EVALUATION OF METHANATOR FEED/EFFLUENT

HEAT EXCHANGER PERFORMANCE AND PROPOSAL

FOR REDESIGN

To evaluate the performance of the Methanator Feed/Effluent Heat Exchanger on the ammonia
plant and to investigate the reasons for high pressure drop within the heat exchanger and its impact
on the heat transfer capability and to determine if a redesign is required and the cost implications
of any redesign.

As fulfilment of the NETD course

Chemical Engineering Project (PRJT 2006)

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 DEDICATIONS

This proposal is dedicated to

Our families and loved ones for supporting and guiding us through our journey

Our deepest gratitude to you all

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express whole-hearted thanks to two highly respectable professionals who were
able to give their willingness to help, for their unwavering and undying support, encouragement,
assistance and precious time for the accomplishment of this design proposal.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... 6

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ 7

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 9

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 10

Caribbean Nitrogen Company Background ...............................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Overview of Ammonia Process................................................................................................. 13

Overview from Absorber to Methanator ................................................................................... 15

Process Description ................................................................................................................... 15

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 18

Design Fundamentals of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers ...................................................... 18

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers Construction Details ............................................................ 21

Tubular Exchangers Manufacturers Association (TEMA) ....................................................... 27

Comparison of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers...................................................................... 51

Assessment of Existing 114-C Exchanger ................................................................................ 53

DESIGN METHOD SELECTION ............................................................................................... 56

Basic Design Procedure ............................................................................................................ 56

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 Design Methods Available ........................................................................................................ 57

Method Selection....................................................................................................................... 57

SUMMARY OF RESULTS ......................................................................................................... 64

DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................... 66

Heat Exchanger Fouling ............................................................................................................ 66

Heat Exchanger Fouling and Its Effects ................................................................................ 67

Different types of fouling mechanisms. ................................................................................ 69

Benfield Solution ................................................................................................................... 74

Heat Exchanger Cleaning .......................................................................................................... 77

Optimum Cleaning Criteria ................................................................................................... 79

Tube Cleaning Methods for Heat Exchangers ....................................................................... 80

Chemical Cleaning Of Exchangers........................................................................................ 85

Future Recommendations: ........................................................................................................ 90

COSTING FOR NEW PARALLEL 114-C EXCHANGER .................................................... 92

Cost of the New 114-C Methanator Feed/Effluent Exchanger.............................................. 92

Fixed Capital Investment for the Process Plant ..................................................................... 93

Payment for Capital Investment for New 114-C Exchanger ................................................. 94

Process Description for Parallel Heat Exchanger ..................................................................... 95

Process Description for Parallel Knock Out Drum ................................................................... 96

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 98

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 99

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ 102

Appendix A – Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams ............................................................. 102

P&ID – 1 .............................................................................................................................. 102

P&ID – 2 .............................................................................................................................. 104

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 P&ID - 3 .............................................................................................................................. 107

Appendix B - Formulas Used .................................................................................................. 109

Formulas Used for Kern’s Method ...................................................................................... 109

Formulas Used for Bell’s Method ....................................................................................... 114

Appendix C – Kern’s Method ................................................................................................. 121

Appendix D – Bell’s Method .................................................................................................. 133

Appendix E – Stream Data Modeled using HYSYS ............................................................... 149

Appendix F – Analysis of Stream Data Modeled using HYSYS ............................................ 150

Appendix G – Excel Modeling of Existing Exchanger using Kern’s Design ......................... 151

Appendix H – Excel Modeling of Existing Exchanger using Bell’s Design .......................... 154

Appendix I – HYSYS Heat Exchanger Model........................................................................ 157

Appendix J – Nomenclatures .................................................................................................. 158

Nomenclatures Used for Kern’s Exchanger Design ............................................................ 158

Nomenclature for Bell’s Exchanger Design ........................................................................ 160

Appendix K – Graphs .............................................................................................................. 163

Graph 1: Shell Side Heat Transfer Coefficient Comparison for Kern and Bell .................. 163

Graph 2: Shell Side Pressure Drop Comparison for Kern & Bell’s Design ........................ 164

Appendix L – Exchanger Data Sheet ...................................................................................... 166

Appendix M – Charts .............................................................................................................. 168

Appendix N – Drawing Sheet for 114-C ................................................................................. 172

Appendix O – Health, Safety and Environmental Considerations associated with Potassium

Carbonate Solution .................................................................................................................. 173

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Commissioning, technology and annual capacity for each ammonia plant in Trinidad. 13
Table 2: Comparison of Type R, B and C heat exchangers .......................................................... 30
Table 3: Carbon Steel Parts and their Corrosion Allowances for TEMA Class R, C, B .............. 42
Table 4: Tie rod standards............................................................................................................. 47
Table 5: Tube diameter and gages for bare tube ........................................................................... 48
Table 6: Tube Pitch for Class R, B and C ..................................................................................... 50
Table 7: Minimum shell thickness ................................................................................................ 51
Table 8: Heat Exchanger Nomenclature ....................................................................................... 52
Table 9: Heat Exchanger Nomenclature ....................................................................................... 53
Table 10 Evaluation of the existing exchanger with its rated performance .................................. 64
Table 11 Comparison of the modelled 114-C exchanger using Kern and Bell designs. .............. 65
Table 12: Typical deposits that can be removed chemically ........................................................ 87
Table 13: Typical deposits that cannot be removed chemically ................................................... 87
Table 14: List of chemicals that can be used for cleaning. ........................................................... 88
Table 15: Characteristics of the type of chemicals used to clean the 114-C exchanger ............... 89
Table 16: Fixed Capital Investment for purchase and installation of exchanger in 2015 ............. 93
Table 17: Payment for Capital Investment ................................................................................... 94
Table 19: Constants for K1 and n1 to be used in calculation number 11 ................................... 124
Table 20: Conductivity of metals ................................................................................................ 129
Table 21: Fouling factors (coefficients), typical values.............................................................. 130
Table 22: Constants for K1 and n1 to be used in calculation number 10 .................................... 136
Table 23: Typical baffle clearances and tolerances .................................................................... 141
Table 24: Ratio of fouled to clean pressure drop ........................................................................ 148

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Overview of the ammonia process ................................................................................. 13

Figure 2: Rating program .............................................................................................................. 19
Figure 3: Components of a typical shell and tube heat exchanger ............................................... 21
Figure 4: Components of a typical shell and tube heat exchanger ............................................... 22
Figure 5: Tubes before and after being welded to the tubesheet .................................................. 24
Figure 6: Heat Exchanger Nomenclature ...................................................................................... 26
Figure 7: Pass partition plates for front and rear end channels ..................................................... 27
Figure 8: Heat Exchanger Nomenclature ...................................................................................... 31
Figure 9: Standard tolerances for process flow nozzles, support locations and projections......... 35
Figure 10: Recommended Fabrication Tolerances ....................................................................... 36
Figure 11: Tube-sheets, partitions, covers and flanges tolerances................................................ 37
Figure 12: Heat Exchanger Specification Sheet ........................................................................... 39
Figure 13: Baffle cuts for Single, Double and Triple Segmental Baffles ..................................... 45
Figure 14: Baffle cuts.................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 15: Tie rods and spacers .................................................................................................... 47
Figure 16: Shows the finned tube ................................................................................................. 49
Figure 17: Shows the four patterns ............................................................................................... 49
Figure 18 Removal of old/replaced 114-C exchanger .................................................................. 55
Figure 19: Shell side flow streams for a baffled shell and tube heat exchanger ........................... 61
Figure 20: Shell side flow streams for a baffled shell and tube heat exchanger ........................... 61
Figure 21: Scale/Crystallization fouling ....................................................................................... 69
Figure 22: Particulate/Sedimentation Fouling .............................................................................. 70
Figure 23: Corrosion Fouling ....................................................................................................... 71
Figure 24: Chemical Fouling ........................................................................................................ 71

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Figure 25: Freezing Fouling.......................................................................................................... 72
Figure 26: Biological Fouling ....................................................................................................... 73
Figure 27: Mechanical tube cleaner in action. .............................................................................. 81
Figure 28: Brushes for mechanical tube cleaners ......................................................................... 82
Figure 29: Mechanical tube cleaner with tempered steel strips .................................................... 82
Figure 30: Hand held cleaning device, water gun......................................................................... 83
Figure 31: Pump for delivering water to hand gun ....................................................................... 83
Figure 32: Hex cleaners ................................................................................................................ 84
Figure 33: Calcite Cleaners ........................................................................................................... 85
Figure 34: Hydrodrill .................................................................................................................... 85
Figure 35: Guessed value for overall heat transfer coefficient, U .............................................. 123
Figure 36: Tube side heat transfer factor, jh ................................................................................ 126
Figure 37: Shell side heat transfer factor, segmental baffles, jh................................................. 128
Figure 38: Tube side friction factors, jf ....................................................................................... 131
Figure 39: Shell side friction factors, segmental baffles, jf......................................................... 132
Figure 40: Guessed value for overall heat transfer coefficient, U .............................................. 135
Figure 41: Heat transfer factor for cross-flow tube banks, jh ..................................................... 137
Figure 42: Tube row correction factor, Fn ................................................................................. 138
Figure 43: Baffle geometrical factors, 𝑹𝒂′ ................................................................................ 139
Figure 44: Window correction factor, Fw................................................................................... 140
Figure 45: Baffle geometrical factors,𝜽𝒃 .................................................................................. 142
Figure 46: Coefficient for FL, heat transfer calculations, 𝜷𝑳 .................................................... 143
Figure 47: Friction factor for cross-flow tube banks, jf ............................................................. 144
Figure 48: Coefficient for FL’, pressure drop, 𝜷𝑳′ .................................................................... 145
Figure 49: Baffle geometrical factors, Ra .................................................................................. 146

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 ABSTRACT

This proposal redesigns an existing shell and tube heat exchanger and highlights concepts
that will and can be used to improve the exchanger’s performance and ultimately increase the
throughput of the ammonia plant. Detailed comparison methods and calculations for both Kern
and Bell’s heat exchanger design methods are used to establish the best design for the heat
exchanger. The proposed research will conclude with a discussion of recommendations for future
designs to minimize downtime incurred on the plant due to periodic maintenance of this exchanger.
Future recommendations are highlighted for design considerations.

Keywords: redesign, concepts, throughput, minimize downtime.

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 INTRODUCTION

Ammonia is crucial for the world’s agricultural industry because plants absorb essential
nitrogen from the fertilizers made from ammonia. Trinidad’s ammonia industry currently consist
of eleven (11) ammonia plants that include two complexes on the Point Lisas Industrial Estate with
a total annual capacity of 5.2 million metric tons (MT).

First Complex:

 Two Tringen plants which are joint ventures between the Government and the
Norwegian firm Norsk Hydro
 Yara Trinidad Limited, the oldest in the country, formerly owned by W.R. Grace and
acquired by Norsk Hydro in 1991 and formally named Hydro-Agri.

Second Complex:

 Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan (PCS) and comprises four ammonia plants and
one urea plant, one of the world’s largest ammonia complexes.
 Pt. Lisas Nitrogen Limited (formerly Farmland Misschem) owns one plant with an
annual capacity of 650,000 MT. The technology used is the Haber process. The
shareholders are Terra Industries and KOCH Minerals Services LLC, being equal
partners.
 Caribbean Nitrogen Company Ltd (CNC), with an annual capacity of 650,000 MT. It
is owned by a consortium comprising of subsidiary companies of MAN Ferrostaal,
PROMAN and KOCH Industries and local company EOG Resources Trinidad Ltd.
 Nitrogen2000 (N2K) has an annual capacity of 650,000 MT per annum and is owned
by subsidiary companies of MAN Ferrostaal, PROMAN and KOCH Industries and
local company EOG Resources Trinidad Ltd.

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  The ammonia plant of the Ammonia-Urea Ammonium Nitrate-Melamine (AUM)
complex is the newest addition to the ammonia manufacturing plants, has a production
capacity approximately 650,000 MT per annum.

