Mobile Gesture Contol Robot Report

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The coin-based mobile battery chargers are designed to solve the problem, only the
user has to plug the mobile phone into one of the adapters and insert a coin; the
phone will then be given a micro-pulse for charging. It does not bring a mobile
from 'dead' to fully charged state. The charging capacity of the mobile is designed
with the help of pre defined values. It is, of course, possible to continue charging
the mobile by inserting more coins. This compact and lightweight product is
designed to cater for the growing number of rural mobile users worldwide. The
source for charging is obtained from direct power grid.
This Coin based Mobile Charger is very useful to people who are all using mobile
phone without charging condition in public places. The coin-based cell phone
charger is very useful for that person to use a coin for the mobile charge carriers.
The IR (infrared) transmitter is used to transmit IR signal in the transmitter side.

The IR receiver is used to receive the IR signal in the receiver side. Between the IR
transmitter and receiver, insert a coin to change the polarity of pulse in SCU input.
The SCU is used to converting low pulse to high pulse and that pulse is inverted in
inverter. The 555 IC is act as a timer to produces high pulse for particular time
period. Again the SCU is used to converting low pulse to high pulse and this
output is give to input of driver circuit. Driver circuit is used to provide the
sufficient input voltage of relay. The relay will on.
The main merits of the coin-based cell phone charger, Simple and hand efficient.
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 1

CHAPTER 2
Circuit Diagram
The circuit diagram for the Coin Based Prepaid charger is as follows-
Fig. 2.1 Circuit Diagram of Coin Based Prepaid Charger.

CHAPTER 3
Working
The objective of the Coin based prepaid charger is that insert the coin and charge
your mobile phone in public places. In this Coin based prepaid charger the first
block is power supply in which the input is 230V AC which is step down using the
transformer (0-12) 500mA .The 12V ac input is fed to the bridge diode to gives
12V pulsating DC. This DC voltage is filtered through the capacitor to remove the
ripples. The filtered DC is fed to 7805 regulator to fetch +5v regulated output.
The IR (infrared) transmitter is used to transmit IR signal in the transmitter side.

The IR receiver is used to receive the IR signal in the receiver side. Between the IR
transmitter and receiver, The Infra Red sensor is used in this circuit. If there is any
interrupt or reflection between the IR LEDs, the sensor senses and sends the
corresponding electrical output signal to 555 timer ic input. The 555 IC is act as a
timer to produces high pulse for particular time period dependent on resistor and
capacitor value used with pin 6 and 7. NPN transistor Driver circuit is used to
provide the sufficient input 12V voltage of relay. The relay will on to activate the
230v charger through which we can charge our mobile.

CHAPTER 4
Model Overview

CHAPTER 5
COMPONENT LIST
5.1 Components Used-

S.NO COMPONENTS VALUES QUANTITY
1 Transformer 0-12V, 500mA 1
2 Bridge rectifier 230V, 1A 1
3 Voltage Regulator 7805 1
4 LED 1
5 Capacitor 100uF, 25V 1
6 Resistor 1k 1

S.NO COMPONENTS VALUES QUANTITY
7 Relay 1
8 Diode 2
9 Resistor 100k 7
10 Capacitor 25V, 100uF 1
11 IR Sensor 1
12 Transistor 1
13 NE555 IC 5V 1
Table-1

5.2 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
5.2.1 Voltage regulators -

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a
constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or
active electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate
one or more AC or DC voltages. With the exception of shunt regulators, all
modern electronic voltage regulators operate by comparing the actual output
voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. Any difference is amplified and
used to control the regulation element. This forms a negative feedback servo
control loop. If the output voltage is too low, the regulation element is commanded
to produce a higher voltage. For some regulators if the output voltage is too high,
the regulation element is commanded to produce a lower voltage; however, many
just stop sourcing current and depend on the current draw of whatever it is driving
to pull the voltage back down. In this way, the output voltage is held roughly
constant. The control loop must be carefully designed to produce the desired
tradeoff between stability and speed of response. In electronics, a linear regulator
is a voltage regulator based on an active device (such as a bipolar junction
transistor, field effect transistor or vacuum tube) operating in its "linear region" (in
contrast, a switching regulator is based on a transistor forced to act as an on/off
switch) or passive devices like zener diodes operated in their breakdown region.
The regulating device is made to act like a variable resistor, continuously adjusting
a voltage divider network to maintain a constant output voltage

