino
May dala sanang asenso
Magkakapag-asa tayo.
Nagkagyera sa Mindanao
Kaban ng bayan ninakaw
Sa Bagyo’y daming pumanaw
MISS WORLD, salamat sa araw.
(Reproduced by permission of Frank Rivera)
Explanation:
 This textula has three stanzas, each of which has four lines. Each line has eight syllables, which set a
regular rhythm.
 The poem uses what is called in Tagalog poetry as “tugmang karaniwan,” wherein the last word of each
line has the same sound. Also, the poem uses “tugmang patinig,” wherein the last words of the lines have
the same vowel sound, and “tugmang katinig,” wherein the last words of the lines have the same
consonant sound.
Electronic literature refers to works commonly published and shared on the Web. Such works have features that
could only be presented through multimedia. Examples of those works are hyperpoetry, hyperfiction, photo
poems, silent comics, textula, and blogs.
Q1
Complete this analogy:
traditional literature : paper : : electronic literature : ________
hints and explanations, to prevent students from cheating.

Q2
The textula is meant to be shared through this medium. What is this medium?
Q5
Match the lines from Frank Rivera’s textula.
Q6
Which metal signs in alchemy are hyperlinks that appear on Vlad Gonzales’s “hyper kuwento”?
Literary Genres, Traditions, and Forms from Different Cultures, 21st Century Literature from the
Philippines and the World
English Literature
Objectives
 name some well-known English writers and their works as well as the body of English literature to which
they belong; and
 analyze a few selected literary works representative of English literature.
Who are some of the important writers in the English literature?

Why are they important?
What literary forms are prominent in English literature?
 Epic poem - This is a long narrative poem usually about a hero and his deeds. A well-known example
is Beowulf.
 Sonnet - This poem has fourteen lines that follow a rhyme scheme. A well-known example is Sonnet 18 of
William Shakespeare. It starts with the famous line, “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”
 Drama - This piece of writing tells a story through dialogue, and it is performed on stage. A well-known
example is The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde.
 Novel - This is a long prose narrative usually about fictional characters and events, which are told in a
particular sequence.
 nglish Literature
 English literature is one of the richest, most developed, and most important bodies of literature in the
world. It encompasses both written and spoken works by writers from the United Kingdom.
 Old English Literature (600 - 1100)
 Old English, the earliest form of the English language, was spoken by the Anglo-Saxons, a Germanic tribe
living in Britain during the fifth century. One significant work written in Old English is Beowulf, the longest
epic poem in Old English. It is known for its use of kennings, which are phrases or compound words used
to name persons, places, and things indirectly.
 Middle English Literature (1100 - 1500)
 Middle English is a blend Old English and Norman French, the French dialect spoken by the Normans
(people of Normandy). The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of English literature, is a fine
example of literature written in Middle English.
 Elizabethan Literature (1558 - 1603)
 The Elizabethan period is the golden age of English literature. Also, it is the golden age of drama. Known
as the “Bard of Avon,” William Shakespeare wrote his plays during the period. His best plays
include Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth, Othello, and The Merchant of Venice. Also, he wrote 154 sonnets,
many of which are the best loved and the most widely-read poems in the English literature.
 The Romantic Period (1800 - 1837)
 This period is the golden age of lyric poetry. Poetry became the expression of the poet’s personal feelings
and emotions. A few notable works of poetry of the period are Songs of Innocence and of Experience by
William Blake, Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Eve of St. Agnes,
and Other Poems by John Keats, “Don Juan” by Lord Byron, and “Ode to the West Wind” by Percy Bysshe
Shelley.
 The Victorian Period (1837 - 1900)
 The period saw the rise of the novel. Charles Dickens, considered to be the greatest English novelist of
the 19th century, wrote Great Expectations. This novel was published as a serial in a weekly periodical
from December 1860 to August 1861.
 Alfred Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning each wrote fine poetry during the period. Tennyson’s In
Memoriam A.H.H. is a requiem for his friend Arthur Henry Hallam. It is widely considered to be one of the
great poems of the 19th century. Browning, who is known for his dramatic monologues, wrote the famous
poem “My Last Duchess.” In a dramatic monologue, the poet addresses an audience through an assumed
voice.
 Oscar Wilde is the best dramatist of the period. He wrote the masterpiece The Importance of Being
Earnest.
 Twentieth Century (1900 - 2000)
 William Butler Yeats and Thomas Stearns Eliot wrote Modernist poems during the period. Yeats wrote The
Tower, The Winding Stair, and New Poems, all of which are known to have potent images. Eliot’s
masterpieces are “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” and “The Waste Land.”
 Virginia Woolf in her story Mrs. Dalloway and James Joyce in his work Ulysses use stream of
consciousness, a literary technique in which the flow of thoughts of a character is described in words.
 English literature is a very large body of diverse literature that encompasses works by writers from the
United Kingdom.
American Literature
Objectives
 name some well-known American writers of the 19th and 20th centuries and their works; and
 analyze a few selected literary works representative of American Literature.
Who are some of the important American writers during the 19th and 20th centuries?
Why are they important?
What literary forms are prominent in American literature?
American Literature
American literature refers to all works of literature in English produced in the United States.
The 19th Century

 William Cullen Bryant (1794 - 1878) became famous for “Thanatopsis” (1817). This poem marked a new
beginning for American poetry.
 Washington Irving (1783 - 1859) was known for “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” the
first American short stories. They were part of his work The Sketch Book, the first American work to
become successful internationally.
 Edgar Allan Poe (1809 - 1849) became famous for his macabre stories like “The Fall of the House of
Usher” (1839) and “The Cask of Amontillado” (1846). Also, he wrote “The Murders in the Rue Morgue”
(1841), the first detective story, and the poem “Raven” (1845), with which he achieved instant fame.
 Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804 - 1864) became known for his symbolical tales like “The Hollow of the Three
Hills” (1830) and “Young Goodman Brown” (1835). Also, he wrote the gothic romance The Scarlet
Letter (1850).
 Walt Whitman (1819 - 1892) became well-known for Leaves of Grass, first published in 1855. In this poetry
collection, Whitman showed the experiences of the common man.
 Emily Dickinson (1830 - 1886) wrote odd poems. She mostly used the imperfect rhyme and avoided
regular rhythms. A collection of her poems, Poems by Emily Dickinson, came out in 1890.
The 20th Century

 Robert Frost (1874 - 1963) wrote poems with traditional stanzas and a blank verse, a verse in iambic
pentameter with no rhyme. His poems portray ordinary people in everyday situations like “Mending Wall,”
"The Road Not Taken," and “After Apple-Picking,” both of which were published in 1914.
 E. E. cummings (1894 - 1962) was known for his unconventional punctuation and phrasing. His poems
were compiled in Complete Poems (1968).
 Ezra Pound (1885 - 1972) was a leader of the Imagists, who emphasized the use of direct and sparse
language and precise images in writing poetry. Two of his works are Ripostes (1912) and Lustra (1916).
 Sherwood Anderson (1876 - 1941) wrote prose using everyday speech. His best works appeared
in Winesburg, Ohio (1919) and Death in the Woods (1933).
 Ernest Hemingway (1899 - 1961) was known for his succinct writing, which was widely imitated. His writing
was very straightforward and objective - not verbose and sentimental. Two of his finest stories are “The
Killers” (1927) and “The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber” (1936).
 Allen Ginsberg (1926 - 1997) was known for his work “Howl” (1956), a poem with incantatory rhythms and
raw emotion. He was one of the Beat poets, who aimed to bring poetry back to the streets.
 Anne Sexton (1928 - 1974) became known for her confessional poetry, a kind of poetry that deals with the
private experiences of the speaker. Her work Live or Die (1966) won a Pulitzer Prize.
American literature is a rich body of literature. It refers to all works of literature in English published in the United
States, which has produced many great writers through the centuries.
European Literature
Objectives
 name some writers and their literary works under European Literature, and
 analyze a few selected literary works representative of the literature it belongs.
What are some literary pieces included in European Literature?