The Kellogg Advanced Ammonia Process combines conventional reforming using the Kellogg
Brown and Root’s (KBR) proven Top-Fired Steam Methane Reformer (SMR) with KBR's
proprietary KAAP Ammonia Synthesis Loop. KBR Advanced Ammonia Process Loop consists
of the following;

i. Top-fired steam-methane primary reformer operating at high pressure coupled with

secondary reforming using a stoichiometric amount of process air to efficiently convert
natural gas into hydrogen and carbon oxide synthesis gas.

ii. The highly-active catalyst utilized by KAAP allows the ammonia synthesis loop to operate
at pressures much lower than conventional ammonia synthesis loops that utilize the Haber
Process of wustite iron-based, or magnetite (90 bar vs. 140-170 bar), which significantly
reduces design complexity and capital equipment costs.

iii. Synthesis of ammonia over a proprietary promoted ruthenium on graphite catalyst that has
an intrinsic activity ten to twenty times higher than conventional magnetite catalyst. This
catalyst allows efficient ammonia synthesis at only 90 bar syn loop pressure, which is two-
thirds to one-half the operating pressure required for conventional ammonia synthesis.

iv. This lower pressure allows the use of only a single-case synthesis gas compressor and
vessel and pipe wall thicknesses are reduced throughout the synthesis loop, hence a
reduction design complexity and equipment costs.

There are seven KAAP plants in operation worldwide:

 Five are located in Trinidad (CNC, N2K, PLNL, PCS 04, AUM Ammonia)
 One in Egypt - 2000 MTPD, commissioned 2009

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  One in Venezuela – 1800 MTPD, commissioned 2010

Start-up Annual
Plant Technology
Year Capacity (MT)

Yara Trinidad Limited 1959 Braun 285,000

Tringen I 1977 Fluor 500,000

PCS 01 1981 M.W. Kellogg 445,000

PCS 02 1981 M.W. Kellogg 445,000

Tringen II 1988 Braun 495,000

PCS 03 1996 Braun 250,000

Kellogg Advanced Ammonia

PCS 04 1998 650,000
Process (KAAP)

Point Lisas Nitrogen Kellogg Advanced Ammonia

1998 650,000
Limited (PLNL) Process (KAAP)

Caribbean Nitrogen Kellogg Advanced Ammonia

2002 650,000
Company (CNC) Process (KAAP)

Kellogg Advanced Ammonia

Nitrogen 2000 (N2K) 2004 650,000
Process (KAAP)

Kellogg Advanced Ammonia

AUM Ammonia 2009 650,000
Process (KAAP)

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Caribbean Nitrogen
Kellogg Advanced Ammonia
Company (CNC) 2012 730,000
Process (KAAP)
UPGRADED

Table 1: Commissioning, technology and annual capacity for each ammonia plant in Trinidad.

Overview of Ammonia Process

Figure 1 Overview of the ammonia process

Desulphurization – the natural gas feed stock is preheated and first passed over a CoMo
catalyst and then a ZnO bed in a desulphurizer to remove any traces of sulphur which would poison
other catalysts downstream in the process.

Primary Reforming – water in the form of steam is mixed with the natural gas and the
combined stream is further heated and routed through tubes in a reforming furnace containing
nickel oxide catalyst. Here reforming reaction occurs in which methane in the natural gas is
partially converted into hydrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.

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 Secondary Reforming – the process gas leaving the primary reformer is routed to the
secondary reformer which is refractory-lined vessel filled with nickel oxide catalyst. A controlled
proportion of air is introduced via a burner causing partial combustion of the process gas raising
its temperature high enough to virtually complete the transformation of the residual methane into
additional hydrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.

Shift Conversion – carbon monoxide formed in the primary and secondary reforming
stages is further reacted with steam in a two-stage process. The gas first passes over an Fe-Cr
catalyst followed by further cooling and heat recovery, and then over a Cu-Zn catalyst. In this
stage, carbon monoxide is almost completely converted to hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

Carbon Dioxide Removal – CO2 is removed from the process gas by absorption in a
solution of potassium carbonate (Benfield). The gas contacts the Benfield solution counter-
currently in an absorber column and leaves at the top. The solution itself is regenerated by heating
in a stripper column and the released CO2 is used as feed stock in the production of methanol
(M5000).

Methanation – the gas stream leaving the absorber consists primarily of hydrogen and
nitrogen in addition to small quantities of unabsorbed carbon oxides. Since these would poison the
ammonia synthesis catalyst, the concentration must be reduced to less than 10 ppm. In the
methanator, the carbon oxides are converted back to methane over a nickel catalyst in a reaction
which is reversed to that of steam reforming.

Ammonia Synthesis – the process gas leaving the methanator is compressed and sent to
the ammonia synthesis reactor which is a vessel containing four beds of catalyst. The first bed is
iron oxide (magnetite) while the other three beds contain ruthenium based catalyst. The latter
catalyst allows conversion of hydrogen and nitrogen into ammonia at lower pressures and
temperatures and with greater yield. The gas is reacted in turn over all four beds and leaves the
converter containing about 20% ammonia.

Refrigeration – The effluent from the ammonia converter is cooled successively with
incoming feed gas, cooling water, and refrigerated ammonia liquid to condense the ammonia in
the stream at -28°F.

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 Storage and Shipping – the ammonia liquid is then pumped to two storage tanks where
the temperature is maintained in order to keep it in the liquid state. The unreacted hydrogen and
nitrogen are returned to the synthesis converter as uncondensed recycle gas stream. Liquid
ammonia stored in the ammonia storage tanks is pumped to SPN4 via ammonia loading pumps.
The vapour flashed during loading is normally liquefied by the ship’s refrigeration system. During
times of no ship loading the ammonia loading line is kept refrigerated by circulating ammonia
using the ammonia recirculation pump. Ammonia loading is done using two loading arms; the
liquid arm is used for the product and the vapour arm used in the event vapour needs to be blown
back to the plant.

Overview from Absorber to Methanator

Carbon oxides (CO & CO2) and water are pronounced catalyst poisons to the Ammonia
converter catalyst and must be removed prior to introduction to the Synthesis loop. Multi-stage
shift conversion units in the ammonia process reduce carbon monoxide concentrations to
acceptably low levels for methanation. Carbon dioxide is then removed by hot potassium carbonate
washing.

The final step in synthesis gas purification is methanation which removes final traces of
carbon oxides and moisture are converts them into inerts, methane and water, which do not pose a
severe treat to the converter’s catalyst activity by reaction with hydrogen over nickel catalyst.
Methanation is the reverse of methane-steam reforming and is strongly exothermic. The presence
of Carbon Dioxide in the synthesis gas can lead to the formation of ammonium carbonate which
leads to premature stress related failures of piping and equipment. Methane formed in the
Methanator must be removed from the synthesis loop and purge streams typically have only fuel
value.

Process Description

The process gas enters the Raw Gas Separator (102-F1) where water/process condensate is
knocked out of the gas before exiting the top of the separator and entering the bottom of the CO2
Absorber (101-E) saturated with 1.4% water and 17.7% carbon dioxide.

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 Process gas at 517 psig / 200°F enter the bottom of the absorber where it flows upward
through four packed beds of carbon steel and stainless steel packing interfacing with the Benfield
solution flowing down through the column, counter currently and losses 99.5% of its CO2 content
and 55% of its water content. Cool lean Benfield solution enters the absorber column, absorbs the
CO2 and leaves the absorber bottom as a CO2 rich solution.

Absorber Reaction: K2 CO3 + H2O + CO2 ↔ 2KHCO3 + Heat (Exothermic)

Benfield solution is made up of the following:

 Potassium Carbonate (K2 CO3) - 29.1 % (33% max)

 ACT -1 - 0.4-1.0% (used as a promoter)
 Vanadium Pentoxide (V2 O5) - 0.7% (used as a corrosion inhibitor) builds the
passive oxide layer that protects carbon steel against bicarbonate and CO2
corrosion.
 The balance (66.2-70.1%) of the solution is water.

A somewhat CO2 free gas leaves the top of the absorber at 514 psig / 158°F. Any liquid
carryover from the CO2 absorber 101-E is removed in the CO2 absorber overhead knockout drum
(102-F2) whose primary function is recovery of any Benfield solution which may have been
entrained in the gas leaving the Absorber. Process gas then leaves the top of the overhead knockout
drum (102-F2) and continues downstream to the methanator (106-D).

Excess foaming upsets the liquid flow in the affected tower and can cause solution
carryover into units downstream. Solution loss into the process stream, if not removed by 102-F2
knockout drum, can result in plugging of the 114-C Methanator Feed/Effluent exchanger and
deactivation of the Methanator catalyst. Foaming is generally accompanied by differential pressure
swings in one or both towers, and significant variation in tower levels.

Shifted process gas leaving the top of the C02 absorber flows at a rate of 202,619 lb/hr at
158°F, contains a combine carbon oxides concentration (C0/C02 slippage) of approximately 0.47%

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and free of Benfield, enters the methanation step. This step is a continuation of the purification
system that was first started with the C02 removal system. The integrity of the methanator depends
on the quality of the incoming gas. Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide pose a severe threat to
the Ammonia Synthesis converter, its piping and equipment, and it is here in the methanator were
small traces of carbon oxides are removed.

Before entering the methanator, the process gas is first preheated above the reaction
temperature (500°F) and in this case 600°F by two heat exchangers arranged in series. The first
exchanger utilizes effluent heat on the tube side from the methanator feed / effluent exchanger
(114-C) to preheat the incoming process gas on the shell side from 158°F to 590°F. The gas then
flows to the next exchanger, the methanator heater (172-C) which uses high pressure saturated
steam at 1800 psig / 622°F on the tube side to further increase the feed temperature from 590°F to
600°F. At the end of the preheating step the incoming gas stream is well above the minimum
operating temperature (500°F) for the methanation reaction to proceed.

Purified feed gas at reaction temperature enters the top of the methanator through an inlet
distributor before flowing over a bed of nickel catalyst. The methanation reaction is strongly
exothermic and special emphasis must be made when controlling the total carbon oxides
concentrations leaving the C02 removal system. In the methanator, CO and CO2 react with product
hydrogen violently to form methane and water. Methane and water do not contribute in the
Ammonia Synthesis loop and are considered an inert and a temporary poison to the ammonia
converter and therefore must be purged and drained out of the system. Both are considered waste
with regards to Ammonia Production.

Methanator Reactions: C0 + 3H2 → CH4 + H20 ∆H

C02+ 4H2 → CH4 + 2H20 ∆H

At the end of the Methanation step the gas quality is normally at a very high standard in
that the combine carbon oxides concentrations is less than 0.1 ppm, monitored by on stream
analyzers AI 1002 A/B. Hot effluent, purified synthesis gas leaves the bottom of the Methanator
at 656°F, where it is allowed to cool by first exchanging heat with its incoming feed gas stream
from 656°F to 222°F in the Methanator feed / effluent exchanger (114-C). Further cooling is done
using fresh cooling water at 92°C on the shell side of the Methanator effluent cooler (115-C) where

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the process gas temperature is reduced to 102°F. Final cooling of the gas stream is done in the
synthesis gas compressor suction chiller (130-C) where the process temperature is lowered to 40°F
by cold liquid ammonia on the shell side at 62°C. (See Appendix A – P&ID 1)

LITERATURE REVIEW
Design Fundamentals of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

The thermal design of heat exchangers is directed to calculate an adequate surface area to
handle the thermal duty for the given specifications whereas the hydraulic analysis determines the
pressure drop of the fluids flowing in the system, and consequently the pumping power or fan work
input necessary to maintain the flow. The most common problems in heat exchanger design are
rating and sizing. A typical rating program is shown in Figure 2.

 The rating problem is evaluating the thermo-hydraulic performance of a fully specified

exchanger. The rating program determines the heat transfer rate and the fluid outlet
temperatures for prescribed fluid flow rates, inlet temperatures, and the pressure drop for
an existing heat exchanger; therefore the heat transfer surface area and the flow passage
dimensions are available.

 The sizing problem, however, is concerned with the determination of the dimensions of the
heat exchanger. In the sizing problem, an appropriate heat exchanger type is selected and
the size to meet the specified hot and cold fluid inlet and outlet temperatures, flow rates,
and pressure drop requirements, is determined.