Fixed regulators-
An assortment of 78xx series ICs "Fixed" three-terminal linear regulators are

commonly available to generate fixed voltages of plus 3 V, and plus or minus 5 V,
9 V, 12 V, or 15 V when the load is less than about 7 amperes. The "78xx" series
(7805, 7812, etc.) regulate positive voltages while the "79xx" series (7905, 7912,
etc.) regulate negative voltages. Often, the last two digits of the device number are
the output voltage; eg, a 7805 is a +5 V regulator, while a 7915 is a -15 V
regulator. The 78xx series ICs can supply up to 1.5 Amp Diode Construction.
Fig. 5.2.1.1 Fixed Regulators
7805 5V Regulator-The LM 7805 is a three terminal positive regulator.It is very

useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting,
thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially
indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A
output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these
devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents. In our project LM 7805 is used to provide constant 5V regulated supply
to our circuit.

5.2.2 LED -
Light Emitting Diodes
Basically, LEDs are just tiny light bulbs that fit easily into an electrical circuit. But
unlike ordinary incandescent bulbs, they don't have a filament that will burn out,
and they don't get especially hot. They are illuminated solely by the movement of
electrons in a semiconductor material, and they last just as long as a standard
transistor.
In this article, we'll examine the simple principles behind these ubiquitous blinkers,
illuminating some cool principles of electricity and light in the process.
Related Products:
 Rope Lights
 Light Board
 Light Chain
 Light Dimmer
 Light Emitting
 Light Magnifier
Fig. 5.2.2.1 LEDs

How Can a Diode Produce Light?
Light is a form of energy that can be released by an atom. It is made up of many

small particle-like packets that have energy and momentum but no mass. These
particles, called photons, are the most basic units of light.
Photons are released as a result of moving electrons. In an atom, electrons move in

orbital around the nucleus. Electrons in different orbital have different amounts of
energy. Generally speaking, electrons with greater energy move in orbital farther
away from the nucleus.
For an electron to jump from a lower orbital to a higher orbital, something has to
boost its energy level. Conversely, an electron releases energy when it drops from
a higher orbital to a lower one. This energy is released in the form of a photon. A
greater energy drop releases a
Higher-energy photon, which is characterized by a higher frequency. (Check out

How Light Works for a full explanation.)As we saw in the last section, free
electrons moving across a diode can fall into empty holes from the P-type layer.
This involves a drop from the conduction band to a lower orbital, so the electrons
release energy in the form of photons. This happens in any diode, but you can only
see the photons when the diode is composed of certain material. The atoms in a
standard silicon diode, for example, are arranged in such a way that the electron
drops a relatively short distance.
As a result, the photon's frequency is so low that it is invisible to the human eye --
it is in the infrared portion of the light spectrum. This isn't necessarily a bad thing,
of course: Infrared LEDs are ideal for remote controls, among other things.

Fig 5.2.2.2 Inside A Light Emitting Diode
Visible light-emitting diodes (VLEDs), such as the ones that light up numbers in a
digital clock, are made of materials characterized by a wider gap between the
conduction band and the lower orbital. The size of the gap determines the
frequency of the photon -- in other words, it determines the color of the light.
LED Advantages
While all diodes release light, most don't do it very effectively. In an ordinary
diode, the semiconductor material itself ends up absorbing a lot of the light energy.
LEDs are specially constructed to release a large number of photons outward.
Additionally, they are housed in a plastic bulb that concentrates the light in a
particular direction. As you can see in the diagram, most of the light from the diode
bounces off the sides of the bulb, traveling on through the rounded end.
LEDs have several advantages over conventional incandescent lamps. For one
thing, they don't have a filament that will burn out, so they last much longer.
Additionally, their small plastic bulb makes them a lot more durable. They also fit
more easily into modern electronic circuits.

But the main advantage is efficiency. In conventional incandescent bulbs, the light-
production process involves generating a lot of heat (the filament must be
warmed). This is completely wasted energy, unless you're using the lamp as a
heater, because a huge portion of the available electricity isn't going toward
producing visible light. LEDs generate very little heat, relatively speaking.
5.2.3 RESISTORS -
A Resistor is a heat-dissipating element and in the electronic circuits it is mostly

used for either controlling the current in the circuit or developing a voltage drop
across it, which can be utilized for many applications. There are various types of
resistors, which can be classified according to a number of factors depending upon:
 Material used for fabrication

 Wattage and physical size
 Intended application
 Ambient temperature rating
 Cost
Basically the resistor can be split in to the following four parts from the
construction viewpoint.
 Base
 Resistance element
 Terminals
 Protective means.
The following characteristics are inherent in all resistors and may be controlled by
design considerations and choice of material i.e. Temperature co–efficient of
resistance, Voltage co–efficient of resistance, high frequency characteristics, power
rating, tolerance & voltage rating of resistors.