Who are some of the major writers in each literature?
What important works did they produce?
European Literature, also called Western Literature, refers to literature in the Indo-European languages including
Latin, Greek, the Romance languages, and Russian. It is considered as the largest body of literature in the world.
Latin Literature
 Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 BCE–43 BCE) was the greatest Roman orator. The first part of the Golden
Age of Latin Literature (70 BC–AD 18) is named after him, the Ciceronian period (70–43 BC). Using Latin
as a literary medium, he was able to express abstract and complicated thoughts clearly in his speeches.
One of his well-known speeches is Pro Cluentio.
 Virgil (70 BCE–19 BCE), the greatest Roman poet, was known for Aeneid, an epic poem. He wrote it
during the Augustan Age (43 BC–AD 18), the second part of the Golden Age.
Greek Literature
 Homer is known for the The Iliad and the The Odyssey. These epics are about the heroic achievements
of Achilles and Odysseus, respectively.
 Sophocles (496 BC–406 BC) was a tragic playwright. He was known for Oedipus the King, which marks
the highest level of achievement of Greek drama.
Italian Literature
 Francesco Petrarca, or Petrarch (1304–1374) perfected the Italian sonnet, a major influence on European
poetry. Written in the vernacular, his sonnets were published in the Canzoniere.
 Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375) is known for Decameron, a classic Italian masterpiece. The stories
were written in the vernacular.
Spanish Literature
 Two well-known Spanish writers of Siglo De Oro (1500–1681) are Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616) and
Lope de Vega (1562–1635).
 Miguel de Cervantes was known for his novel Don Quixote, one of the most widely read works of
Western Literature. Its titular character’s name is the origin of the word “quixotic,” meaning hopeful or
romantic in a way that is not practical.
 Lope de Vega, an outstanding dramatist, wrote as many as 1800 plays during his lifetime, including cloak
and sword drama, which are plays of upper middle class manners and intrigue.
French Literature
 Gustave Flaubert (1821–1880), a novelist, was a major influence on the realist school. His
masterpiece, Madame Bovary (1857), marked the beginning of a new age of realism.
 Guy de Maupassant (1850–1893) is considered as the greatest French short story writer. A Naturalist, he
wrote objective stories which present a real “slice of life.”
Russian Literature
 Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) is known for his novels War and Peace (1865–1869) and Anna
Karenina (1875–1877). A master of realistic fiction, he is considered as one of the world’s greatest
novelists.
 Anton Chekhov (1860–1904) is a master of the modern short story and a Russian playwright. His works
such as, "The Bet" and "The Misfortune" reveal his clinical approach to ordinary life.
European Literature refers to literatures in the Indo-European languages. It is considered as the largest body of
literature in the world.
What is the other name of “European Literature”?
Q2
Write the umbrella term for the languages comprising the European Literature.

Q3
Sophocles is a tragic playwright. What kind of plays did he write?
Q7
Complete the following analogy.
Odysseus : The Odyssey : : _ : The Iliad
Q9
Supposed Aksionov committed suicide at the end. What would likely be his reason for ending his own life?
Multiple Choice
Latin American Literature
Objectives
 name some well-known Latin American writers of the 20th century and their works, and
 analyze two selected literary works representative of the period.
What is Latin American literature?

Who are some well-known Latin American writers of the 20th Century and what did they write?
Latin American Literature

Latin American Literature refers to all works of literature in Latin American countries like Chile, Argentina,
Mexico, Cuba, Guatemala, Colombia, and Peru.
The Vanguardia
 The Vanguardia (avant-garde in English) took place in Latin America between approximately 1916 and
1935. It collectively referred to different literary movements. Four of those were the following:
o Creacionismo, founded by Vicente Huidobro (1893–1948), a Chilean poet, in 1916
o Ultraismo, introduced to South America by Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986), an Argentine writer,
in 1921
o Estridentismo, founded in Mexico City by Manuel Maples Arce (1898–1981), a Mexican writer, in
1921
o Surrealism, which is said to have started in Argentina when the Argentinian poet Aldo
Pellegrini (1903–1973) launched the first Surrealist magazine in 1928
 Surrealism, an art form that combines unrelated images or events in a very strange and dreamlike way,
became a major influence in Latin American Literature throughout the 20th century.
 Pablo Neruda (1904–1973), a Chilean poet, wrote Residence on Earth (1933), a collection of poetry
inspired by surrealism.
 Octavio Paz (1914–1998), a Mexican poet, wrote poems with surrealist imagery. His major works were
published in Freedom Under Parole (1960).
 Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986) was known for his fantastic stories, published later as a collection
entitled Ficciones (1944).
 Alejo Carpentier (1904–1980), a Cuban writer, wrote The Kingdom of This World (1949), a novel of the
magic realism genre, in which elements of fantasy or myth are included matter-of-factly in seemingly
realistic fiction.
 Miguel Angel Asturias (1899–1974), a Guatemalan writer, wrote the novel The President (1946). This
novel along with Carpentier’s novel introduced magic realism.
The Boom Novels
These were essentially modernist novels, which appeared in the second half of the 20th century. They had
features that were different or absent from the works of the regionalist writers of the past. (Regionalist writers were
those that used local color, which refers to interesting information about a particular place or its people.)
The boom novels were the following:
 The Death of Artemio Cruz (1962) by Carlos Fuentes (1928–2012), a Mexican writer
 Hopscotch (1963) by Julio Cortazar (1914–1984), an Argentine fictionist
 The Time of the Hero (1963) by Mario Vargas Llosa, a Peruvian writer
 One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967) by Gabriel Garcia Marquez (1927–2014), a Colombian fictionist
 “Post-Boom” Writers
 These writers included a host of women who published works in the last twenty years of the 20th century.
Three of them were Isabel Allende, a Chilean writer who wrote The House of Spirits (1982); Diamela
Eltit, a Chilean writer who wrote E. Luminata (1983); and Luisa Valenzuela, an Argentine writer who
wrote Black Novel with Argentines (1990).
Latin American Literature refers to all works of literature in Latin American countries. The 20th century saw
some of its best writers.
Literary works produced in the given countries are part of Latin American Literature except for one. Which country is it?
Q2
This art form combines unrelated images or events in a very strange and dreamlike way. What is this art form?
Q3
In this genre, elements of fantasy or myth are included in seemingly realistic fiction in a matter-of-fact manner. What genre is this?
Q6
All writers were known for their works of fiction except for one. Which one did not write fiction?
Q7
Gabriel Garcia Marquez is to Colombia as Isabelle Allende is to _.
Q8
What literary technique is used to introduce the village of Macondo in the narrative?
Asian Literature
Objectives
 name some major works and their writers in three major national literatures of Asian literature, namely,
Chinese, Japanese, and Indian, and
 analyze a few selected literary works representative of the literature it belongs.
What is Asian literature?