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 Figure 2: Rating program

Some criteria/principles for a successful heat exchanger design are as follows:

i. The process requirements which are accomplishing the thermal change on the streams
within the allowable pressure drops, and retaining the capability to do this in the presence
of fouling until the next scheduled maintenance period must be fulfilled.

ii. The heat exchanger must withstand the service conditions of the plant environment.

iii. The exchanger must be maintainable. In other words, a configuration that permits cleaning
and replacement of any component that is especially vulnerable to corrosion, erosion,
vibration, or aging, must be chosen.

iv. The designer should consider the advantages of a multishell arrangement with flexible
piping and valving provided to allow one unit to be taken out of service for maintenance
without disturbing the rest of the plant.

v. The heat exchanger should cost as little as possible provided the above criteria are satisfied.

vi. Limitations on the heat exchanger length, diameter, weight, and/or tube specifications due
to site requirements, lifting and servicing capabilities must be all taken into consideration
in the design.

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 Rating is the computational process in which the inlet flow rates and temperatures, the fluid
properties, and the heat exchanger parameters are taken as input and the outlet temperatures and
thermal duty (if the exchanger length is specified) or the required length of the heat exchanger are
calculated as output. In either case, the pressure drop of each stream will be calculated.

Design is the process of determining all essential constructional dimensions of an

exchanger that must perform a given heat duty and respect limitations on shell-side and tubeside
pressure drop. A number of other design criteria are specified, such as minimum or maximum flow
velocities, ease of cleaning and maintenance, erosion, size and/or weight limitations, tube
vibration, and thermal expansion. Each design problem has a number of potential solutions, but
only one will have the best combination of characteristics and cost.

Selection means choosing a heat exchanger from among a number of units already existing.
These are standard units listed in catalogs of various manufacturers. Sufficient manufacturer’s data
usually exist to allow one to select comfortably oversized exchanger with respect to both area and
pressure drop.

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 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers Construction Details

The shell and tube heat exchanger is named for its two major components; round tubes
mounted inside a cylindrical shell. Shell cylinder can be fabricated from rolled plate or from piping
up to 24 inch diameters. Tubes are thin-walled tubing produced specifically for use in heat
exchangers. Other components shown in Figures 3 and 4include: the channels (heads), tubesheets,
baffles, tie rods and spacers, pass partition plates and expansion joints (when required). Their
designs and constructions are governed by the TEMA and ASME codes.

Figure 3: Components of a typical shell and tube heat exchanger

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 Figure 4: Components of a typical shell and tube heat exchanger
Tubes - may be seamless or welded. Seamless tubing is produced in an extrusion process;
welded tubing is produced by rolling a strip into a cylinder and welding the seam. Welded tubing
is usually more economical. Normal tube diameters are 5/8 inch, 3/4 inch and 1 inch. Tubes of
smaller diameter can be used but they are more difficult to clean mechanically. Tubes of larger
diameter are sometimes used either to facilitate mechanical cleaning or to achieve lower pressure
drop. The normal tube wall thickness ranges from 12 to 16 BWG (from 0.109 inches to 0.065
inches thick). Tubes with thinner walls (18 to 20 BWG) are used when the tubing material is
relatively expensive such as titanium.

Tubing may be finned to provide more heat transfer surface; finning is more common on
the outside of the tubes and is available on the inside of the tubes as well. High flux tubes are
tubing with special surface to enhance heat transfer on either or both sides of the tube wall. Inserts
such as twisted tapes can be installed inside tubes to improve heat transfer especially when
handling viscous fluids in laminar flow conditions or simply using twisted tubes is an option as
well. These tubes can provide enhanced heat transfer in certain applications.

Tubesheets – plates or forgings drilled to provide holes through which tubes are inserted.
Fluid on the shell side is prevented from mixing with the fluid on the tube side as long as the tubes

22
are properly secured to the tubesheets. Holes are drilled in the tubesheet usually in either a
triangular or square pattern. The distance between the centers of the tube hole is called the tube
pitch; normally the tube pitch is 1.25 times the outside diameter of the tubes. Other tube pitches
are frequently used to reduce the shell side pressure drop and to control the velocity of the shell
side fluid as it flows across the tube bundle. Triangular pitch is most often applied because of
higher heat transfer and compactness it provides. Square pitch facilitates mechanical cleaning of
the outside of the tubes.

Two tubesheets are required except for U-tube bundles. Tubes are inserted through the
holes in the tubesheets and are held firmly in place either by welding or by mechanical or hydraulic
expansion as seen in Figure 5. A rolled joint is the common term for a tube-to-tube sheet joint
resulting from a mechanical expansion of the tube against the tubesheet. This joint is most often
achieved using roller expanders; hence the term rolled joint. Less frequently, tubes are expanded
by hydraulic processes to affect a mechanical bond. Tubes can be welded to the front or inboard
face of the tubesheet. Strength welding designates that the mechanical strength of the joint is
provided primarily by the welding procedure and the tubes are only lightly expanded against the
tubesheet to eliminate the crevice that would otherwise exist.

Seal welding designate that the mechanical strength of the joint is provided primarily by
the tube expansion with the tubes welded to the tubesheet for better leak protection. The cost of
seal-welded joints is commonly justified by increased reliability, reduced maintenance costs, and
fewer process leaks. Seal-welded joints are required when clad tubesheets are used, when tubes
with wall thickness less than 16 BWG (0.065 inch) are used, and for some metals that cannot be
adequately expanded to achieve an acceptable mechanical bond (titanium and Alloy 2205 for
instance).

23
 Figure 5: Tubes before and after being welded to the tubesheet

Baffles – serve three functions; support the tube, maintain the tube spacing, and direct the
flow of fluid in the desired pattern through the shell side. A segment, called the baffle cut, is cut
away to permit the fluid to flow parallel to the tube axis as it flows from one baffle space to
another. Segmental cuts with the height of the segment approximately 25 percent of the shell
diameter are normally the optimum. Baffle cuts larger or smaller than the optimum typically result
in poorly distributed shell side flow with large eddies, dead zones behind the baffles and pressure
drops higher than expected.

The spacing between segmental baffles is called the baffle pitch. The baffle pitch and the
baffle cut determine the cross flow velocity and hence the rate of heat transfer and the pressure
drop. The baffle pitch and baffle cut are selected during the heat exchanger design to yield the
highest fluid velocity and heat transfer rate while respecting the allowable pressure drop.

24
 The orientation of the baffle cut is important for heat exchanger installed
horizontally. When the shell side heat transfer is sensible heating or cooling with no phase change,
the baffle cut should be horizontal. This causes the fluid to follow an up-and-down path and
prevents stratification with warmer fluid at the top of the shell and cooler fluid at the bottom of the
shell. For shell side condensation, the baffle cut for segmental baffles is vertical to allow the
condensate to flow towards the outlet without significant liquid holdup by the baffle. For shell
side boiling, the baffle cut may be either vertical or horizontal depending on the service. Other
types of baffles are sometimes used such as: double segmental, triple segmental, helical baffle,
EM baffle and ROD baffle. Most of these types of baffles are designed to provide fluid flow paths
other than cross flow. These baffle types are typically used for unusual design conditions.

Tie Rods and Spacers – used for two reasons; to hold the baffle assembly together; and to
maintain the selected baffle spacing. The tie rods are secured at one end to the tubesheet and at the
other end to the last baffle. They hold the baffle assembly together. The spacers are placed over
the tie rods between each baffle to maintain the selected baffle pitch. The minimum number of tie
rod and spacers depends on the diameter of the shell and the size of the tie rod and spacers.

Channels (Heads) – required for shell and tube heat exchangers to contain the tube side
fluid and to provide the desired flow path. Many types of channels are available as shown in Figure
6. The three letter TEMA designation is the standard method for identifying the type of channels
and the type of shell of shell and tube heat exchanger. The first letter of the TEMA designation
represents the front channel type (where the tube side fluid enters the heat exchanger), the second
letter represents the shell type and the last letter represents the rear channel type.

Channel type selected is based on the application. Most channels can be removed for
access to the tubes. The most commonly used channel type is the bonnet; used for services which
do not require frequent removal of the channel for inspection or cleaning. The removable cover
channel can be either flanged or welded to the tubesheet. Flanges are usually not provided for
units with larger shell diameters. The removable cover permits access to the channel and tubes for
inspection or cleaning without the need to remove the tube side piping and are provided when
frequent access is required. The rear channel is often selected to match the front channel. For

25
example a heat exchanger with a bonnet at the front head (B channel) will often have a bonnet at
the rear head (M channel) and will be designated as BEM. However, there can be circumstances
where they are different such as when removable bundles are used.

Figure 6: Heat Exchanger Nomenclature

Pass partitions seen in Figure 7 are required in channels of heat exchangers with multiple
tube passes. They direct the tube side fluid through multiple passes. The number of tube side
passes is normally less than eight, although more than eight passes can in some cases be
required. Multiple tube passes allow maximize tube side heat transfer within the pressure drop
constraint. Typically, heat exchangers with liquid as the tube side fluid have multiple tube
passes. Most heat exchangers with large tube side volumetric gas flow rates have a single tube
pass.

26
 Figure 7: Pass partition plates for front and rear end channels

Typical Applications of shell and tube heat exchangers – they are by far the most common
type of heat exchanger used in industries. They can be fabricated from a wide range of materials
both metallic and non-metallic. Design pressures range from full vacuum to 6,000 psi. Design
temperatures range from -250oC to 800oC. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers can be used in almost
all process heat transfer applications. They are more rugged than other types of heat exchangers
and can stand more (physical and process) abuse. However, they may not be the most economical
or most efficient selection especially for heat recovery applications or for highly viscous fluids.
Typical applications include condensers, reboilers and process heaters and coolers.

Tubular Exchangers Manufacturers Association (TEMA)

TEMA is a set of standards developed by leading heat exchanger manufacturers that

defines the manufacturing parameters of the shell and tube type heat exchanger and its design.
These standards provide a recognized approach to the end users and allow a comparison between
competitive designs for a certain approach. TEMA is made up of three classes to categorize design:

 TEMA R: Unfired shell and tube heat exchangers for generally severe requirements of
petroleum and related processing applications.

27
  TEMA B: Unfired shell and tube heat exchangers for chemical process service.
 TEMA C: Unfired shell and tube heat exchangers for the generally moderate requirements
of commercial and general process applications.

The parameters in the design of the shell and tube exchanger is intended to limit the
maximum shell wall thickness to approximately 76 mm and the maximum stud diamter to
approimately 102 mm. The mechanical standards of TEMA heat exchangers are applicable once
they do not exceed the following parameters:

 internal diameter of 2540 mm (100 inches)

 product of nominal diameter in (mm) and design pressure, psi (KPa) of 100,000 (1.75*106)
 design pressure of 3000 psi

28
29
 Table 2: Comparison of Type R, B and C heat exchangers

TEMA Numbering and Type Designation

It is recommended that heat exchanger size and type be designated by numbers and letters
as described below:

1. Size- Sizes of shells and tube bundles should be designated by numbers describing shell
and tube bundle diameters and tube lengths; nominal diameter and nominal length.
I. Nominal Diameter-this shall be the inside diameter of the shell in inches, rounded
to the nearest integer.
II. Nominal Length- this shall be the tube length in inches. Tube length for straight
tubes should be taken as the actual overall length and for U-Tubes as the
approximate straight length from end of tube to bend tangent.
2. Type- TEMA has developed nomenclature to describe the construction type of a TEMA
type shell and tube heat exchanger. Letters are used to describe the front head design, shell
design and rear end design.

Typical Examples of TEMA Type Heat Exchangers:

I. Split-ring floating head exchanger with removable channel and cover, single pass shell.
AES
II. U-tube exchanger with bonnet type stationary head, split flow shell. BGU
III. Pull-through floating head kettle type re-boiler having stationary head integral with tube
sheet. CKT
IV. Fixed tube sheet exchanger with removable channel and cover, bonnet type rear head, two
pass shells. AFM
V. Fixed tube sheet exchanger having stationary and rear heads integral with tube sheets,
single pass shell. NEN

These designs are put together using TEMA front end, shell, and rear end types as shown in Figure
8 below.

30
 Figure 8: Heat Exchanger Nomenclature

When designing a heat exchanger the following considerations MUST be made:

1. Selection of Flow Path

2. Construction Codes
3. Tube Bundle Vibration
4. Testing

31
 5. Performance

Selection of Flow Path

Several approaches are used when selecting the flow part for two fluids through a heat
exchanger. The tube side fluid is either more corrosive, dirtier or at a higher pressure while the
shell side fluid is either a liquid of high viscosity or a gas. Carbon steel shell combined with alloy
tube side parts is less expensive in which this construction would have the high pressure fluid in
the tubes. For a given pressure drop there is a higher heat transfer coefficient obtained in the shell
side than in the tube side.