There are three classes of resistors;
 Fixed
 Semi variable
 Variable resistor.
They are also classified according to the material from which they are made. The
typical resistor is made of either carbon film or metal film. There are other types as
well, but these are the most common.
The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to

consider when selecting a resistor for use in a circuit. The "tolerance" and the
electric power ratings of the resistor are also important. The tolerance of a resistor
denotes how close it is to the actual rated resistance value. For example, a ±5%
tolerance would indicate a resistor that is within ±5% of the specified resistance
value.
Fixed Resistors:-
A fixed resistor is one in which the value of its resistance cannot change.
This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance of the
resistance value is ±5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently
used. Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to be electrically noisy.
Metal film resistors are recommended for use in analog circuits. However, I have
never experienced any problems with this noise.
Fig.5.2.3.1ResistorCode
Colour

5.2.4 Capacitor -
What exactly is a 'Capacitor'? A capacitor is a device that stores an electrical

charge or energy on it's plates. These plates (see Fig. 1), a positive and a negative
plate, are placed very close together with an insulator in between to prevent the
plates from touching each other. A capacitor can carry a voltage equal to the
battery or input voltage. Usually a capacitor has more than two plates depending
on the capacitance or dielectric type.
A capacitor is a device that stores charge. A capacitor functions much like a

battery but charges and discharges much more efficiently (batteries though, can
store much more charge). A basic capacitor is made up of two conductors
separated by an insulator, or dielectric. The dielectric can be made of paper,
plastic, mica, ceramic, glass, a vacuum or nearly any other nonconductive material.
Capacitor electron storing ability (its capacitance) is measured in Farads. One

Farad is actually a huge amount of charge so we usually rate capacitors in
microfarads (uF = 0.000 001F) and Pico farads. Capacitors are also graded by their
breakdown voltage. Capacitors rated for lower voltages are generally smaller.
Design of capacitor depends on the proper dielectric material with particular type
of application. The dielectric material used for capacitors may be grouped in
various classes like Mica, Glass, air, ceramic, paper, Aluminum, electrolyte etc.
The value of capacitance never remains constant. It changes with temperature,
frequency and aging.
Fig 5.2.4.1 Types of Capacitor

Non-polarized fixed capacitor -
A non-polarized ("non polar") capacitor is a type of capacitor that has no implicit
polarity -- it can be connected either way in a circuit. Ceramic, mica and some
electrolytic capacitors are non-polarized. You'll also sometimes hear people call
them "bipolar" capacitors.
Polarized fixed capacitor

A polarized ("polar") capacitor is a type of capacitor that has implicit polarity -- it
can only be connected one way in a circuit. The positive lead is shown on the
schematic (and often on the capacitor) with a little "+" symbol.
The negative lead is generally not shown on the schematic, but may be marked on
the capacitor with a bar or "-" symbol. Polarized capacitors are generally
electrolytes, meaning that the dielectric is made up of a thin layer of oxide formed
on the aluminum or tantalum foil conductor.
The fundamental relation for the capacitance between two flat plates separated by a
dielectric material is given by:-
C=0.08854KA/D
Where: -
C= capacitance in pf.
K= dielectric constant
A=Area per plate in square cm.
D=Distance between two plates in cm

5.2.5 Relays -
A relay is a simple electromechanical switch made up of an electromagnet and a
set of contacts. Relays are found hidden in all sorts of devices. In fact, some of the
first computers ever built used relays to implement Boolean gates.
Fig 5.2.5.1 An open relay Fig 5.2.5.2 Outer Image of Relay
Related Products:
 Auto Relays
 Relay Socket
 Relay Switch
 Power Relay
 Thermal Relay
Relay Construction
Relays are amazingly simple devices. There are four parts in every relay:
 Electromagnet
 Armature that can be attracted by the electromagnet
 Spring
 Set of electrical contacts