What are some of the major works in Chinese, Japanese, and Indian literatures and who wrote them?
Asian Literature
 Asian literature refers to the body of literature produced in the countries in Asia.
Chinese Literature
 This body of works is in Chinese. It has more than 50 000 published works in a wide range of topics.
 Du Fu (712–770) is considered as China’s greatest poet. He was known for his works of lüshi. A lüshi has
eight lines, each of which has five or seven syllables following a strict tonal pattern. It became widely
popular during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), the golden age of art and literature in Chinese history.
 Li Bai (701–762), also called Li Po, rivaled Du Fu for the title of China’s greatest poet. Unlike Du Fu, he
wrote less formal verse forms. A famous drinker, he frequently celebrated drinking in his poetry.
Japanese Literature
 This body of works is mostly in Japanese, except the early writings which were written in Chinese.
 Kakinomoto Hitomaro, Japan’s first literary figure, was known for his works of tanka and chōka. The
tanka, the basic form of Japanese poetry, has five lines in five-seven-five-seven-seven syllable pattern. On
the other hand, the chōka has alternating lines of five and seven syllables and ends with an extra line of
seven syllables. Having no definite length, it can have from seven lines to 150. Hitomaro’s works were
included in Man’yōshū, the oldest anthology of Japanese poetry which was produced during the Nara
Period (710–784).
 Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694) was regarded as the supreme haiku poet. Emerged from the early Tokugawa
period (1603–1770), the haiku is composed of three lines with five-seven-five syllable pattern. It originated
from the hokku, the first three lines of a renga, a poem usually with a hundred linked verses. Bashō’s
verses appear with his travel accounts like The Narrow Road to the Deep North (1694).
Indian Literature
 This body of works is produced in India in a variety of vernacular languages like Sanskrit, Hindi, Punjabi,
Tamil, and Urdu.

 The Mahabharata is an Indian epic written in Sanskrit. It is the longest poem in history with about 100 000
couplets. It is traditionally ascribed to an Indian sage named Vyasa. The Hindus regard the epic as both a
text about dharma (the Hindu moral law) and a history. Bhagavadgītā, the most celebrated of its episodes,
gives spiritual guidance.
 The Ramayana is another Indian epic in Sanskrit. The sage Valmiki was traditionally regarded as its
author. It is shorter than Mahabharata, with some 24 000 couplets.
 The Panchatantra is a collection of Indian animal fables. Originally written in Sanskrit, it is a mixture of
prose and verse. The stories are attributed to Vishnusharman, a learned Brahmin.
Asian literature refers to the body of literature produced in the countries in Asia, which includes the Chinese,
Japanese, and Indian literatures.
Q1
Asian literature includes works produced in the following languages except one. Which one is it?
Q2
Which of the following Asian languages are vernacular languages of India?
Q3
This was the golden age of art and literature in Chinese history.
Q6
Mahabharata : Vyasa : : Ramayana : _
Q7
Du Fu : _______ : : Hitomaro : ________
Q10
Which statement of moral fits the fable?
African Literature
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to name some well-known African writers in English and their works.
What is African literature?

Who are some of the African writers in English?
What did they write about?
African Literature
The literary works of African writers in English are part of the African literature. This body of works refers to the
ones not only produced in Afro-Asiatic and African languages, but also to those works by Africans in English,
French, and other European languages.
A few of the common themes in the works of African writers are the oppression of African people by the
colonizers, the European influences on the native African culture, racial discrimination, and pride in African past
and resilience.
Chinua Achebe (1930–2013) – This Nigerian writer was known for his novel Things Fall Apart (1958), considered
as the best known African novel of the 20th century. It deals with emergent Africa, where native communities, like
Achebe’s Igbo community, came in contact with white missionaries and its colonizers. The novel is the first in
sometimes called The African Trilogy. It was followed by No Longer at Ease, published in 1960, and then Arrow of
God in 1964.
Wole Soyinka – This Nigerian writer received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1986, becoming the first black
African to receive such award. As a playwright, he wrote the satire A Dance of the Forests (1963), his first
important play that depicts the traditions of his people, the Yoruba. It was staged in 1960 during the Nigerian
independence celebrations. Also, he wrote fiction and poetry.
Example
“The Telephone Conversation” by Wole Soyinka
Wole Soyinka’s poem “The Telephone Conversation” first appeared in his collection Modern Poetry from Africa
(1963). As the title suggests, the poem is about a telephone conversation between an African man and a white
woman. Considering to rent the apartment owned by the white woman, the African man confesses, saying “I hate
a wasted journey—I am African.” Then as the conversation goes, the woman shows her true colors. She asks,
“HOW DARK?” then follows it up with another question, “ARE YOU LIGHT/ OR VERY DARK.” Then asks again,
“ARE YOU DARK? OR VERY LIGHT?” Then the African man clarifies the question, saying “You mean—like plain
or milk chocolate?” Then he settles on this response “West African sepia... Down in my passport.” Perhaps, out of
ignorance, the woman says that she does not know the color. To simplify, the African man says, “Like brunette.”
Confirming what she already thinks about the African man, the woman says “THAT’S DARK, ISN’T IT?” Towards
the end of the poetry, the African man tries to describe the colors of the different parts of his body to the woman.
The poem ends with an invitation from the African man for the white woman, saying “Madam . . . wouldn’t you
rather/ see for yourself?”
Nadine Gordimer (1923–2014) – This South African writer received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991. She
was known for her works that dealt with the effects of apartheid on her country. Apartheid was a system in which
people of color had less political and economic rights than that of the white people, so the former was forced to
live separately from the latter. An ardent opponent of such system, she wrote novels that focused on the
oppression of nonwhite characters like A World of Strangers (1958), The Late Bourgeois World (1966), Burger’s
Daughter (1979), and July’s People (1981), all of which were banned in her country.
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie – This Nigerian writer is known for her widely-acclaimed novels Purple
Hibiscus (2003), Half of a Yellow Sun (2006), and Americanah (2013), all of which won awards. The story
of Purple Hibiscus is told through a fifteen-year-old girl named Kambili as she together with her family endured
domestic violence in the hands of her father. The story of Half of a Yellow Sun took place during the Nigerian Civil
War or Biafran War (1967–1970). Lastly, Americanah tells the story of a young Nigerian woman that came to the
US to study and to stay for work.
Example:
“A Private Experience” by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
“A Private Experience” is one of the short stories in the author’s collection The Thing Around Your Neck published
in 2009. It tells the story of two women, one named Chika and the other unnamed. Chika is an Igbo, one of the
largest ethnic groups of Africa, and an outward Christian (she wears a rosary that her mother gave her, but she
does not pray or believe in God). On the other hand, the unnamed woman is a Hausa, another large African ethnic
group, and a devout Muslim. They cross paths during a riot at a market in the city of Kano, northern Nigeria. Both
confused and scared, they ran away from the market and hid in a small, abandoned store. Stuck together, the two
women start to talk and eventually learn more things about each other. Chika tells the woman that her sister Nnedi
was with her at the market and that they are both university students. She learns that the woman sells onions for a
living. The two women become closer when the woman shows Chika her breasts with cracked nipples. Chika, who
is studying medicine, examines the breasts and learns that the woman has just had her fifth child. She then
advises the woman to rub some lotion on her nipples after feeding her baby and to put the nipple and the areola
into the baby’s mouth while it feeds. The woman’s eldest daughter, Halima, was at the bus stop selling groundnuts
when the confusion began. At the mention of her daughter’s name, the woman cries. As she wipes her tears
away, she says, “Allah keep your sister and Halima in safe place.” After more than three hours, Chika ventures out
into the street to go home, anxious to see her sister and her auntie. She leaves the woman and promises to come
back for her and her daughter. However, when she sees and smells a recently burned body in the street, she gets
terrified and runs back to the small store, accidentally cutting her leg. The woman at the store cleans the wound
and wraps it with her scarf. Chika stays there with the woman until morning when it is safe to leave the store.
Explanation:
In different parts of the narrative, the narrator gives a brief glimpse of what happens in the future. For instance,
after Chika shuts the windows of the small store where she and the unnamed woman are hiding, the narrator tells
the reader what Chika will find out eventually—that Chika will see the burned cars and will learn that the riot
started when some Muslims chopped off an Igbo man’s head for driving over a Koran with his car. Another
instance is that after Chika mentions her sister’s name to the woman, the narrator tells the reader what Chika will
later do—that Chika will go to hospital mortuaries to look for her sister, but she will never find her.
Literary works by African writers in English like Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, Chimamanda Adichie, and Nadine
Gordimer are part of African literature, a body of works produced in Afro-Asiatic and African languages as well
as those made by Africans in English, French, and other European languages.
Basic Textual and Contextual Reading Approaches, 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and
the World
Figures of Speech
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the different figures of speech.
What are figures of speech?