Tube side is preferred under these circumstances:

i. Fluids which are prone to foul.

 The higher velocities will reduce build-up
 Mechanical cleaning is much more practical for tubes than for shells
ii. Corrosive fluids are usually best in tubes
 Tubes are cheaper to fabricate from exotic materials
 This is true for very high temperature fluids requiring alloy construction
iii. Toxic fluids to increase containment
iv. Streams with low flow rates to obtain increased velocities and turbulence
v. High pressure streams since tubes are less expensive to build strong
vi. Streams with a low allowable pressure drop

Viscous fluids go on the shell side, since this will usually improve the rate of heat transfer.

 Placing them on the tube side will usually lead to lower pressure drops. Judgment is needed

32
Construction Codes

From the Perry’s Handbook 7th Edition,

“Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th ed., 1978 (commonly

referred to as the TEMA Standards), serve to supplement and define the ASME Code for all shell-
and-tube-type heat-exchanger applications (other than double-pipe construction). TEMA Class R
design is for the generally severe requirements of petroleum and related processing applications.
TEMA Class C design is for the generally moderate requirements of commercial and general
process applications, while TEMA Class B is for chemical process service. The mechanical-design
requirements are identical for all three classes of construction. Among the topics of the TEMA
Standards are nomenclature, fabrication tolerances, inspection, guarantees, tubes, shells, baffles
and support plates, floating heads, gaskets, tube sheets, channels, nozzles, end flanges and bolting,
material specifications, and fouling resistances.”

TEMA Type R heat exchanger is the most restrictive, requires a greater-minimum thickness for
some components and has the requirements for confined gasket joints where recesses must be
machined in the flanges and tube-sheets. This is the type of heat exchanger that is being
investigated.

Tube Bundle Vibration

Tube vibration causes damage and has become an increasing problem with plate baffled
heat exchangers as they are designed for higher flow rates and pressure drops. This problem has
been solved by avoiding cross flow, by use of tube support baffles which promote only longitudinal
flow provided that, strict attention is given to the bundle area under the shell inlet nozzle where
flow is introduced through the side of the shell.

Mechanisms of Tube vibration are:

1. Vortex Shedding
2. Fluid-Elastic Coupling
3. Pressure Fluctuation

33
 4. Acoustic Coupling.
Testing

After shop fabrications and maintenance has been made a test must be done on the shell
side of the tubular exchanger so observations could be obtained at the tube ends. The exchanger is
hydrostatically tested with water during which the test pressure is held for 30 minutes. Liquids
other than water are used once the purchaser agrees to it. When liquid can’t be tolerated as a test
medium, the heat exchanger can be given a pneumatic test in accordance with the Code. It is known
that air or gas is hazardous when used as a pressure testing medium so as a result the pneumatic
test pressure at room temperature should be in accordance to the Code.

Fabrication Tolerances

The following information/images were obtained from the Standards of Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers Association.

Dimensions are in millimeters

External Dimensions, Nozzle and Support Locations

Standard tolerances for process flow nozzles, support locations and projections are shown in the
Figure 9 below.

34
 Figure 9: Standard tolerances for process flow nozzles, support locations and projections

To maintain process flow nozzle and support locations, fabrication tolerances are required.

35
 Figure 10: Recommended Fabrication Tolerances

Tube-sheets, partitions, covers and flanges tolerances are shown in Figure 10above and Figure 11
below.

36
Figure 11: Tube-sheets, partitions, covers and flanges tolerances

37
Fabrication and Performance

38
Figure 12: Heat Exchanger Specification Sheet

39
Inspection

Inspections are carried out by the manufacturer as well as the purchaser. The manufacturer
shall carry out required inspection by the ASME code, state and local codes (based on plant’s
location) and customer specifications. The purchaser has a right to observe tests done and do
inspection during fabrication.

Name Plates

There is the manufacturer’s name plate as well as the purchaser’s name plate.

Manufacturer’s name plate:

 Should include user’s order number and equipment identification

 Suitable name plate of corrosion resistant material shall be permanently attached to the
head end or shell of each TEMA exchanger
 Name plates for Classes R and C should be austenitic (300 series) stainless
 Name plate shall be attached to a bracket, welded to the heat exchanger when the purchaser
specifies insulation thickness.

Purchaser’s name plate:

 When used they are to be supplied by the purchaser and supplement rather than remove the
manufacturer’s name plate.

Drawings and ASME Code Data Reports

 Manufacture submits three prints of an outline drawing to the purchaser, showing nozzle
sizes and locations, overall dimensions, supports and weight.
 After approval of drawings, three prints are furnished by the manufacturer
 After completion of fabrication and inspection of ASME code, the manufacturer furnishes
three copies of the ASME Manufacturer’s Data Report
 These drawings are properties of the manufacturer.

40
Guarantees

The manufacturer and purchaser should agree upon specific terms of the guarantees. Unless
otherwise agreed upon by the parties, performance, consequential damage, corrosion and vibration
and replacement of spare parts are to be applicable.

I. Performance
 The purchaser has to provide the manufacturer with all information of performance
requirements as well as any special requirements
 Manufacturer shall guarantee thermal performance and mechanical design of the
exchanger, when operated under design condition specified by the purchaser in the
order or shown on the manufacturer’s heat exchanger specification sheet. This
guarantee extends for twelve months after shipping date.
 Manufacturer is not responsible for any excessive fouling of the apparatus

II. Consequential Damages- the manufacturer is not held responsible for any indirect or
consequential damage

III. Corrosion and Vibration-After leaving the manufacturer’s premises- the manufacturer is
not responsible for any deterioration of part/s of the equipment due to corrosion, erosion
or flow induced tube vibration, except as provided in (I.)

IV. Replacement of spare parts- the manufacturer is to guarantee satisfactory fit of parts when
replacement or spare tube bundles, shells or other parts are purchased provided that he was
the original manufacturer.

41
Material of Construction

Carbon steel is usually used in the construction of heat exchangers. On rare occasions
stainless steel construction is used in petroleum refinery and sometimes in chemical plant services.
While majority may be made of carbon steel, many heat exchangers are made of dissimilar metals.

CARBON STEEL PARTS CORROSION ALLOWANCE

Pressure Parts - Class R 3.2 mm

Pressure Parts - Class C, B 1.6 mm

Internal Floating Head Covers - Corrosion allowance on all wetted surfaces except
Class R, C, B gasket seating surfaces

Corrosion allowance on each side with the provision

that, on the grooved side of a grooved tube-sheet, the
Tube sheets - Class R, C, B
depth of the groove may be considered as available for
corrosion allowance

The depth of the gasketed groove of the cover may be

External Covers - Class R, C, B
considered as available for corrosion allowance

Corrosion allowance is applied only to the inside

End Flanges - Class R, C, B
diameter of flanges that are exposed to the fluid

Non-pressure Parts - Class R, C, B Not required to have corrosion allowance

Tubes, Bolting and Floating Head

Not required to have corrosion allowance
Backing Devices - Class R, C, B

Pass Partition Plates and Welded-in

Not required to have corrosion allowance
Long Baffles - Class R, C, B

Table 3: Carbon Steel Parts and their Corrosion Allowances for TEMA Class R, C, B

 Copper alloy tubing is generally used with cooling water. Copper alloy tube sheets and
baffles are generally naval brass.

42
  Aluminum alloy tubing is used in the water service.
 Tube side headers for water service are made of a variety of materials such as carbon steel,
copper alloy, cast iron etc.

Bimetallic Tube

When the single alloy for the tubes do not meet temperature conditions and corrosion
requirements bimetallic tubes are used. Tube sizes and gauges can be varied. Wall thickness is
divided equally by both components whereas in heavier gauges the more expensive component
takes up a fifth or third of the total thickness. While the component material may comply with
ASTM specifications, after manufacture the outer component may increase in hardness beyond the
specification limits.

Due to this precautions have to be taken when expanding the tube. When the inner material
is considerably softer, rolling may not be practical unless ferrules of the soft material are used. To
stop galvanic action, stripping the outer tube material from the tube ends and replacing the inner
tube material with ferrules should be done.

Clad Tube Sheets

The alloy material is clad to a carbon steel backing material. In most cases tube sheets and
other exchanger parts are of solid material and are used because it is less expensive. Clad tube
sheets in service with carbon steel backer material include stainless-steel types 304, 304L, 316,
316L, and 317, Monel, Inconel, nickel, naval rolled brass, copper etc.

Clad materials can be prepared by bonding techniques, such as rolling, heat treatment,
explosive bonding, etc. When properly manufactured, the two metals do not separate due to
thermal expansion differences encountered in service. Applied tube-sheet facings prepared by tack
welding at the outer edges of alloy and base metal or by bolting together the two metals are in
limited use.

Fabrication

43
 Expanding the tube into the tube sheet reduces the tube wall thickness and work-hardens
the metal. The induced stresses and the differential expansion between the shell and tube of a fixed
tube sheet exchanger can lead to stress corrosion. Austenitic stainless-steel tubes, used for
corrosion resistance, recommend a close fit between the tube and the tube hole in order to minimize
work hardening and the resulting loss of corrosion resistance.

Adequate venting of exchangers is required both for proper operation and to reduce
corrosion since improper venting of the water side of exchangers can cause alternate wetting and
drying and accompanying chloride concentration. Certain corrosive conditions require that special
consideration be given to complete drainage when the unit is taken out of service. Particular
consideration is required for the upper surfaces of tube sheets in vertical heat exchangers, for
sagging tubes, and for shell-side baffles in horizontal units.

Tube Bundles, Baffles and Support Plates

 The tube bundle is the most important part of a tubular heat exchanger and is made up of
tube sheets, baffles, or support plates, tie rods and spacers.
 Minimum baffle spacing not less than 50.8 mm (1/5 of shell diameter). Maximum baffle
spacing is limited by the requirement to provide adequate support for the tubes.
 Baffles should be spaced uniformly across the tube length but when this is not possible,
baffles nearest the ends of the shell or tube sheets should be placed as close as possible to
the shell nozzles. They should have a workman like finish on the outside diameter.
 Baffles are provided for heat-transfer purposes but when shell-side baffles are not required
for heat-transfer purposes, as in condensers or reboilers, tube supports are installed.
 There are segmental or multi segmental baffles (transverse baffles) which are standard.
Types of segmental baffles are single (maximum baffle cut of 45 percent), double and triple
shown in Figure 13with baffle cuts. The double segmental baffle reduces cross-flow
velocity for a given baffle spacing while the triple segmental baffle reduces both cross-
flow and long-flow velocities and has been identified as the “window-cut” baffle.

44
 Baffle cut is the segment opening height expressed as a percentage of the shell inside
diameter or as a percentage of the net free area inside the shell. There are horizontal,
vertical and rotated baffle cuts as shown in Figure 14.

Figure 13: Baffle cuts for Single, Double and Triple Segmental Baffles

45
 Figure 14: Baffle cuts

 Tubes are most commonly arranged on an equilateral triangular pitch. However, they are
arranged on a square pitch primarily for mechanical cleaning purposes in removable-
bundle exchangers.
 For the impingement baffle, the tube bundle is customarily protected against impingement
by the incoming fluid at the shell inlet nozzle when the shell-side fluid is at a high velocity,
is condensing, or is a two phase fluid. Impingement baffles are generally made of
rectangular plate, although circular plates are more desirable. They are recommended for
axial tube-side nozzles when entrance velocity is high along with flow distribution devices.
 Impingement baffles are used to protect tube bundles against impinging fluids when
entrance line values exceed the following: non-abrasive, single phase fluid, 1500; all other
liquids, including a liquid at its boiling point 500; nominally saturated vapours, liquid
vapour mixtures.
 The most significant bypass stream is generally between the outer tube limit and the inside
of the shell. Shell-side heat-transfer rates are maximized when bypassing of the tube bundle

46
 is at a minimum. Tie rods with spacers are used to hold the baffles in place but can be
located to prevent bypassing as seen in Figure 15. Tie rod count and diameters for different
sized heat exchangers are shown in Table 4.