The following figure shows these four parts in action:
In this figure, you can see that a relay consists of two separate and
completely independent circuits. The first is at the bottom and drives the
electromagnet. In this circuit, a switch is controlling power to the electromagnet.
When the switch is on, the electromagnet is on, and it attracts the armature (blue).
The armature is acting as a switch in the second circuit. When the electromagnet is
energized, the armature completes the second circuit and the light is on. When the
electromagnet is not energized, the spring pulls the armature away and the circuit
is not complete. In that case, the light is dark.
When you purchase relays, you generally have control over several
variables:
 The voltage and current that is needed to activate the armature
 The maximum voltage and current that can run through the armature
and the armature contacts
 The number of armatures (generally one or two)
 The number of contacts for the armature (generally one or two -- the
relay shown here has two, one of which is unused)
 Whether the contact (if only one contact is provided) is normally
open (NO) or normally closed (NC)
Relay Applications-
In general, the point of a relay is to use a small amount of power in the
electromagnet -- coming, say, from a small dashboard switch or a low-power
electronic circuit -- to move an armature that is able to switch a much larger
amount of power. For example, you might want the electromagnet to energize
using 5 volts and 50 milliamps (250 mill watts), while the armature can support
120V AC at 2 amps (240 watts).
Relays are quite common in home appliances where there is an electronic

control turning on something like a motor or a light. They are also common in cars,
where the 12V supply voltage means that just about everything needs a large
amount of current. In later model cars, manufacturers have started combining relay
panels into the fuse box to make maintenance easier.

5.2.6 Transformer -
A transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in
one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another
circuit. It can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding
decrease or increase in current. Usually, DC voltages are required to operate
various electronic equipment and these voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these
voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input available at the mains
supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level. This is done
by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the
voltage to a required level.
Principle-
The basic principle of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits

linked by a common magnetic flux.
Fig 5.2.6.1 Basic Transformer Overlook
In brief, a transformer is a device that
 transfers electric power from one circiut to another.

 it does so without a change of frequency.
 it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and where the two circuit
are in mutual inductive influence of each other.

5.2.7 Power Supply-
Introduction:
The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input
i.e., 230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed
to a rectifier. The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in
order to get a pure d.c voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter
to remove any a.c components present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is
given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc voltage.
Block Diagram:
230V
AC
50Hz
Step down
T/F Filter Circuit
Regulat
Bridge or
Rectifie
r Power supply to all
sections
Fig 5.2.7.1 Block Diagram of Power Supply

Filter -
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of
rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until
the mains voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is
varied, D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied
at the output stage.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig 5.2.7.2 Power Supply Circuit Diagram
This 5V dc acts as Vcc to the microcontroller. The excess voltage is dissipated as

heat via an Aluminum heat sink attached to the voltage regulator.

5.2.8 Diode-
A diode is formed by joining two equivalently doped P-Type and N-Type
semiconductor. When they are joined an interesting phenomenon takes place. The
P-Type semiconductor has excess holes and is of positive charge. The N-Type
semiconductor has excess electrons. At the point of contact of the P-Type and N-
Type regions, the holes in the P-Type attract electrons in the N-Type material.
Hence the electron diffuses and occupies the holes in the P-Type material. Causing
a small region of the N-type near the junction to loose electrons and behaves like
intrinsic semiconductor material, in the P-type a small region gets filled up by
holes and behaves like a intrinsic semiconductor.
Fig 5.2.8.1 Basic PN Junction Diode Fig 5.2.8.2Depletion Region
This thin intrinsic region is called depletion layer, since its depleted of charge (see
diagram above) and hence offers high resistance. Its this depletion region that
prevents the further diffusion of majority carriers. In physical terms the size of he
depletion layer is very thin.

Diode Biased Voltage-
Zero Bias-
When a diode is zero biased, that is has no bias, it just stays. Almost no current
passes through the diode. However if you connect the anode and cathode of the
diode you might be able to observe small voltage or current that is insignificant.
This is because the electromagnetic spectrum thats present in our environment by
default(Microwave background, heat, light, Radio waves) knocks off electrons in
the semiconductor lattice that constitutes current. For practical reasons this current
can be considered zero.
Fig 5.2.8.3Zero Biased Diode
Reverse Bias-
In reverse bias the P-type region is connected to negative voltage and N-type is
connected to positive terminal as shown above. In this condition the holes in P-
type gets filled by electrons from the battery / cell (in other words the holes get
sucked out of the diode).So the diode gets depleted of charge. So initially the
depletion layer widens (see image above) and it occupies the entire diode. The
resistance offered by the diode is very huge. The current that flows in reverse bias
is only due to minority charge which is in nano amperes in silicon and micro
amperes in high power silicon and germanium diodes.