Why do literary writers use figures of speech?
Figures of Speech
Figures of speech, also referred to as figurative language, are words or phrases that express meanings in a
nonliteral way. These expressions are often used for comparison and for conveying emotion.
Literary writers use figures of speech to enhance the artistic quality of their works. Figures of speech bring
vividness and liveliness to the work, and they also emphasize the message that the writer wants to convey. The
use of these expressions also allows readers to feel a connection with the literary work by sparking their
imagination and arousing their emotions.
There are numerous figures of speech, and these can be classified into different categories. Among these
categories are the following:
 Figures of relationship
 Figures of emphasis
 Figures of sound
Figures of Relationship
Figures of relationship include simile, metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche.
 Simile
A simile compares two unlike things with a common quality. The comparison is done using words such
as like or as.
Example:
O my Luve's like a red, red rose,
That's newly sprung in June;
–from "A Red, Red Rose" by Robert Burns
Explanation:
The persona in the poem compares his love to a red rose that blooms in springtime.
 Metaphor
A metaphor is a comparison that is done by stating that one thing is another in order to suggest their
similarity or shared qualities.
Example:
Trees are poems the earth writes upon the sky.
–Khalil Gibran
Explanation:
In the given quote, trees are likened to poems, and the comparison does not use words such as like or as.
 Metonymy
Metonymy refers to using a thing or idea that is not referred to by its own name but by a different one, a
name of something with which it is closely associated.
Example:
I’m mighty glad Georgia waited till after Christmas before it seceded or it would have ruined the Christmas
parties.
–from Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell
Explanation:
In the given line, Georgia is not used to refer to the place or state but rather the people making up the
state: its citizens and government officials.
 Synecdoche
A synecdoche uses a part of something to represent the whole or the whole to represent a part.
Example:
His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious faces about
her.
–from "The Lady, or the Tiger?" by Frank Stockton
Explanation:
The word faces is used to refer to people.
Figures of Emphasis
Among the common figures of emphasis are hyperbole, oxymoron, and paradox.
 Hyperbole
Hyperbole uses intentional exaggeration to achieve emphasis or produce a comic effect.
Example:
I had to wait in the station for ten days–an eternity.
–from Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad
Explanation:
The use of the word eternity to describe a wait of ten days is an exaggeration. It simply emphasizes that
the persona feels that he waited for so long.
 Oxymoron
An oxymoron is a word or a combination of words with contradictory meanings, as
in bittersweet and open secret.
Example:
Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate!
O anything, of nothing first create!
–from Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
Explanation:
The phrase loving hate is an oxymoron, as it makes use of two contradictory terms.
 Paradox
A paradox is a statement that appears to hold contradictory ideas but may actually be true.
Example:
The Child is father of the Man.
–from "My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold" by William Wordsworth
Explanation:
The given statement may appear silly at first, but what it conveys is that the experiences of the child shape
who he/she becomes and how he/she acts as an adult.
Figures of Sound
Among the figures of sound are alliteration and onomatopoeia.
 Alliteration
Alliteration refers to the use of closely spaced words that have the same initial sounds.
Example:
Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before
–from "The Raven" by Edgar Allan Poe
Explanation:
The neighboring words doubting, dreaming, dreams, dared, and dream begin with the d sound, giving the
line a musical quality.
 Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is the use of words that imitate the sound of what they are referring to.
Example:
ARIEL:
Hark, hark!
Bow-wow.
The watch-dogs bark!
Bow-wow.
Hark, hark! I hear
The strain of strutting chanticleers
Cry, ‘cock-a-diddle-dow!’
–from The Tempest by William Shakespeare
Explanation:
The words bow-wow and cock-a-diddle-dow are examples of onomatopoeia, as they are animal sounds.
 Figures of speech, also referred to as figurative language, are words or phrases that express meanings
in a nonliteral way.
 Figures of relationship include simile, metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche.
 Some figures of emphasis are hyperbole, oxymoron, and paradox.
 Among the figures of sound are alliteration and onomatopoeia.
 Q2
 Onomatopoeia and alliteration are classified as _.
 Q4
 Which of the following figures of speech is used in the passage below?
 All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances,
 –from As You Like It by William Shakespeare
 Q6
 Which of the following best completes the given analogy?
 metonymy : relationship :: _ : _
 Q8
 Carrie likes figures of speech, and her friends know she has a tendency to use oxymora in casual conversations.
 Which of the following is she likely to say when she finds that a friend of hers is unusually quiet?
 Multiple Choice
 We hide question answers, hints and explanations, to prevent students from cheating.
 Report errors in this content
 Q9
 Among the following sentences, which does not use a figure of relationship?
 Q10
 Olivia is writing a poem, and she wants it to have auditory imagery so that the reader could imagine hearing every twang an
d noise referred to in the poem.
 Which of the following should Olivia use in her poem?
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Literary Techniques
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify different literary techniques.
What are literary techniques?