THE ROD STANDARDS

Dimensions in Inches (mm)
Nominal Shell Diameter Tie Rod Diameter Minimum Number of Tie Rods
6 – 15 (152 – 381) 3/8 (9.5) 4
16 – 27 (406 – 686) 3/8 (9.5) 6
28 – 33 (711 – 838) 1/2 (12.7) 6
34 – 48 (864 – 1219) 1/2 (12.7) 8
49 – 60 (1245 – 1524) 1/2 (12.7) 10
61 – 100 (1549 – 2540) 5/8 (15.9) 12

Table 4: Tie rod standards

Figure 15: Tie rods and spacers

 Shell side flow may produce excitation forces which result in destructive tube vibrations.
The vulnerability of an exchanger to flow induced vibration depends on the flow rate, tube
and baffles materials, unsupported tube spans, shell diameter and inlet/outlet configuration.
 Special precautions –

47
 i. Baffles and support plates subjected to pulsations
ii. Baffles and supports plates engaging finned tubes
iii. Longitudinal baffles subjected to large differential pressure due to high shell side
fluid pressure drop

Tubes

Standard heat-exchanger tubing is 1/4, 3/8, 1/2, 5/8, ¾, 1, 1 ¼ and 1 ½ in inches outside
diameter (inches ×25.4 =mm). Wall thickness is measured in Birmingham wire gauge (BWG)
units. The most commonly used tubes in chemical plants and petroleum refineries are ¾ and 1 inch
outside diameter. There are bare tubes and finned tubes, Table 5 shows tube diameter and gages
for bare tube.

Table 5: Tube diameter and gages for bare tube

48
 Integrally finned tubes, such as the one shown in Figure 16, are available in a variety of
alloys and sizes, and are being used in shell-and-tube heat exchangers. The fins are radially
extruded from thick-walled tube to a height of 1.6 mm spaced at 1.33 mm, or to a height of 3.2
mm spaced at 2.3 mm.

Figure 16: Shows the finned tube

There are four tube patterns: triangular, rotated triangular, square and rotated square. If the
shell side is to be mechanically cleaned, triangular and rotated triangular should not be used.
Whereas for the square pattern, when mechanical cleaning is specified by the purchaser tube lanes
should be continuous in the removable bundle unit. Figure 17shows the four patterns.

Figure 17: Shows the four patterns

Class Tube Pitch

49
  Tubes spaced with a minimum centre to centre distance 1.25 times
R the outside diameter of the tube
 Minimum cleaning lanes of ¼ inch IF required
 Tube spaced with a minimum centre to centre distance 1.25 times
the outside diameter of the tube
C  If tube to tube sheet joints are expanded only and diameter is 5/8
inch or less, then the minimum centre to centre may be reduced to
1.20 times the outside diameter
 Minimum centre to centre distance of 1.25 times the outside
diameter of the tube
B  For mechanical cleaning, cleaning lanes should be 3/16 inch,
nominal shell diameter of 12 inches or less IF required by
purchaser
Table 6: Tube Pitch for Class R, B and C
Manufacturing tolerances for steel, stainless steel, and nickel alloy tubes are such that the
tubing is produced to either average or minimum wall thickness. Seamless carbon steel tube of
minimum wall thickness may vary from 0 to 20 percent above the nominal wall thickness.
Average-wall seamless tubing has an allowable variation of + or -10 percent. Welded carbon steel
tube is produced to closer tolerances (0 to + 18 percent on minimum wall; + or - 9 percent on
average wall). Tubing of aluminum, copper, and their alloys can be drawn easily and usually is
made to minimum wall specifications.

Shells

Heat-exchanger shells are generally made from standard-wall steel pipe in sizes up to 305-
mm diameter; from 9.5-mm wall pipe in sizes from 356 to 610 mm and from steel plate rolled at
discrete intervals in larger sizes. Shell thickness is determined by the Code design formulas plus
corrosion allowance but the nominal thickness should not be less than the values indicated in Table
7 below.

MINIMUM SHELL THICKNESS

Dimensions in Inches (mm)

50
 Minimum Thickness
Nominal Shell Diameter Carbon Steel
Alloy*
Pipe Plate
6 (152) SCH. 40 - - 1/8 (3.2)
8 – 12 (203 - 205) SCH. 30 - - 1/8 (3.2)
13 – 23 (330 – 584) SCH. 20 5/16 (7.9) 1/8 (3.2)
24 – 29 (610 – 737) - 5/16 (7.9) 3/16 (4.8)
30 – 39 (762 – 991) - 3/8 (9.5) 1/4 (6.4)
(1016 –
40 – 60 - 7/16 (11.1) 1/4 (6.4)
1524)
61 – 80 (1549 –
- 1/2 (12.7) 5/16 (7.9)
2032)
(2057 –
81 – 100 - 1/2 (12.7) 3/8 (9.5)
2540)
* Schedule 5S is permissible for 6 inch (152 mm) and 8 inch (203 mm) shell diameters

Table 7: Minimum shell thickness

Comparison of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

TEMA Type Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers:
 Split-ring floating head exchanger with removable channel and cover, single pass shell. AES
 U-tube exchanger with bonnet type stationary head, split flow shell. BGU
 Pull-through floating head kettle type re-boiler having stationary head integral with tube sheet.
CKT
 Fixed tube sheet exchanger with removable channel and cover, bonnet type rear head, two pass
shells. AFM
 Fixed tube sheet exchanger having stationary and rear heads integral with tube sheets, single
pass shell. NEN

Non-
Typical Description Tubes can Non-hazardous No gaskets Ability to
Removable hazardous Hazardous
TEMA of TEMA be cleaned liquids and in contact resist
tube liquids and liquids and
type heat type heat internally gases below with thermal
bundle gases above gases
exchanger exchanger by rodding 40barg process side shock
40barg
Below Above
190˚C 190˚C

51
 Externally
AEW sealed
Yes Yes Yes No No No No No
BEW Floating
tube sheet
Outside
AEP packed
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 2 No No No
BEP floating
head

AEL Fixed tube

No Yes Yes 1 Yes 1 Yes Yes Yes 3 No
BEM sheet

Fixed tube
sheet,
channel
NEN No Yes Yes 1 Yes 1 Yes Yes Yes 3 No
integral
with
tubesheet

AEU
U tube Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 4 Yes
BEU

Pull-
AES through
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
BET floating
head
Floating
AES head with
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
BET backing
device
1. Expansion bellows may be required. 2. Tube side only.
3. Shell side only. 4. Shell side only if tube bundle welded into shell and therefore not removable

Table 8: Heat Exchanger Nomenclature

Pull-Through Outside Split ring Outside
Type of Design U-tube Fixed tube-sheet Floating Packed Floating Packed
Head Lantern Ring Head Stuffing Box
TEMA rear end
U L, M, N T W S P
head type
Bellows in shell
Provision for Individual
(not for
differential tubes free to Floating head Floating head Floating head Floating head
hazardous
expansion expand
liquids)
Removable
Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
bundle?

Individual tubes Only those in

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
replaceable? outside row
With
Tube interiors
difficulty,
cleanable Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
especially
mechanically?
below 1” O.D.
Tube interiors
cleanable
Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
mechanically
(square pitch)?
No practical No practical
Number of tube Any practical No practical Limited to No practical
limitation (for limitation (for
passes even number limitation single or two limitation
odd number odd number

52
 requires requires
packed gland) packed gland)

Internal gaskets
No No Yes No Yes No
required
Suitable for
hazardous or high
Yes Yes Yes No Yes No
pressure fluids in
shell?
Suitable for
hazardous or high
Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
pressure fluids in
tube?

Table 9: Heat Exchanger Nomenclature

Assessment of Existing 114-C Exchanger

The shell and tube exchanger (114-C) is a TEMA type R, unfired shell and tube heat
exchanger which isused for generally severe requirements in the ammonia processing plant. The
front head, shell, and rear end design is NEN (front end channel integral with tube-sheet and
removable cover, one shell side pass, and fixed tube-sheet rear end), (See Appendix N – Drawing
Sheet for 114-C). The exchanger is placedhorizontally to allow easy access for removal of the
heads for inspection and cleaning of the exchanger.Figure 18shows the extraction of the previous
114-C exchanger during plant shut-down.

Shell outer diameter is 1.27 meters and constructed from SA 240 304 stainless steel. It is
fitted with a 20 inch nozzle made from SA 240 304 stainless steel with design pressure and
temperature of 585 psig and 160 to 250 °F respectively is at the shell side outlet and a shell side
inlet nozzle that is 24 inches and fashioned from SA 240 304 Stainless Steel at 585 psig and 590
to 795 °F.The cold channel (tube side outlet) nozzle is 20 inches, made from SA 516 70
Normalized Carbon Steel and has a design pressure and temperature of 585 psig and 428 °F. The

53
hot channel (tube side inlet) nozzle is 20 inches and built from SA 240 304 Stainless Steel at 585
psig and 660 to 800 °F.

Tubes are straight, made from SA 240 304 stainless steels, are 12.192 meters long and have
an outer diameter of 12.7 millimeters. Tubes are placed at flow angle of 30°, triangular pitch.There
are seven (7) cross-pieces/baffles to support the tubes in the proper position during assembly and
operation of the heat exchanger whichis necessary to prevent flow induced vibration in the tubes
which can quickly lead to tube failure, and create turbulence by guiding the shell side flow back
and forth across the tubes increasing the velocity and therefore the heat transfer coefficient. Baffles
are constructed from SA 240 304 stainless steel, are of the horizontal segmental type with a 19%
cut and placed 1.66 meters apart to decrease the pressure drop on the shell side.

Tubesheet has two grooves, expanded and seal welded. An expansion joint is incorporated
to deal with thermal expansions and prevent leakage through the exchanger since NEN types do
not provide provisions to allow for differential thermal expansion between the outer shell and the
tubes. The stationary tubesheets are welded to the shell and the heads are bolted to the tubesheet.
A removable bonnet is provided to facilitate tube cleaning. The fluid entering the heat exchanger
on the shell side can cause the tubes to vibrate and the vibrations can cause tube failure due to
fatigue and/or wear where the tubes strike each other or contact the baffles. For this reason an
impingement plate is located under the shell side inlet nozzle where the shell side gas fluid enters.
Provision for the impingement plate requires removal of tubes under the nozzle which results in a
larger diameter shell being required for the same heat transfer area.

Mainly stainless steel is used to fabricate this exchanger. Stainless steel does not corrode
easily, has a tensile strength greater than 515 MPa, a proof stress of 200 MPa, yield strength of
205 MPa, modulus of elasticity 210 GPa, elongation of 40%, and a Brinell hardness of 201.Type
304 (the so-called 18/8 stainless steels) is the most generally used stainless steel. It contains the
minimum Cr and Ni that give a stable austenitic structure. The carbon content is low enough for
heat treatment not to be normally needed with thin sections to prevent weld decay. SA 240 304
contains 0.05% carbon, 2% manganese, 0.045% phosphorous, 0.03% sulphur, 0.75% silicon, 18
to 20% chromium, 8 to 10.5% nickel and 0.1% nitrogen.

54
 Figure 18Removal of old/replaced 114-C exchanger

Exchanger Efficiency Calculations

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

89306.6052 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 𝑥 3232.2096 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃ 𝑥 (346.6667 − 100.7333)℃
3600 𝑠/ℎ𝑟

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 19,719,600.4000 𝐽

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

90300.1063 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 𝑥 3161.034 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃ 𝑥 (313.4917 − 70.0000)℃
3600 𝑠/ℎ𝑟

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 19,306,301.7494 𝐽

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑥 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

55
 19,306,301.7494 𝐽
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑥 100%
19,719,600.4000 𝐽

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟗𝟎%

DESIGN METHOD SELECTION

Basic Design Procedure

Heat exchanger must satisfy;

 Heat transfer requirements (design or process needs)

 Allowable pressure drop (pumping capacity and cost)

Steps in designing a heat exchanger can be listed as:

 Identify the problem

 Select a heat exchanger type
 Calculate/Select initial design parameters
 Rate the initial design
 Calculate thermal performance and pressure drops for shell and tube side
 Evaluate the design

56
  Is performance (Q, ∆P) and cost acceptable?

Design Methods Available

In designing a shell and tube heat exchanger, there are numerous methods available. The
following is a list of some of the design methods generated over the years;

i. Kern’s (1950) viii. Gilmour’s (1952-1954)

ii. Bell’s (1960- 1963) ix. Polley and Panjay Shah (1991)
iii. Bell-Delaware x. Ravahnani’s (1994)
iv. Devore’s xi. Serna and Jimenez (2004)
v. Tinker’s (1951) xii. Mizutani’s (2003)
vi. Donohue’s (1949) xiii. Ravagnani and Caballero (2007)
vii. Fraas’ xiv. Will and Jonston

Method Selection

A heat exchanger is a device of finite volume in which heat is exchanged between two
media, one being cold and the other being hot. There are different types of heat exchangers but the
type widely used in industrial application is the shell and tube. Mass velocity strongly influences
the heat-transfer coefficient; with increasing mass velocity, pressure drop increases more rapidly
than does the heat-transfer coefficient. Consequently, there is an optimum mass velocity above
which it will be wasteful to increase mass velocity further.