Fig 5.2.8.4 Reverse Bias Fig 5.2.8.5 Forward Bias
Forward Bias-
In forward bias the P-Region of the diode is connected with the positive terminal
of the battery and N-region is connected with the negative region. During the
forward bias the following process occurs. The positive of the battery pumps more
holes into the P-region of the diode. The negative terminal pumps electrons into
the N-region. The excess of charge in P and N region will apply pressure on the
depletion region and will make it shrink. As the voltage increases the depletion
layer will become thinner and thinner and hence diode will offer lesser and lesser
resistance. Since the resistance decreases the current will increase (though not
proportional) to the voltage.
At one particular voltage level Vf called the threshold / firing / cut-off voltage the
depletion layer disappears (overwhelmed by the charge) and hence from this point
on the diode starts to conduct very easily.

5.2.9 IR Sensor Module –
Description-
This IR reflective sensor utilizes a TCRT5000 to detect color and distance. It emits
IR and then detects if it receives the echo. This sensor is often used in line
following robots, auto data logging on utility meters, because this module can
sense if a surface is white or black.
The measuring distance range from 1mm to 8mm, and the central point is about
2.5mm. There is also an on-board potentiometer to adjust the sensitivity.
The infrared diode will emmitting the infrared continutelly when the module
connect to the power, when the emitted infrared light has not been reflected or the
strength is not big enough,the triode will in the off state, at this time, D0 output
logic LOW and the signal indicate LED off.
Application Idea-
 Rainfall detecting
 Liquid leakage
 Tank overflow detector
Fig. 5.2.9.1 IR Module

Features -
 Supply Voltage: 3.3V~5V
 Detect distance: 1mm-8mm
 Digital Outputs HIGH when objects detected
 On-board indicator LED to show the results
 On-board potentiometer to adjust the sensitivity
 On-board LM393 chip.
5.2.10 555 Timer IC-

DESCRIPTION
The 555 monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller capable of producing
accurate time delays, or oscillation. In the time delay mode of operation, the time is
precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as
an oscillator, the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately
controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be
triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the output structure can source or
sink up to 200 mA.
FEATURES
• Turn-off time less than 2 ms

• Max. operating frequency greater than 500 kHz
• Timing from microseconds to hours
• Operates in both astable and monostable modes
• High output current
• Adjustable duty cycle
• TTL compatible
• Temperature stability of 0.005% per °C

APPLICATIONS
• Precision timing
• Pulse generation
• Sequential timing
• Time delay generation
• Pulse width modulation
Fig. 5.2.10.1 555 Timer IC

5.2.11 Transistor -
A Transistor is a semiconductor which is a fundamental component in almost all
electronic devices. Transistors are often said to be the most significant invention of
the 20th Century. Transistors have many uses including switching, voltage/current
regulation, and amplification - all of which are useful in renewable energy
applications. A transistor controls a large electrical output signal with changes to a
small input signal. Since a large amount of current can be controlled by a small
amount of current, a transistor acts as an amplifier.
A transistor acts as a switch which can open and close many times per second.
Bipolar Junction Transistors -
The most common type of transistor is a bipolar junction transistor. This is made
up of three layers of a semi-conductor material in a sandwich. In one configuration
the outer two layers have extra electrons, and the middle layer has electrons
missing (holes). In the other configuration the two outer layers have the holes and
the middle layer has the extra electrons.
Fig 5.2.11.1 Symbolic Representation of Transistors
Layers with extra electrons are called N-Type, those with electrons missing called
P-Type. Therefore the bipolar junction transistors are more commonly known as
PNP transistors and NPN transistors respectively.
Bipolar junction transistors are typically made of silicon and so they are very
cheap to produce and purchase.

Fig 5.2.11.2 Image of Transistor
How do Transistors Work –
A bipolar junction transistor has three terminals - Base, Collector, and Emitter
corresponding to the three semi-conductor layers of the transistor. The weak input
current is applied to the inner (base) layer. When there is a small change in the
current or voltage at the inner semiconductor layer (base), a rapid and far larger
change in current takes place throughout the whole transistor.
Fig 5.2.11.3 Common NPN Transistor