Why do writers use literary techniques?
Literary Techniques
 Literary techniques or devices refer to specific methods writers employ in their works to convey
messages. Readers, on the other hand, look for several literary techniques when examining or analyzing a
text or simply evaluating a text’s artistic value.
 Keep in mind that literary techniques or devices are different from literary elements. Literary elements are
essential to a narrative as writers make use of these components to serve as the structure of and to
develop a story. These elements refer to the plot, setting, characters, point of view, and theme, among
others.
 Anaphora
 Anaphora, sometimes called epanaphora, refers to the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of
a sentence to create an artistic or heightened effect. It adds rhythm to a particular line or paragraph,
making it easier to memorize or remember. Anaphora is also used for emphasis or to stir emotions among
the audience.
 Example:
 Hamlet (An Excerpt)
By William Shakespeare
 'Tis a fault to heaven,
A fault against the dead, a fault to nature
To reason most absurd. . . .
 (Hamlet by Shakespeare, Act 1 Scene 2)
 Explanation:
 The line above was delivered by Claudius while talking to Hamlet. Claudius was trying to convince his
nephew to end his mourning for his father, emphasizing that it is “a fault” against heaven, the dead, and
nature to do so since death is inevitable.
 Antihero
 An antihero is a fictional character who does not possess the traits, such as pride and valor, expected of a
hero. Often, antiheroes are portrayed as foolish and usually find themselves in mischief.
 Example:
 Don Quixote (An Excerpt)
By Miguel Cervantes
 One of those, however, that stood near him, fancying he was mocking them, lifted up a long staff he had in
his hand and smote him such a blow with it that Sancho dropped helpless to the ground. Don Quixote,
seeing him so roughly handled, attacked the man who had struck him lance in hand, but so many thrust
themselves between them that he could not avenge him. Far from it, finding a shower of stones rained
upon him, and crossbows and muskets unnumbered levelled at him, he wheeled Rocinante round and, as
fast as his best gallop could take him, fled from the midst of them, commending himself to God with all his
heart to deliver him out of this peril, in dread every step of some ball coming in at his back and coming out
at his breast, and every minute drawing his breath to see whether it had gone from him.
 Explanation:
 The passage above shows that Don Quixote, despite considering himself as a knight-errant, is a coward.
Instead of helping his squire Sancho from the mob, he fled to save himself.
 Cliff-hanger
 Cliff-hanger is a literary technique used by the author to arouse curiosity among readers by ending a
chapter or story abruptly. Most of the time, the characters are confronted with a difficult or an unsettling
situation. Instead of providing a resolution, the author would end it. Furthermore, this technique is often
found in serialized works. Writers utilize cliff-hangers in their works to keep the readers focused and
interested as to what will happen next.
 Example:
 Divergent (An Excerpt)
By Veronica Roth
 I turn the gun in my hands and press it into Tobias’s palm.
 He pushes the barrel into my forehead. My tears have stopped and the air feels cold as it touches my
cheeks. I reach out and rest my hand on his chest so I can feel his heartbeat. At least his heartbeat is still
him.
 The bullet clicks into the chamber. Maybe it will be as easy to let him shoot me as it was in the fear
landscape, as it is in my dreams. Maybe it will be just a bang, and the lights will lift, and I will find myself in
another world. I stand still and wait.
 (Roth, Veronica. Divergent. New York: Katherine Tegen Books, 2011)
 Explanation:
 The main character Tris Prior was in an intense situation as Tobias, under a simulation, was about to
shoot her. However, the author did not divulge whether Tobias did it or not until the next chapter.
 Juxtaposition
 Juxtaposition is a technique authors use in their works to compare two different things, or two contrasting
ideas to be able to emphasize their differences, such as good and evil, life and death, truth and lies,
among others. This technique is also used to develop a character, resolve a conflict, or clarify various
concepts.
 Example:
 The Cask of Amontillado (An Excerpt)
By Edgar Allan Poe
 It was about dusk, one evening during the supreme madness of the carnival season, that I [Montresor]
encountered my friend [Fortunato]. He accosted me with excessive warmth, for he had been drinking
much. The man wore motley. He had on a tightfitting parti-striped dress, and his head was surmounted by
the conical cap and bells. I was so pleased to see him, that I thought I should never have done wringing
his hand. . . .
 At the most remote end of the crypt there appeared another less spacious. Its walls had been lined with
human remains, piled to the vault overhead, in the fashion of the great catacombs of Paris. Three sides of
this interior crypt were still ornamented in this manner. From the fourth the bones had been thrown down,
and lay promiscuously upon the earth, forming at one point a mound of some size. Within the wall thus
exposed by the displacing of the bones, we perceived a still interior recess, in depth about four feet, in
width three, in height six or seven. . . .
 Explanation:
 Edgar Allan Poe used juxtaposition in “The Cask of Amontillado.” In the first paragraph, the carnival
season, including Fortunato’s motley, symbolizes life and merrymaking. Meanwhile, the catacombs and
bones symbolize what would become of Fortunato.
 Foreshadowing
 Foreshadowing refers to lines or dialogues in a story which give the reader an idea of what is about to
happen without spoiling or explicitly stating the plot’s entirety. When writers use this technique, especially
in mystery or thriller novels, they provide “red herrings” (misleading or false clues) to divert the readers’
expectations.
 Example:
 The Iliad (An Excerpt)
By Homer
 Then Thetis spake unto him, shedding tears the while: “Doomed then to a speedy death, my child, shalt
thou be, that thou spakest thus; for straightway after Hector is thine own death ready at hand."
 Explanation:
 Achilles was devastated upon learning about Patroclus’ death in the hands of Hector. He wished to
avenge his fallen comrade, but his mother, Thetis, warned him of his impending death should he kill
Hector in battle.
 Catharsis
 Catharsis is derived from the Greek word katharsis, which means “purification” or “purgation.” It refers to
the emotional release or cleansing of the characters, or audience or readers, from strong emotions usually
brought by learning of the truth or when confronted with difficult situations. This technique is commonly
found in tragedies, such as Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and Sophocles’ Oedipus the King.
 Example:
 Oedipus the King (An Excerpt)
By Sophocles
 Second Messenger:
 (. . . .) Guided his footsteps; with a terrible shriek,
As though one beckoned him, he crashed against
The folding doors, and from their staples forced
The wrenched bolts and hurled himself within.
Then we beheld the woman hanging there,
A running noose entwined about her neck.