In this loop, the methanator feed/effluent exchanger is responsible for preheating the
process gas from 158°F to 590°F on the shell side and simultaneously cooling the effluent from
the methanator from 656°F to 222°F. In designing a heat exchanger, it is important that the correct
method is used for optimum results for the application. In this process a gas-gas heat exchanger is
required and needs a suitable method of heat transfer.

57
 The construction, geometry and thermal parameters (mass flow rate, heat transfer
coefficient etc.) are strongly influenced by each other. The flow in the shell side of a shell-and-
tube heat exchanger with segmental baffles is very complex. The baffles lead to a stream inside
the shell, which is partly perpendicular and partly parallel to the tube bank. The gaps between the
tubes and the holes in the baffles and the gap between a baffle and the shell cause leakage streams,
which may modify the main stream significantly. Since the tubes of the heat exchanger cannot be
placed very near to the shell, bypass streams S, may be formed, which influences the main stream.
The flow direction of the main stream relative to the tubes is different in the window sections
created by the baffle cut from that in the cross flow sections existing between the segmental baffles.
This necessitates the use of different equations to calculate the pressure drop in the window
sections to those used in the cross flow sections. The spacing between the tube plates and the first
and the last baffle, which is mostly dictated by the diameter of the inlet and outlet nozzles, differs
in many cases from the spacing between two adjacent baffles and some of the aforementioned
streams are not present in the first and in the last heat exchanger sections.

In designing our shell and tube heat exchangers, to calculate the heat exchange area, two
methods were proposed; Kern Method, and Bell Method.

Kern’s method - Kern proposed a bulk-flow method for shell and tube exchanger design where
the correlations are based on the total stream flow. While calculating the shell-side mass velocity,
this method assumes the flow area to be the maximum flow area that corresponds to the centre of
the shell. In practice, no tubes typically exist at the centre of the shell and, instead, two equal
maximum rows are placed on either side of it with fewer tubes than computed at the centre. Such
deviations, as well as the fact that the flow area is continuously changing on the shell-side, are
ignored in Kern’s simplified approach and his design neglects the effect of bypass and leakage
streams.

 The kern method was based on experimental work on commercial exchangers with
standard tolerances and gives a reasonably satisfactory prediction of the heat-transfer
coefficient for standard designs.
 The prediction of pressure drop is less satisfactory, as pressure drop is more affected by
leakage and bypassing than heat transfer.

58
  The shell-side heat transfer and friction factors are correlated in a similar manner to those
for tube-side flow by using a hypothetical shell velocity and shell diameter.
 As the cross-sectional area for flow varies across the shell diameter, the linear and mass
velocities are based on the maximum area for cross-flow: that at the shell equator.
 The shell equivalent diameter is calculated using the flow area between the tubes taken in
the axial direction (parallel to the tubes) and the wetted perimeter of the tubes. The method
used by D.Q. Kern is simple and more explanative.
 All the parameters related to heat exchanger are obtained in well manner and brief without
any complication as compared to other method, the calculation process is quite and simple
detailed.
 Among all the methods, the Kern method provided a simple method for calculating shell
side pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient. However, this method cannot adequately
account the baffle to shell and tube to baffle leakage.

Bell’s method

 In Bell’s method the heat-transfer coefficient and pressure drop are estimated from
correlations for flow over ideal tube-banks, and the effects of leakage, bypassing and flow
in the window zone are allowed for by applying correction factors.
 This approach gives more satisfactory predictions of the heat-transfer coefficient and
pressure drop than Kern’s method; and, as it takes into account the effects of leakage and
bypassing, can be used to investigate the effects of constructional tolerances and the use of
sealing strips.
 The procedure is a simplified and modified form to that given by Bell (1963).
 The method is not recommended when the by-pass flow area is greater than 30% of the
cross-flow area, unless sealing strips are used.
 Bell (1978) proposed a graphical method based on the operating lines in stage wise process
design, to estimate the value of N.

59
  This procedure utilizes the inlet and outlet temperatures of both hot and cold streams in
which N is about 3.
 In this work, it has been found that for N > 3, Bell’s method frequently cannot be used to
predict feasible designs of multipass exchangers.

There are five different shell side flow streams in a baffled heat exchanger and they are shown
diagrammatically in Figures 19 and 20below.

 Stream A is the leakage stream in the orifice formed by the clearance between the baffle
tube hole and the tube wall.
 Stream B is the main effective cross flow stream, which can be related to flow across ideal
tube banks
 Stream C is the tube bundle bypass stream in the gap between the tube bundle and shell
wall.
 Stream E is the leakage stream between the baffle edge and shell wall.
 Stream F is the bypass stream in flow channel partitions due to omissions of tubes in tube
pass partitions.

60
Figure 19: Shell side flow streams for a baffled shell and tube heat exchanger

Figure 20: Shell side flow streams for a baffled shell and tube heat exchanger

61
Which method is preferred?

Kern’s method as described before provides a good model for tube-side predictions.
However, it oversimplifies the description of the shell-side flow and, consequently, does not
typically provide satisfactory predictions for the shell-side design. Bell’s method captures a more
realistic representation of the heat exchanger geometry and is therefore more complex than Kern’s
method and is presumably the best method available among others.

General Guidelines to Increase the Heat Transfer for a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

i. Increase heat transfer coefficient

 Tube Side
 Increase number of tubes
 Decrease tube outside diameter
 Shell Side
 Decrease the baffle spacing
 Decrease baffle cut

ii. Increase surface area

 Increase tube length
 Increase shell diameter → increased number of tubes
 Employ multiple shells in series or parallel

iii. Increase LMTD correction factor and heat exchanger effectiveness

 Use counter-flow configuration
 Use multiple shell configuration

iv. Tube side

 Decrease number of tube passes
 Increase tube diameter
 Decrease tube length and increase shell diameter and number of tubes

62
 v. Shell side
 Increase the baffle cut
 Increase the baffle spacing
 Increase tube pitch
 Use double or triple segmental baffles

The optimum thermal design of a shell and tube heat exchanger involves the consideration
of many interacting design parameters which can be summarised as follows:

Process

 Process fluid assignments to shell side or tube side.

 Selection of stream temperature specifications.
 Setting shell side and tube side pressure drop design limits.
 Setting shell side and tube side velocity limits.
 Selection of heat transfer models and fouling coefficients for shell side and tube side.

Mechanical

 Selection of heat exchanger TEMA layout and number of passes.

 Specification of tube parameters - size, layout, pitch and material.
 Setting upper and lower design limits on tube length.
 Specifications of shell side parameters – materials, baffle cut, baffle spacing and
clearances.

Setting upper and lower design limits on shell diameter, baffle cut and baffle spacing.

63
 SUMMARY OF RESULTS

The performance evaluation of the existing exchanger showed that the exchanger is capable
of performing its rated design duty. The efficiency of the existing exchanger was calculated to be
97.90%. This is attributed to the reduction in the amount of heat being transferred. (See Appendix
F – Analysis of Stream Data Modeled using HYSYS). The mechanical layout and design of the
exchanger including the material of construction is suitable for preheating the methanator feed and
cooling the methanator effluent stream.

Due to the reduced area for heat transfer, there is an increase in the pressure drop on both
the shell and tube sides of the exchanger; hence the problem lies with the fouling aspect of the unit
and not the unit’s actual design.

Rated / Design Performance Existing Overall Performance Difference

Duty / Heat exchanged Duty / Heat exchanged

21982.4089 19499.9002 -2482.5087
(kW) (kW)

Equivalent Overall U Equivalent Overall U

502.5263 518.6125 +16.0862
(W/ m² °C) (W/ m² °C)

15.1709 -12.4081
(clean) (clean)
Shell Side Pressure Drop Shell Side Pressure
27.5790
(kPa) Drop (kPa)
16.9914 -10.5876
(fouled) (fouled)

Tube Side Pressure Drop Tube Side Pressure

27.5790 19.7609 -7.8181
(kPa) Drop (kPa)

Efficiency (%) 100.00 Efficiency (%) 97.90 -2.10

Table 10 Evaluation of the existing exchanger with its rated performance

64
 The modeled design for the 114-C exchanger was calculated (see Appendix C and D)to
show a possible redesign for adding a similar exchanger. The following table is a comparison of
our modeled exchanger using both Kern and Bell’s method with the stream data using Hysys.

RE-MODELED RE-MODELED
RATED DESIGN
PARAMETERS 114-C KERN’S 114-C BELL’S
FOR THE 114-C
METHOD METHOD

Heat Load (kW) 21982.4089 19499.9002 19499.9002

Overall coefficient,
502.5263 518.6125 -
Uo(W/m2 °C)
Shell side
coefficient, 1263.0475 1263.0475 943.5155
hs (W/m2 °C)

Shell side ΔP (kPa) 27.5790 65.7307 15.1709 (clean)

16.9914 (fouled)
Tube side ΔP (kPa) 27.5790 19.7609 -

Number of tubes 3519.0000 3519.0000 3519.0000

Number of passes 1 1 1

Shell I.D. (mm) 1270.0000 1270.0000 1270.0000

Tube O.D. (mm) 12.7000 12.7000 12.7000

Tube pitch (mm) 0.6670 1.2500 1.2500

Tube length (mm) 12192.0000 12192.0000 12192.0000

Baffle cut (%) 19.00 25.00 25.00

Baffle spacing (mm) 1661.1600 1523.7500 1523.7500

Number of baffles 7 - 7

Table 11Comparison of the modelled 114-C exchanger using Kern and Bell designs.

65
 DISCUSSION
Heat Exchanger Fouling

Fouling is the deposition of any unwanted material on heat transfer surfaces. It may
significantly impact the thermal and mechanical performance of heat exchangers and is a dynamic
phenomenon which changes with time. Fouling increases the overall thermal resistance and lowers
the overall heat transfer coefficient of heat exchangers and impedes fluid flow, accelerates
corrosion and increases pressure drop across the heat exchangers.

Heat exchangers are used in industrial processes to transfer energy from one source to
another. They improve energy efficiency of processes and thus increase profitability and decrease
environmental impact of the production. Energy efficiency of heat exchangers may be diminished
by fouling, in which undesirable material deposits on the heat transfer surface which reduces heat
transfer and increases the pressure drop of the system. Due to fouling, energy demand, and
operation and maintenance costs of industrial processes increase significantly.

Mechanical methods have been tried to reduce fouling but they are expensive and not
necessary efficient enough. The use of chemical detergents may damage the product and may have
negative environmental effects. Thus, the most efficient way to deal with fouling is to prevent it,
but this requires the identification of the interactions between different factors that affect fouling.
Fouling is a very complex phenomenon in which separate fouling mechanisms, like crystallization,
particulate, corrosion and biological fouling may occur simultaneously. Thus, understanding of
separate fouling mechanisms is crucial in order to prevent fouling in process equipment.

Plant throughput and final cost of product is affected by the performance of shell and tube
type heat exchangers within a process. Regrettably, the 114-C exchanger is prone to fouling caused
by the carryover of the Benfield solution from the CO2 Absorber through the CO2 Absorber
Knockout Drum which crystallizes in the exchanger. This causes a reduction in heat transfer which
reduces the production of ammonia and hence product cost. To reduce this impact, the heat
exchanger’s performance should be intelligently monitored and the heat exchanger cleaned at
intervals that are determined from optimal economic criteria.

66
 Heat Exchanger Fouling and Its Effects

Fouling on process equipment surfaces can have a significant, negative impact on the
operational efficiency of the unit. On most industries today, a major economic drain may be caused
by fouling. The total fouling related costs for major industrialized nations is estimated to exceed
TTD $27.852 million annually. One estimate puts the losses due to fouling of heat exchangers in
industrialized nations to be about 0.25% to 30% of their GDP.