Pictured above is a schematic diagram of the more common NPN transistor.
Below is an illustration of the same transistor using water rather than electricity to
illustrate the way it functions:
The illustration shows pipework with three openings B (Base), C (Collector), and
E (Emitter). The reservoir of water at C is the supply voltage which is prevented
from getting though to E by a plunger. If water is poured into B, it pushes up the
plunger letting lots of water flow from C to E. If even more water is poured into B,
the plunger moves higher, and the flow of water from C to E increases.
Therefore, a small amount of water poured into B leads to a large volume of water
flowing from C to E. Returning to electricity and transistors, a small input current
of electricity to the Base leads to a large current flow of electricity from the
Collector to the Emitter.
Transistor Gain
Looking at the water analogy again, if it takes 1 litre of water per minute poured
into B to control 100 litres of water per minute flowing from C to E, then the Gain
(or amplification factor) is 100. A real transistor with a gain of 100 can control
100mA of current from Collector to Emitter with an input current to the Base of
just 1mA.
When a large amount of power (current × voltage) has to be switched, a power

transistor is usually used. These are physically larger and stronger components
designed to deal with heat dissipation - often with a hole to which an external
heatsink can be attached. They require a larger controlling input current to the
Base, while allowing much higher levels of current to flow through them.

Simple Transistor Circuit-
Fig 5.2.11.4 Simple Transistor Circuit
Pictured above is a very simple circuit which demonstrates the use of transistors.
When a finger is placed in the circuit where shown, a tiny current of around 0.1mA
flows (assuming a finger resistance of 50,000 Ohms). This is nowhere near enough
to light the LED which needs at least 10mA. However the tiny current is applied to
the Base of the transistor where it is boosted by a factor (gain) of around 100 times
and the LED lights!
5.2.12 Bridge Rectifier-

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which
periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one
direction. The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a
number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, solid-state
diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor
switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical switches and
motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's
whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a
point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC
power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems.
Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a
source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas
heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of flame.
The simple process of rectification produces a type of DC characterized by

pulsating voltages and currents (although still unidirectional). Depending upon the
type of end-use, this type of DC current may then be further modified into the type
of relatively constant voltage DC characteristically produced by such sources as
batteries and solar cells.
A device which performs the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is known as

an inverter.
Rectifier devices
Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes
and copper(I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks were used. With the introduction of
semiconductor electronics, vacuum tube rectifiers became obsolete, except for
some enthusiasts of vacuum tube audio equipment. For power rectification from
very low to very high current, semiconductor diodes of various types (junction
diodes, Schottky diodes, etc.) are widely used.
Half-wave rectification
In half wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or negative
half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one
half of the input waveform reaches the output, mean voltage is lower. Half-wave
rectification requires a single diode in a single-phase supply, or three in a three-
phase supply. Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct current; half-
wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than full-wave rectifiers, and much more
filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency from the output.

Fig.5.2.12.1 Half Wave Rectfier
The output DC voltage of an ideal half wave rectifier is:
A real rectifier will have a characteristic which drops part of the input voltage (a
voltage drop, for silicon devices, of typically 0.7 volts plus an equivalent
resistance, in general non-linear), and at high frequencies will distort waveforms in
other ways; unlike an ideal rectifier, it will dissipate power.
Full-wave rectification
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant
polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both
polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and yields a higher mean
output voltage. Two diodes and a center tapped transformer, or four diodes in a
bridge configuration and any AC source (including a transformer without center
tap), are needed. Single semiconductor diodes, double diodes with common
cathode or common anode, and four-diode bridges, are manufactured as single
components.
Fig 5.2.12.2 Full Wave Rectifier

Rectifier output smoothing
While half-wave and full-wave rectification can deliver unidirectional current,
neither produces a constant voltage. In order to produce steady DC from a rectified
AC supply, a smoothing circuit or filter is required. In its simplest form this can be
just a reservoir capacitor or smoothing capacitor, placed at the DC output of the
rectifier. There will still be an AC ripple voltage component at the power supply
frequency for a half-wave rectifier, twice that for full-wave, where the voltage is
not completely smoothed.
Fig 5.2.12.3 Rectifier Output Smoother
Sizing of the capacitor represents a tradeoff. For a given load, a larger capacitor
will reduce ripple but will cost more and will create higher peak currents in the
transformer secondary and in the supply feeding it. The peak current is set in
principle by the rate of rise of the supply voltage on the rising edge of the
incoming sine-wave, but in practice it is reduced by the resistance of the
transformer windings. In extreme cases where many rectifiers are loaded onto a

power distribution circuit, peak currents may cause difficulty in maintaining a
correctly shaped sinusoidal voltage on the ac supply.
To limit ripple to a specified value the required capacitor size is proportional to the
load current and inversely proportional to the supply frequency and the number of
output peaks of the rectifier per input cycle. The load current and the supply
frequency are generally outside the control of the designer of the rectifier system
but the number of peaks per input cycle can be affected by the choice of rectifier
design.
To further reduce ripple, a capacitor-input filter can be used. This complements the
reservoir capacitor with a choke (inductor) and a second filter capacitor, so that a
steadier DC output can be obtained across the terminals of the filter capacitor.