But when he saw her, with a maddened roar
He loosed the cord; and when her wretched corpse
Lay stretched on earth, what followed—O 'twas dread!
He tore the golden brooches that upheld
Her queenly robes, upraised them high and smote
Full on his eye-balls, uttering words like these:
"No more shall ye behold such sights of woe,
Deeds I have suffered and myself have wrought;
Henceforward quenched in darkness shall ye see
Those ye should ne'er have seen; now blind to those
Whom, when I saw, I vainly yearned to know."
 Explanation:
 The excerpt above pertains to the scene where it was revealed that Oedipus married his mother Jocasta
and killed his father Laius. Upon learning of the truth, Jocasta committed suicide while Oedipus thrust his
mother’s golden brooches into his eyes, thus causing him to become blind.
 Stream of Consciousness
 Stream of consciousness, sometimes referred to as interior monologue, is a literary technique that is
usually associated with Modern writers. The plot is developed based on the characters’ reminiscence or
recollection of events and thought fragments. Instead of using dialogues to show the characters’ reaction
or emotion, writers make use of stream of consciousness to show each character’s complex nature. More
so, readers are taken into the depths of the characters’ mind and witness how these characters process
their thoughts when faced with a particular situation or emotion.
 Example:
 Mrs. Dalloway (An Excerpt)
By Virginia Woolf
 Mrs. Dalloway said she would buy the flowers herself. . . .
 For Lucy had her work cut out for her. The doors would be taken off their hinges; Rumpelmayer's men
were coming. And then, thought Clarissa Dalloway, what a morning--fresh as if issued to children on a
beach.
 What a lark! What a plunge! For so it had always seemed to her, when, with a little squeak of the hinges,
which she could hear now, she had burst open the French windows and plunged at Bourton into the open
air. How fresh, how calm, stiller than this of course, the air was in the early morning; like the flap of a
wave; the kiss of a wave; chill and sharp and yet (for a girl of eighteen as she then was) solemn, feeling as
she did, standing there at the open window, that something awful was about to happen; looking at the
flowers, at the trees with the smoke winding off them and the rooks rising, falling; standing and looking
until Peter Walsh said, "Musing among the vegetables?"--was that it?--"I prefer men to cauliflowers"--was
that it? . . .
 Explanation:
 From the passage above, we see how Mrs. Dalloway’s thoughts wandered from present to past. All these
came into her head while she was on her way to buy flowers.
 Hamartia
 Hamartia, or tragic flaw, is a technique commonly found in Greek tragedies. It refers to the tragic hero’s
error in judgment, which leads to his or her downfall. Most of the time, this error is committed unknowingly,
such in the case of Oedipus when he killed his father Laius and married his mother Jocasta. Hamartia is
used to have the audience identify themselves with the protagonist (that he or she has weaknesses too)
and to provoke pity because of the miserable turn of events he or she went through. Additionally, it is used
to impart a moral objective among readers or audience to improve or change for the better so as to avoid
the tragedy that has befallen the protagonist.
 Example:
 Medea (An Excerpt)
By Euripides
 An easy answer had I to this swell
Of speech, but Zeus our father knoweth well,
All I for thee have wrought, and thou for me.
So let it rest. This thing was not to be,
That thou shouldst live a merry life, my bed
Forgotten and my heart uncomforted,
Thou nor thy princess: nor the king that planned
Thy marriage drive Medea from his land,
And suffer not. Call me what thing thou please,
Tigress or Skylla from the Tuscan seas:
My claws have gripped thine heart, and all things shine.
 Explanation:
 Medea’s hamartia or tragic flaw was her excessive love for Jason, who left her and their children to marry
Creon’s daughter, Glauce. This led Medea to cast her revenge to Glauce, poisoning her, and to kill their
children as she knew how greatly it would hurt Jason.
 Writers make use of literary techniques or devices to convey messages or to simply add an artistic value
to a text. Readers look for these techniques to help them analyze or interpret a specific body of work.
 Some of the literary techniques are anaphora, antihero, cliff-
hanger, juxtaposition, foreshadowing, stream of consciousness, catharsis, and hamartia.
They refer to methods writers use in their works to convey meanings and add artistic value.
 Q2
 These are essential to a story as writers utilize these components to serve as the structure of and to develop a story.
 Q6
 It is derived from a Greek word which means “purgation” or “purification.”
 Q10
 Gollum was a notable character from J. R. R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings. He was portrayed as a creature who constantly str
uggles between good and evil. What can you infer about Gollum?
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Literary Reading through a Biographical Context
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to analyze a literary text through a biographical context.
What is a biographical context?

How do we analyze a literary text through its biographical context?
Biographical Context
 A biographical context refers to the author’s life and the factors that influenced and shaped it, such as
social, political, and economic conditions during his or her time. This also includes his or her educational
background, religion, ethnicity, among others. When you read based on a biographical context, you
employ a biographical criticism.
 In analyzing a text based on its biographical context, you should consider not only how the factors
mentioned earlier have caused an impact to the author, but also how these factors were reflected in, and
have helped shape, his or her work(s).
 It is important to take into consideration the literary background of the author. You must research about
who and which the author reads as these may have also influenced him or her and his or her work(s).
However, one should not mistake a biographical analysis from a biography. Remember that when you analyze a
text based on the biographical context, you gather information about the author’s life as it can help you understand
some difficult concepts or extract profound meanings in an author’s work. Moreover, a biographical analysis helps
you understand the relationship of the author and his or her work(s), not produce a detailed account of his or her
life–thus, a biography. Literature, aside from being form of expression, can be based on real or orchestrated
events. These events included by the author in his or her work(s) are sometimes different from what really
transpired in real life. Sometimes these events are a reimagination, exaggeration, or wishful thinking.
Example:
Manuel E. Arguilla’s “How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife” is a story told through Baldo’s, Leon’s brother,
point of view. He narrated how Leon brought his soon-to-be wife, Maria, in their hometown (Nagrebcan, La Union)
to meet his family. To analyze this story, let us first consider some facts about Arguilla:
 Arguilla was born on June 17, 1911 in Bauang, La Union to Crisanto Arguilla and Margarita Estabillo.
 He was the fourth child and his family owned a small piece of land in their town.
 He was married to Lydia Villanueva, who was from Ermita, Manila.
Explanation:
 Based on the facts presented above, we can infer that Arguilla’s “How My Brother Leon Brought Home a
Wife” was a creative retelling of how his then girlfriend Lydia Villanueva met his folks in La Union.
Moreover, Maria fondly calls Leon “Noel,” which also reads as Leon in a reverse manner or simply
referring to the author since his first name was “Manuel.”
 The Ilocano culture of calling an older woman or man manang or manong respectively was also evident.
Additionally, this story was published during the American occupation in the country. Since the country as
a whole was transgressing from its conservative roots, not to mention that the English language was
widely used then (which also lacks words to describe an elder sibling such as ate or kuya), perhaps this
Reading through a biographical context entails that readers understand the text better upon learning about
the author’s life. Keep in mind that even when engaging in a biographical criticism, your interpretation must
still come from how the text made an impact on you. Analyzing a text based on the biographical context
adds substance to that “impact” and does not distort it.was Arguilla’s way of preserving his Ilocano
upbringing.
the World
Literary Reading through a Linguistic Context
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to survey the English language situation in Philippine Literature in
English during the American Colonial Period of the Philippines.
How did the Filipino writers in English during the American Colonial Period of the Philippines handle English in
their writing?
How successful are the Filipino writers in infusing Filipino sensibilities in their works?
English is a legacy of the American colonization of the Philippines. In this lesson, you will see how Filipino writers
were able to use English to create a new body of Philippine literature.
The English Language Situation during the American Colonial