According to Pritchard and Thackery (Harwell Laboratories), about 15% of the

maintenance costs of a process plant can be attributed to heat exchangers and boilers, and of this,
half is probably caused by fouling. Costs associated with heat exchanger fouling include
production losses due to efficiency deterioration and to loss of production during planned or
unplanned shutdowns due to fouling, and maintenance costs resulting from the removal of fouling
deposits with chemicals and/or mechanical antifouling devices or the replacement of corroded or
plugged equipment. Typically, cleaning costs are in the range of $40,000 to $50,000 per heat
exchanger per cleaning.

Fouling in heat exchangers is not a new problem. In fact, fouling has been recognized for
a long time, and research on heat exchanger fouling was conducted as early as 1910 and the first
practical application of this research was implemented in the 1920’s. Major detrimental effects of
fouling include loss of heat transfer as indicated by charge outlet temperature decrease and pressure
drop increase. Other detrimental effects of fouling include blocked process pipes, under-deposit
corrosion and pollution. Loss of heat transfer and subsequent charge outlet temperature decrease
is a result of the low thermal conductivity of the fouling layer or layers which is generally lower
than the thermal conductivity of the fluids or conduction wall. As a result of this lower thermal
conductivity, the overall thermal resistance to heat transfer is increased and the effectiveness and
thermal efficiency of heat exchangers are reduced.

With the onset of fouling and the consequent buildup of fouling layer or layers, the cross
sectional area of tubes or flow channels is reduced. In addition, increased surface roughness due
to fouling will increase frictional resistance to flow. Such effects inevitably lead to an increase in
the pressure drop across the heat exchanger, which is required to maintain the flow rate through
the exchanger, and may even lead to flow blocks.

67
 Cleaning of the exchangers is required for all exchangers no matter how well design they
are. Over time deposits will accumulated inside the exchanger, leading to a heat resistance hence
reducing the exchanger and its ability to exchange heat. This fouling can cause other unforeseen
problems such as corrosion of the metals within the exchanger and disrupts the fluid flowingthus
setting up vibrations that can distort the exchanger.

The principal types of fouling encountered in process heat exchangers include:

 Particulate fouling
 Corrosion fouling
 Biological fouling
 Crystallization fouling
 Chemical reaction fouling
 Freezing fouling

Fouling tends to increase over time, the trajectory being very site specific. As such,
(TEMA, 1988) recommends that designers of heat exchangers include an allowable fouling
resistance in their calculations, in order that some fouling can be tolerated before cleaning must be
undertaken. Nevertheless, even though these allowances tend to prevent frequent process
interruptions, fouling still has an economic impact. Hence it is important to determine when to
clean the exchanger which involves striking a balance between maximizing the quantity of finished
product from the process and its cost.

Thermal design and sizing of heat exchangers is often relegated to senior engineers because
of the complexity of the task and the number of parameters involved. A sound foundation in
process engineering and familiarity with the mechanical aspects of heat exchangers ensures
successful designs that satisfy the process requirements for years without failure.

68
 Different types of fouling mechanisms.

They can occur individually but often occur simultaneously. Descriptions of the most common
fouling mechanisms are provided below:

1. Scaling/Crystallization Fouling:Scaling,shown in Figure 21, is the most common type of

fouling and is commonly associated with inverse solubility salts. Reverse solubility salts
become less solute as the temperature increases and thus deposit on the heat exchanger
surface. Scale is difficult to remove mechanically and chemical cleaning may be required.
Crystallization normally begins at specially-active nucleation sites such as scratches and
pits, whereas a scratch-free or a smooth surface can flush salt crystals. Subsequently
Benfield particle deposit will start and continue to build up as long as the surface in contact
with the fluid has a temperature below saturation. High fluid velocity, by increasing the
attrition, can however reduce the rate of particle deposition and fouling.

Figure 21: Scale/Crystallization fouling

69
2. Particulate/Sedimentation Fouling:Sedimentation occurs when particles such as dirt, sand
or rust in the solution settle and deposit on the heat transfer surface. This is shown in Figure
22.Like scale, these deposits may be difficult to remove mechanically depending on their
nature.

Figure 22:Particulate/Sedimentation Fouling

3. Corrosion Fouling:Results from a chemical reaction which involves the heat exchanger
surface material. Many metals such as copper and aluminum form adherent oxide coatings
which serve to passivate the surface and prevent further corrosion. Metal oxides which are
corrosion products exhibit quite a low thermal conductivity and even relatively thin
coatings of oxides, shown in Figure 23below, whichcan significantly affect heat exchanger
performance.

70
 Figure 23:Corrosion Fouling

4. Chemical Fouling:Fouling from chemical reactions in the fluid stream which result in the
deposition of material on the heat exchanger surface as seen in Figure 24. This type of
fouling is common for chemically sensitive materials when the fluid is heated to
temperatures near its decomposition or degradation temperature. Coking of hydrocarbon
material on the heat transfer surface is a common chemical fouling problem.

Figure 24:Chemical Fouling

5. Freezing Fouling:Occurs when a portion of the hot stream is cooled to near the freezing
point of one of its components. An example in refineries is when paraffin solidifies from
a cooled petroleum product. Another example is freezing of polymer products on the heat
exchanger surface. Figure 25shows freezing fouling on the heat exchanger surface.

71
 Figure 25:Freezing Fouling

6. Biological Fouling:Occurs when biological organisms grow on heat transfer surfaces

shown in Figure 26 below. It is a common fouling mechanism where untreated water is
used as the coolant. Problems range from algae to other microbes such as barnacles and
zebra mussels. During seasons when these microbes are said to bloom, colonies several
millimetres deep may grow across the surface within hours, impeding circulation near the
surface wall and impacting heat transfer.

72
 Figure 26:Biological Fouling
It is important to consider fouling in the design of any heat exchanger. There are different
methods to provide the added heat transfer area needed to account for the expected fouling and
maximize runtime between cleaning. For shell and tube heat exchanger, the common method is
to use fouling factors. For other types of heat exchangers, excess heat transfer area is often
used. However, fouling is a self-fulfilling prophecy and the selection of fouling factors or excess
area must be done carefully.

Fouling tendencies depends on the type of heat exchanger and the fluids. During the design
stage certain considerations may help minimize fouling experienced in the field:

 If possible, allocate the more fouling fluid to the tube side

 Design for a fouling fluid velocity of 5 ft/sec on the tube side and 3 ft/sec on the shell side
 Try to keep the fluid velocity constant
 Allow for easy access for cleaning

73
  In water service, ensure the tube wall temperature is not too high to create salt deposits or
render treatment chemicals ineffective
 Do not throttle water flows in winter time

Benfield Solution

The hot potassium carbonate process was developed by Benson and Field in 1970. It is an
important technology used for CO2 removal from natural gas streams using the chemical
absorption method. The normal operation conditions of CO2 absorption process is; pressure range
(1- 2 atm) and temperature range (70-140) ºC based on the unit design.

Benfield solution at Caribbean Nitrogen Company (CNC) is made up of the following:

74
  Potassium Carbonate (K2 CO3) - 29.1 % (33% max)
 ACT -1 - 0.4-1.0% (used as a promoter)
 Vanadium Pentoxide (V2 O5) - 0.7% (used as a corrosion inhibitor) builds the
passive oxide layer that protects carbon steel against bicarbonate and CO2 corrosion.
 The balance (66.2-70.1%) of the solution is water.

Benfield solvent has a number of advantages which support the system process compared
with amine system and the other methods. These advantages can be concluded as;

 The absorption can occur at high temperature making the regeneration process more
efficient and economical.
 Potassium carbonate solvent is a low cost, low toxic and less prone degradation effects that
are commonly found with MEA at high temperatures, presence of oxygen and the other
gases.
 Benfield solvent has a large capacity for CO2, and it is more manageable by many of
separation and/or cost effectiveness.

The disadvantages of HPC solvent can be presented as; the carbon steel corrosion problem
which is a cause by potassium carbonate solution, and the precipitation/crystallization of the
solvent in downstream equipment, notably heat exchangers (114-C).

Rich Benfield solution can crystallize at temperature as high as 147ºF while lean solution
can ‘Freeze’ at 86ºF. It should be noted that the process gas stream exiting the top of the absorber
with traces of Benfield is at a temperature of 158ºF. Benfield solution at approximately 30%
potassium bicarbonate boils between 221 to 241 ºF and freezes between -5 to 62ºF

Surface-activematerials reduce the surface tension of the solution and cause foaming.
Perhaps the chief cause of foaming of HPC solutions is liquid hydrocarbon carryover from the
upstream knockout drum; Raw Gas Separator (102-F1). The approximate composition of the feed
exiting the raw gas separator and entering the absorber column has the following composition

75
listed below:
Hydrogen: 15,610.00 lb-mol/hr
Nitrogen: 5,737.95 lb-mol/hr
Methane: 96.01 lb-mol/hr
Argon: 69.06 lb-mol/hr
Carbon monoxide: 78.73 lb-mol/hr
Carbon dioxide: 4,651.03 lb-mol/hr

As seen, the stream contains 96.01 lb-mol of methane entering the absorber every hour,
which is equivalent to 2,304.96 lb-mol per day. This hydrocarbon content, even though in small
ratio compared to the entire stream, is the main reason for foaming of the Benfield solution in the
absorber tower, hence the carryover of the Benfield into the downstream equipment, mainly 114-
C exchanger fouling the exchanger.

Excess foaming of HPC solutions upsets the liquid flow in the affected tower and can cause
solution carryover into units downstream. Solution loss into the process stream, if not removed by
the 102F2 knockout drum, can result in plugging of the 114C Methanator Feed/Effluent exchanger
and deactivation of the Methanator catalyst.

Clean Hot Potassium Carbonate solution does not foam. Control of foaming involves good
filter operation to ensure adequate removal of dirt, scale, rust, etc. Suspended solids are
continuously filtered down in the online filter, 104L. 20 percent of the cold lean Benfield stream
is normally filtered here. An activated carbon filter, 118F, is used to remove organic contaminants.

Carbon dioxide not removed by carbonate washing consumes hydrogen at the Methanator.
CO2 4H2 ↔ CH4 + 2H2O + ht

It should be noted that a 0.16 percent CO2 slip past the Absorber results in an approximate

76
productionloss of 3 STPD (2.7216 MTPD) or 993.384 metric tons per year. This shows a
production loss of 0.13% equaling approximately TTD $4,508,582.57 per year.

Health, safety and environmental measures associated with potassium carbonate solution;
Benfield Solution, that should be adhered to are shown in Appendix O.

Heat Exchanger Cleaning

In process industries, more than 90% of heat exchangers used are of the shell and tube type.
This is primarily due to the robust construction geometry as well as ease of maintenance and
upgrades possible with the shell and tube heat exchangers. Well established procedures for their
design and manufacture from a wide variety of materials, as well as availability of codes and
standards for design and fabrication and many years of satisfactory service make them first choice
in most process industries.

However, fouling resistance in the shell and tube heat exchangers are usually much greater
than in other types of heat exchangers. In the shell side in particular lower fluid flow velocities

77
and low-velocity or stagnant regions, for example in the vicinity of baffles, encourage the
accumulation of foulants. Furthermore, segmental baffles have the tendency for poor flow
distribution if spacing or baffle cut ratio is not in the correct proportions. The effect of fouling
essentially forms solid deposits of low thermal conductivity upon the heat transfer surface, through
which heat must be transferred by conduction.

There are several different techniques that can be employed for the removal of fouling. All
such techniques require, however, costly system shutdown after a longer period of low efficiency
heat transfer. The chief techniques normally utilized are either chemical or mechanical cleaning,
but other procedures may sometimes be employed for some specific applications such as ultrasonic
cleaning, which is a more recent procedure, and abrasive cleaning.

Mechanical cleaning is generally preferred over chemical cleaning because it can be a more
environmentally-friendly alternative, whereas chemical cleaning causes environmental problems
through the handling, application, storage and disposal of chemicals. However, mechanical
cleaning may damage the equipment, particularly tubes, and it does not produce a chemically clean
surface. Furthermore, chemical cleaning may be the only alternative if uniform or complete
cleaning is required and for cleaning inaccessible areas.