CHAPTER 6
PCB Designing
6.1 PCB development-

MAKING A PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD -
For making printed circuit board (PCB) for small circuits we need
 Copper clad board,

 ferric chloride (FeCl2),
 OHP marker pen, ect.
First of all prepare the layout of the circuit using any PCB schematic
drawing software (e.g.- Dip Trace, Express PCB, Eagle, Pspice,ect).Or by hand.
Print the layout on an ordinary paper. After preparing the layout, cut the clad
board according to the size of your layout. Transform the layout to the clad board.
This can be done by several methods. One method is by drawing the circuit layout
exactly on clad board using an OHP marker. This is the simplest method for small
circuits. For this, draw the circuit layout on clad board using carbon paper and
pencil. Draw the layout using an OHP marker above the sketch layout. Ensure that
hole positions are at right positions.
Second method is by using an electric iron (toner transformation method).

For this you need the mirror image of the circuit layout. Then print this mirror
image using a laser printer(set the toner deposit to high i.e. Image will look dark).
Place the image on the surface of clad board upside down. Heat the electric iron
and place the iron on the paper having image which is now on the surface of the
clad board. Keep the iron for some seconds. Do not heat excessively. Then the
toners on the image get transferred to the clad board. After this put the clad board
along with the sticky paper on hot water and kept for a long time. The paper

becomes lousy. Now remove the paper from the clad board carefully. Do not
remove the sticked toner. Now you will get the layout on the clad board. The next
step is the process of removing copper which are not covered by the layout.
For etching process we need ferric chloride (Fe Cl 2) solution. About 100 ml
of tap water should be heated to 85 degree Celsius and 30-50 grams of ferric
chloride added to it. The mixture should be thoroughly stirred, and a few drops of
hydrochloric acid (HCl) may be added optionally to speed up the process.
The board with its copper side facing upwards, should be

placed in a flat bottomed plastic tray and the aqueous solution of ferric chloride
poured in. The etching process will take 25-60 minutes to complete, depending
upon the size of the PCB. After etching the board should be clearly visible.
If not allow it to stand in the solution for some more time. The paint (toner, OHP
marking) should be removed with the help of alcohol or petrol. The etching
solution may be preserved for later use until its color turns green.
After the etching is complete, holes of suitable diameter

should be drilled using a power or hand drill. 1mm bit should be used for IC holes,
1.25mm for resistors and 105mm for diodes, 3mm or 5mm for mounting nuts and
8mm for potentiometers, switches, etc.
Now the PCB should be scrubbled clean until a shiny finish is obtained.
The PCB may be tin-plated using an ordinary 35W soldering rod along with solder
core.
Note:- Before beginning we should roughly clean the surface of the clad board.
We can also draw the circuit using paints and brushes.
6.2 PCB Design Layout -

In the PCB design of electronics circuit, it is important that one plan and has a
checklist of the do's and don'ts before proceeding to do the printed circuit board
layout. The understanding of the circuit is critical to the design, for example one
needs to understand the maximum current and voltage that are carried by each
conductor in order to determine the track width of the conductor and the type of
PCB that will be used.

The voltage difference between each track will determine the clearance between
each conductor. If the clearance is not enough, chances are that the electrical
potential between each track will cause spark over and short circuit the PCB.
6.3 Tracks Restricted Area -

Tracks should not be located on the areas that can caused them to be peeled off
easily. One of the restricted area is holes on the PCB which are used to mount
screws or PCB spacers. These holes are usually used to secure the PCB to a casing
or to secure it in a fixed place.
The edges of the PCB should not have any tracks as these areas are usually used to
transport the PCB from one process to another process by using a conveyor belt.
These edges are places where the possibility of scratches and cracking of the PCB
happens. The recommended areas that should not have any track is as shown in the
diagram below assuming a hole diameter of 4 mm which is used to mount a PCB.
Fig 6.3.1 T.R.A

6.4 PCB Design Electrical Clearance -
Many safety standards call for a minimum of 8mm clearance between 240V mains
and other isolated signal tracks. These safety standards are to ensure that the users
that are using the products will be protected from any electrical hazards.
For non main voltages, IPC recommend the electrical clearance between adjacent
tracks. It is important to know the maximum difference in voltage that are applied
on the adjacent tracks of a PCB. The electrical clearance specs of IPC standard is
as shown below for various condition of the PCB. Coating the PCB will help to
reduce the requirements of the track clearance. However, the quality of the coating
as well as the material used are critical to ensure that these requirements are met.
Again, it is always advisable to increase the clearance to cater for the variations of
the PCB processes.