Period (1898–1945)
In 1901, the Americans established public education in the Philippines with English as the medium of instruction.
This exposed Filipino writers to Anglo-American literature, culture, and ways of looking at the world. Hence, a
period of apprenticeship in the development of a new body of literature took place. The period of apprenticeship
(1910–1935) was characterized by writers imitating Western writers. The succeeding “period of emergence”
(1935–1945) saw writers gaining full command of English and finally giving shape to what is now the Philippine
Literature in English.
The American Colonial Period (1898–1945) saw the birth of Philippine Literature in English. The "period of
apprenticeship" is characterized by Filipino writers following Western writers. Then the short story “Dead Stars” by
Paz Marquez-Benitez, with its maturity in subject and language, made its mark as the first modern Filipino short
story in English. The succeeding “period of emergence” saw writers like Manuel Arguilla gain full command of
English to express the Filipino sensibility.
Context – This is the background of the text which may have been influenced by the author’s life, language,
Figure of Speech – This word or phrase has a different meaning from its literal meaning.
Setting – This refers to the time and place where the events in a story take place.
When was English introduced as a language of learning in the Philippines?
Q2
In this period of the development of Philippine Literature in English, Filipino writers were believed to be gaining full command of Engli
sh. What do you call this period?
Q5
Why is “Dead Stars” by Paz Marquez-Benitez a significant work in Philippine Literature in English?
Q6
What effect do the different lengths of the sentences in the text create?
Q7
What makes this piece of text distinctly Filipino?
Q8
In the short story “Dead Stars,” a character named Julia Salas is described as a woman with inner beauty. In Alfredo Salazar’s eyes h
er beauty is seen this way: “The lure was there, of naturalness, of an alert vitality of mind and body, of a thoughtful, sunny temper, an
d of a piquant perverseness which is sauce to charm.”
Which of these statements does not describe the woman in the excerpt?
Q9
In this passage, the author uses simple language to convey meaning. What makes it simple?
the World
Literary Reading through a Sociocultural Context
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify and examine the sociocultural context in the works of two
major Filipino writers, Bienvenido Santos and N. V. M. Gonzalez.
What did Bienvenido Santos and N. V. M. Gonzalez write about mostly?

How did they present the Filipino in their works?
Bienvenido Santos (1911–1996) became an exile twice. In 1941, he was studying in the US on government
scholarship when the Japanese attacked Manila in December; he was cut off from his family. During that time, he
wrote stories that later on appeared in his short story collections You, Lovely People (1955), The Day the Dancers
Came (1967), and Scent of Apples (1979). He was only able to return to the country in February 1946. Then in
1972, he was with his wife Beatriz in San Francisco when President Ferdinand Marcos declared martial law. His
novel The Praying Man (1982), which is about the political corruption of the government, was banned by the
government. From 1973 to 1982, he was a writer-in-residence at Wichita State University. In 1976, he became a
US citizen. He returned to the Philippines for a visit in 1981.
Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzalez (1915–1999), simply known as “N. V. M.,” became a Rockefeller Foundation
fellow in 1948 and attended Stanford University in California and Columbia University in New York City. In 1950,
he returned to the country and began his teaching career. Then he went back to California in the 1960s to teach
and stayed there until 1983. Despite those travels, though, he never gave up his citizenship. Throughout his
teaching career, he produced fourteen books, including the short story collections Children of the Ash-Covered
Loam (1954) and The Bread of Salt and Other Stories (1993). He received many awards for his achievements
including the National Artist of Literature in 1997.
Example 2:
“The Tomato Game”
by N. V. M. Gonzalez
“The Tomato Game” is written in an epistolary style. The narrator, a lecturer at a university called Transpacifica
University in the US, is writing to a man named Greg. In the letter, he tells about a colleague named Sophio
Arimuhanan, whom he refers to as Sopi, and his modus operandi. Sopi calls himself “Importer-Exporter of Brides,”
that is, he makes arrangements for people who wanted to get married. He is called “Attorney,” but he is not legally
allowed to practice law. One Sunday in the summertime, the narrator and Sopi went to a tomato farm. At first the
narrator thought they were going to watch a cockfight, but he soon found out that they were meeting an old man
whom Sopi referred to as “Lolo.” This old man was arranged by Sopi to marry a young Filipina named Alice. In
their arrangement, the old man would take Alice as his wife and some young man named Tony as his nephew.
Then the old man would send Tony to school. Hearing about the arrangement made the narrator angry. Later on,
when the narrator realized his role in Sopi’s scheme, he felt terrible. As hinted by Sopi, he would need the
narrator’s help as he was a lecturer at Transpacifica. The old man had already paid eight hundred dollars for
Tony’s tuition in advance. Towards the end of the letter, the narrator tells Greg what Sopi said to him when they
left the farm. Sopi said, “To think that that old man hasn’t even met the boy.”
 In 1972, the short story “The Tomato Game” won the first prize in the Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for
Literature. In 1993, the short story was published along with other works in the collection The Bread of Salt
and Other Stories.
 Explanation:
 Bienvenido Santos and N. V. M. Gonzalez presented different facets of the Filipino immigrant experience.
In “Immigrant Blues,” Santos portrayed a lonely old-timer who wanted a companion and a woman who
chose to marry an old-timer out to avoid deportation. In “The Tomato Game,” Gonzalez portrayed Filipinos
trying to make it in the US. One is a lecturer who regrets to be part of a scheme that deceives an
unsuspecting old man, while another, an unlicensed lawyer, deceives people for a living.
Context is the background of the text which may have been influenced by the author’s life, language, Society and
culture strongly influence a writer’s work. To understand the text better then, identify its sociocultural context.
A literary text can be influenced by the author’s society and culture as well as the author’s life and language. What do you call this ba
ckground of the text?
Q3
Immigrant Blues : Scent of Apples : :

The Tomato Game : ___________
Q4
What is the subject of the short story “Immigrant Blues” by Bienvenido Santos?
Q6
What is the subject of the short story “The Tomato Game”?
Q7
Which statement best describes the narrator of the short story “The Tomato Game”?
Q8
In the story “Immigration Blues,” Antonietta was working on Alipio for her sister Monica. She was dropping hints during their conversa
tion. The most obvious one was when Alipio was telling the two women how he and Carlito had impressed women before with their g
allantry and that they were “fools on fire.” Antonietta responded with less subtlety by saying, “I’m sure you still got some of that fire.”
What does this reveal about Antonietta’s character?
Q9
Later in the short story “The Tomato Game,” the narrator realized his role in Sopi’s scheme. As hinted by Sopi, he would need the nar
rator’s help as he was a lecturer at Transpacifica University. The old man had already paid eight hundred dollars for Tony’s tuition in
advance. Towards the end of the letter, the narrator tells Greg what Sopi said to him when they left the farm. Sopi said, “To think that
that old man hasn’t even met the boy.”
What does Sopi’s statement likely suggest?
Q10
What common theme do Bienvenido Santos’s “Immigrant Blues” and N. V. M. Gonzalez’s “The Tomato Game” have?
the World
Critical Reading Strategies in Literature
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explore and apply different reading strategies in literature.
What is critical reading?

Why is it important?
What are the different critical reading strategies in literature?
Critical Reading
Critical reading has an academic or professional purpose. Unlike reading for pleasure, it requires critical thinking
skills like doing analysis, developing an argument, and doing an evaluation.
Critical reading strategies in literature vary in purpose and focus.
Previewing a Text
Previewing a text enables a reader to get the sense of what the text is all about and how its parts are organized. A
reader can take a look at the facts about the author and the work and the title of the work.
Example:
Consider the book Tales from the Jazz Age by F. Scott Fitzgerald. You can find out more about the Jazz Age and
F. Scott Fitzgerald. By checking the Table of Contents, you can see how the author classifies the stories and what
inspired him to write each one.
TALES FROM THE JAZZ AGE

BY
F. SCOTT FITZGERALD
1922
A TABLE OF CONTENTS
FANTASIES
THE DIAMOND AS BIG AS THE RITZ.
These next stories are written in what, were I of imposing stature, I should call my "second manner." "The
Diamond as Big as the Ritz," which appeared last summer in the "Smart Set," was designed utterly for my own
amusement. I was in that familiar mood characterized by a perfect craving for luxury, and the story began as an
attempt to feed that craving on imaginary foods.
One well-known critic has been pleased to like this extravaganza better than anything I have written. Personally, I
prefer "The Offshore Pirate." But, to tamper slightly with Lincoln: If you like this sort of thing, this, possibly, is the
sort of thing you'll like.
Contextualizing
Contextualizing a text is considering the time and place in which the text was produced. A reader can read about
the writer’s life to see how his or her experiences shape the writing. Also, a reader can examine how a text reflects
the society or culture. Lastly, a reader can consider the significant events in history that influence the text.
Example:
Again, consider the book Tales from the Jazz Age by F. Scott Fitzgerald. As the title suggests, the stories in the
collection were written during the Jazz Age. A reader may consider the society or culture in that period of time in
reading the stories.
Asking Questions
Asking questions about a text allows one to understand and remember the content of a piece of literature. A
reader asks questions about the main ideas or literary elements; and such questions are answered in his or her
own words.
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. Who are the main characters in the short story?

2. What is the plot of the short story?
3. What is the conflict?
4. What are the theme, motifs, and symbols used by the writer?
Reflecting
Reflecting on a text involves examination of the reader’s personal responses to the text. The reader relates the
new learning to his or her previous learning as well as to his or her own beliefs.
REFLECTION QUESTIONS
1. Have you had experiences similar to that of the character of the story?
2. What feelings did you have as you read the story?
3. Which character do you feel a connection with and why?
4. Is there any part of the story that you find difficult to understand?
5. did the story change your way of thinking?
How Making an Outline and a Summary

Making an outline and a summary of a text involves identifying its important ideas. An outline is a list of the main
ideas and supporting ideas of the text, while a summary is a brief statement of the most important information of
the text.
Evaluating the Argument

Evaluating the argument made in a text involves assessing the validity of its claim and support. A reader examines
the main idea, opinion, or point of view of the writer if it is well supported by enough credible evidence or proof.
Making a Comparison and Contrast of Related Texts

Making a comparison and contrast of related texts is the strategy of identifying the similarities and differences
between texts of similar issue or approach.
Critical reading requires different critical thinking skills. In reading a piece of literature critically, you can preview
it, contextualize it, ask questions about it, reflect on it, make an outline of its ideas and a summary, evaluate its
argument, or compare and contrast it with another text.
What kind of thinking is required in critical reading?
Q3
This critical reading strategy involves the examination of the reader’s personal responses to the text. What is this strategy?
Q6
Below are some questions that can be asked about a short story:
1. Who are the main characters?

2. Where is the story set?
3. What is the conflict in the story?
What is the purpose of the questions?
Q7
The list contains the events that happened in the story. What do you call it?
Q9
Suppose a reader wants to find out more information about the period in which the the book Tales from the Jazz Age was produced.
Which topics would he or she likely look into?
Q10
Suppose a reader wants to understand why Fitzgerald classified “The Diamond as Big as the Ritz” as fantasy. Which critical reading
strategy is the most suitable to use?

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21st Century Literature in Various Regions

 Philippine Literature during the Precolonial Period

“Where did you come from?” he asked.

“I am looking for our cows.”

Notes on the Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898)

Jose Rizal : Noli Me Tangere : : Pedro Paterno : _

Jose de la Cruz : _________ : :

and explanations, to prevent students from cheating.

Who wrote during the American and Japanese Periods?

Notes on the American Occupation

Literary Works Produced

 On December 8, 1941, the Japanese attacked Manila.

Literary Works Produced

Postwar and Contemporary Literature

Learn about it!

May Day Eve by Nick Joaquin, 1947

Who is Jose Garcia Villa?

Jose Garcia Villa as a Poet

He was named as the National Artist for Literature in 1973.

Who is Carlos P. Romulo?

Who is Francisco Arcellana? What are his contributions to Philippine literature?

"Is it fair to forget them? Would it be just to disregard them?"

Which of the following would she most likely do?

What are N.V.M. Gonzalez's contributions to the development of Philippine literature?

The themes or messages of the poem are:

 Time is irreversible, and memories can only be remembered and cherished.

 identify the valuable contributions of Virgilio S. Almario to Philippine Literature; and

Who is Virgilio S. Almario?

Masdan ang tagak sa likod ng kalabaw,

At ang mga dekadenteng gansa sa gilid ng lawa,

Hayun ang mga maryakaprang paawit-awit,

At ang mga burukratang unggoy

Naghahari’t matitikas na oso’t agila,

Samantala, matatalinong kuwago’y naghihilik,

Di tulad ng buwayang laging abala

What is Virgilio Almario’s pen name?

explanations, to prevent students from cheating.

Makinasyon at Ilang Tula : Poetry : : _ : Literary criticism

and explanations, to prevent students from cheating.

Who is Alejandro R. Roces?

Alejandro R. Roces as a Filipino Writer

Who is Bienvenido S. Lumbera?

Analysis of the Poem

Literary Texts of Different Regions and Genres

Philippine Literature during the American Occupation of the Philippines (1898–

Philippine Literature in the 21st Century (2001 up to the present)

End rhyme – This rhyme occurs in the last syllables of verses.

Pliant is the bamboo;

If the wind passes by,

Merong himala, hindi totoong wala

Walang nagturo na tayo’y makibaka

Sa ating puso’y may awit ng pag-asa

(Reproduced by permission of Frank Rivera)

 define literary meaning, and

What is "literary meaning"?

"The Mats" (A Summary)

Literary Meaning of "The Mats"

Emilia : cadena de amor : : Marcelina : ______

Dialogues – These are conversations between the characters.

Philippine Drama in English During the Postwar Period (1946–

The World Is An Apple: A Synopsis

What makes a work of creative nonfiction?

Kinds of Creative Nonfiction

An Introduction to the Luminescent : _ : : Getting Better : _

Du Fu : _ : : Hitomaro : __