CHAPTER 7
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages-
 Easy to use and prevents electricity theft.
 Only person paying the money can charge the mobile.
 Direct relay output so any charger can be connected.
 Simple to operate.
 Less expensive.
 Installation is easy.
Disadvantages-
 No fake coin detection.
 No coin jamming protection.

CHAPTER 8
Applications
 Useful to public for using coin to charge for the mobile phone in
any place.
 It can be used for different type of mobiles.
 It can be installed at railway stations, villages and other public
places.
 It can be installed in office and colleges for pay charging facility.

CONCLUSION
The Coin based mobile phone charger is very useful to public for using coin to
charge the mobile phone in any public place just like charging it normally owing to
the fact that it relayed the electricity through the coin based mobile charger needed
to bring the mobile phone back to life.
It can become a very better option to be installed at the public places so that on can
easily make use of it and donot worry about the low battery of the mobile phone.
Because in this era, each one of us use the cell phones and the cellphone harger is
the foremost need of each one of us, so this model brings the better idea to solve
our one of the biggest problem of today day to day living, also it can be used to
earn money.

FUTURE ENHANCEMENT
The project has scope for improvement and many enhancements can be done to
make it more reliable and interesting.
The project can be used in the following areas:
 Railway Station.
 Shop.
 Rural areas.
 Public places.
In our project we can use the micro controller to make it as simple as possible,
along with it we can also place the LCD for the display and make it more attractive
and simple.

REFERENCES
 www.google.com
 www.wikipedia.com
 www.scribd.com
 www.slideshare.com

Mobile Gesture Contol Robot Report

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Mobile Gesture Contol Robot Report

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

CHAPTER 1

The IR (infrared) transmitter is used to transmit IR signal in the transmitter side.

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 1

Fig. 2.1 Circuit Diagram of Coin Based Prepaid Charger.

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 2

The IR (infrared) transmitter is used to transmit IR signal in the transmitter side.

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 3

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 4

5.1 Components Used-

1 Transformer 0-12V, 500mA 1

2 Bridge rectifier 230V, 1A 1

3 Voltage Regulator 7805 1

5 Capacitor 100uF, 25V 1

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 5

10 Capacitor 25V, 100uF 1

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 6

5.2.1 Voltage regulators -

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 7

An assortment of 78xx series ICs "Fixed" three-terminal linear regulators are

Fig. 5.2.1.1 Fixed Regulators

7805 5V Regulator-The LM 7805 is a three terminal positive regulator.It is very

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 8

Fig. 5.2.2.1 LEDs

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 9

Light is a form of energy that can be released by an atom. It is made up of many

Photons are released as a result of moving electrons. In an atom, electrons move in

Higher-energy photon, which is characterized by a higher frequency. (Check out

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 10

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 11

A Resistor is a heat-dissipating element and in the electronic circuits it is mostly

 Material used for fabrication

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 12

The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 13

What exactly is a 'Capacitor'? A capacitor is a device that stores an electrical

A capacitor is a device that stores charge. A capacitor functions much like a

Capacitor electron storing ability (its capacitance) is measured in Farads. One

Fig 5.2.4.1 Types of Capacitor

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 14

Polarized fixed capacitor

A=Area per plate in square cm.

D=Distance between two plates in cm

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 15

Fig 5.2.5.1 An open relay Fig 5.2.5.2 Outer Image of Relay

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 16

Relays are quite common in home appliances where there is an electronic

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 17

The basic principle of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits

Fig 5.2.6.1 Basic Transformer Overlook

In brief, a transformer is a device that

 transfers electric power from one circiut to another.

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 18

Fig 5.2.7.1 Block Diagram of Power Supply

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 19

Fig 5.2.7.2 Power Supply Circuit Diagram

This 5V dc acts as Vcc to the microcontroller. The excess voltage is dissipated as

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 20

Fig 5.2.8.1 Basic PN Junction Diode Fig 5.2.8.2Depletion Region

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 21

Fig 5.2.8.3Zero Biased Diode

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 22

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG. TSEC Page 23

Fig. 5.2.9.1 IR Module