The shell side in particular can only be chemically cleaned. The tubes on the other hand
can be mechanically cleaned provided that the tube pattern and pitch provide sufficient space and
access to the inside of the bundle, and if mechanical cleaning is required for one of the fluids, the
usual practice is to put that fluid in the tube side.Presently the only cleaning method available at
CNC is to shut-down the entire plant, blind remove the inlet and outlet channel head covers and
power-wash each tube with demineralized water.

For the chemical removal of fouling material, weak acids and special solvents or detergents
are normally used. Chlorination may be used for the removal of carbonate deposits. Mechanical
techniques for the removal of fouling include scraping and air bumping. Air bumping is a technique
that involves the creation of slugs of air, thereby creating localized turbulence as slugs pass through
the equipment. For tightly plugged tubes drilling, generally known as bulleting, may be employed
and for lightly plugged tubes rodding is employed. Particularly weakly adherent deposits may be

78
mechanically removed by applying high velocity water jets or a mixture of sand and water. Jet
cleaning can be used mostly on external surfaces where there is an easy accessibility for passing
the high pressure jet.

Optimum Cleaning Criteria

Heat exchangers are a part of a process and, if fouling occurs, the temperature of the heating
fluid must rise if the same amount of heat is to be transferred through the tubes. This temperature
rise must be associated either with an increase in the total energy input to the process or a reduction
in production rate, both of which represent a cost incurred due to fouling. Clearly, in order to make
intelligent economic decisions, these costs must be quantified at a series of points in time and,
preferably in relation to the fouling resistance as well.

Ma and Epstein(1981) indicated how optimum cleaning intervals could be determined by

modeling and regressing the mean hourly costs of losses over time (the losses including the cost
of cleaning) and, with falling rate processes, predicting when this mean hourly cost would
approach a minimum. The method requires that the interest on borrowed money be taken into
account in order to obtain a discrete minimum point. From the hourly cost of fouling calculated

79
for a series of points in time, the cost of these losses from the last cleaning (t = 0) to the present
(time = tcycl) may be obtained from the following:

$$$$$$$
Fouling cost per hour at time (t) = (𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑄𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 ) 𝑥
𝑀𝑇𝐵𝑈/ℎ

𝑡− 𝑡𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙

Total cost over period (Tcst) = 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 + ∑ 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
𝑡=0

Mean Cost over period (AVcst) = 𝑇𝑐𝑠𝑡 / 𝑡𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙

It should be noted that for this evaluation, no costing was obtained for the cleaning methods.

Tube Cleaning Methods for Heat Exchangers

Periodic cleaning of exchangers tubes improves the performance of fouled heat

exchangers. Each time the tube deposits, sedimentation, biofouling and obstructions are removed,
the tube surfaces are returned to almost bare metal, providing the tube itself with a new life cycle,
the protective oxide coatings quickly rebuilding themselves to re-passivate the cleaned tube.

Tube cleaning procedures for shell and tube heat exchangers are performed off-line, with the most
frequently chosen and fastest method being mechanical cleaning shown in Figure 27.

80
 Figure 27: Mechanical tube cleaner in action.
Among other off-line methods is the use of very high-pressure water but, since the jet can
only be moved along the tube slowly, the time taken to clean a heat exchanger can become
extended. Great care must be taken to avoid damaging any tubesheet or tube coatings which may
be present; otherwise the successful removal of fouling deposits may become associated with new
tube leaks or increased tube sheet corrosion, which are only revealed after the unit has been brought
back on-line.

Chemicals are used for the off-line cleaning of heat exchanger tubes. Several mildly acidic
products are available and will remove more deposit than most other methods. However, they are
expensive, take longer for the cleaning operation to be completed and the subsequent disposal of
the chemicals are an environmental hazard which creates its own set of problems. It has been found
that quite frequentlysome residual material will still need to be removed by mechanical cleaning
methods.
For off-line mechanical cleaning, the tool selected has to be the most appropriate for
removing a particular type of deposit. Moulded plastic cleaners (pigs) are quite popular for some
light silt applications. Brushes shown inFigure 28can be used to remove these soft deposits as well
as some types of microbiological deposit and are useful for cleaning tubes with enhanced surfaces
(e.g. spirally indented or finned); or those tubes with thin wall metal inserts or epoxy type coatings.

81
 Figure 28: Brushes for mechanical tube cleaners
With harder types of deposit, metal cleaners of various designs have been developed, often
with aparticular deposit in mind. Figure 29shows a current version of a cleaner consisting of
several U-shaped tempered steel strips arranged to form pairs of spring-loaded blades. These strips
are mounted on a spindle and placed at 90 degrees rotation to one another. Mounted at one end of
the spindle is a serrated rubber or plastic disk that allows a jet of water to propel the cleaners
through a tube with greater hydraulic efficiency. A stainless steel version of this cleaner is
available.

Figure 29: Mechanical tube cleaner with tempered steel strips

The water is directed to the tube being cleaned by a hand-held triggered device, known as
a gun shown in Figure 30.The water is delivered by a pump operating at only 300 psig (2.07 MPa).
Since the pump shown inFigure 31is usually mounted on a wheeled base plate, the system can be
conveniently moved from unit to unit within a plant or moved to another plant.

82
 Figure 30:Hand held cleaning device, water gun

Figure 31:Pump for delivering water to hand gun

A water pressure of 300 psig (2.07 MPa) is very effective for propelling the cleaning tools
through the tubes preventing their exit velocity from rising above a safe level. Some other cleaning
systems use air or a mixture of air and water as the propelling fluid; but the expansion of the air as
the cleaner exits the tube can convert the cleaner into a projectile and place the technicians at risk.
Another advantage of using water as the cleaner propellant is that the material removed
can be collected in a plastic container for later drying, then weighing to establish the deposit
density (g/m2) and followed in many cases by X-ray fluorescent analysis of the deposit cake.

83
 Most metal cleaners are designed to have a controlled spring-loaded cutting edge: but, if
effective deposit removal is to be the result, the dimensions of the cutting surfaces have to be
closely matched to the internal diameter of the tube being cleaned. It improves the peripheral
surface contact and ensures the appropriate spring tension will be applied as the cleaner is
propelled through the tube.

An increase in contact area can improve deposit removal. A cleaner with 6 blades, known
as the Hex cleaner shown in Figure 32, rather than the two blades is attainable. This design not
only reduced the cleaning time for 1000 tubes but it was found to be more efficient in removing
tenacious deposits such as those consisting of various forms of manganese.

Figure 32: Hex cleaners

A later development involved a tool for removing hard calcite deposits, which were
founddifficult to remove even by acid cleaning. This is shown in Figure 33, and consists of a
Teflonbody on which are mounted a number of rotary cutters, similar to those used for cutting
glass. These are placed at different angles around the body, which is fitted with a plastic disk
similar to those used to propel other cleaners through tubes. Used on condenser tubes that had
accumulated a large quantity of very hard deposits, Stiesma et al(1994) described how cleaners of
this typeremoved 80 tons (72.48 tons) of calcite material from this condenser. In the utility
industry, it has now become a standard tool whenever hard and brittle deposits are encountered.

84
 Figure 33: Calcite Cleaners

The tube bundles in many heat exchangers consist of U-tubes and a flexible cleaner has
been designed to traverse these tubes where the deposits are not too hard. For deposits that are the
most difficult to remove, portable compressed air driven devices are available which bore into and
remove the deposits as the drill bit or brush is pushed through each tube. A photograph of a
Hydrodrill can be seen inFigure 34. Itrequires a limited reservoir of water that softens and/or
flushes deposits and serves as a coolant, even acting as a flame retardant in combustible
atmospheres. These devices can clean tubes up to 40 feet long and having an inside diameter of
between ¼ inch to 6 inches.

Figure 34:Hydro drill

85
 Chemical Cleaning Of Heat Exchangers

Chemical Cleaning methods:

Chemical cleaning have a number of advantages over mechanical cleaning

 They are relatively quick
 Surfaces do not experience mechanical damage
 Chemical solutions reach normally inaccessible areas
 They are less labour intensive than mechanical cleaning
 Cleaning can be performed on site

Chemical cleaning process:

1. Alkaline cleaning- the alkaline clean primary aims to remove the organic portion of the deposit
(oils, fats) in order to render the inorganic surface hydrophilic. This necessary to make the acid
cleaning more effective.
2. Rinses- Before and after each chemical step, high flow water flushes are required to physically
remove any loose or softened material.
3. Acid Cleaning- Once the surface is hydrophilic the deposit is softened and/or dissolved by
application of the appropriate acid blend. This blend usually contains an inhibitor, which
prevents corrosion of the base metal by the acid. The analysis of the spent acid strength and
the concentration of dissolved scale species indicate whether the acid clean is completed.
4. Rinses - After the acid stage, water rinsing is required to remove loose debris, sludge and
residual acid. Water rinsing may be accompanied by inert gas purging and sequestrant addition,
depending on the cleaning technique and the plant configuration.
5. Passivation - After the acid and rinses stages, the base metal which has been exposed as a
result of the cleaning operation is in a very active state. If left and exposed to the atmosphere,
the surface would rapidly re-oxidize in an uncontrolled fashion. A passivation process is
performed to form a tightly adherent, protective oxide film on the base metal.

86
 TYPICAL DEPOSITS THAT CAN BE REMOVED CHEMICALLY

Oils, grease, fat, waxes, soft carbon, tars, silt,

Organic vegetation, biological matter, polymer, resins,
paints

Rust, magnetite, calcium carbonate, calcium

sulphate, magnesium hydroxide, calcium
Inorganic
phosphate, silica, magnesium silicate, copper,
copper oxides, alumina, nickel oxides

Table 12: Typical deposits that can be removed chemically

TYPICAL DEPOSITS THAT CANNOT BE REMOVED CHEMICALLY

Glasses, ceramics, hard carbon, inert plastics, vulcanized rubber, rubber latex

Table 13: Typical deposits that cannot be removed chemically

87
 Sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid are the most widely used chemical cleaning agents.
When used properly they are safe, relatively low-cost materials. However, these mineral acids are
highly ionized and strong.

COMPLEXING
ACIDS ALKALIS
AGENTS

Hydrochloric Caustic Soda EDTA

Nitric Ammonia Gluconates

Sulphuric Trisodium phospate

Hydrofluoric Sodium metasilicate

Citric Soda ash

Formic

Sulphamic

Oxidants Solvents Others

Potassium permanganate Aromatic Biocides

Sodium bromate Aliphatic Surfactants

Sodium nitrite Chlorinated Inhibitors

Sodium hydrochlorite Emulsifiers Antifoams

Ammonium persulphate Dewatering formulations Dispersants

Hydrazine Biflouride

Table 14: List of chemicals that can be used for cleaning.

88
 The type of cleaning agent chosen has a major effect on the economics of the cleaning job.
The cleaning chemical must account for the material of the exchanger and the fouling it must
remove. In most conditions acids must be used for cleaning of the exchanger. Even though some
erosion happens it can be greatly reduced with inhibitors. The timing of cleaning has major
consequences will be plant safety, energy losses, production loss and this must be balance with the
economic cost.

COST
TYPE OF ACID USES AND CHARACTERISCTICS
(TTD/Kg)

Used as a 0.01 solution to chelate iron.

Citric Acid $18.17
Used at ambient temperature or slightly warm.

Very safe (corrosion and handling) cleaning agent.

By changing the pH and adding sodium nitrite, the
Ammoniated Citric
$ 2.34 same solution may be used for passivation.
Acid
pH is adjusted by adding NH3 and resulting
solution is effective for copper removal.

Table 15:Characteristics of the type of chemicalsused to clean the 114-C exchanger

The 114-C exchanger is a vital part of the process into which it is installed and its condition
can significantly affect the process economics in several ways. To improve the performance of this
heat exchanger prone to fouling problems, historical data should be acquired and analyzed and the
fouling model developed. The costs of fouling must be quantified and the cleaning criterion, mean
hourly cost of losses, should be monitored. The optimum time to clean is when this criterion
achieves its minimum value. Further, the cleaning method selected should be one that is not only
able to handle effectively the type of fouling experienced with this heat exchanger but result in
minimum annual maintenance and downtime costs.

89
 Future Recommendations:

1. Install a parallel Methanator Feed / Effluent Exchanger (114-C) (see Appendix A – P&ID 2)
 A second exchanger should be used (on standby) to ensure continuous production since
these exchangers are subjected to fouling due to crystallization of the Benfield carryover.
 Reduction in heat transfer area available means a reduction in the overall heat transfer of
both fluids in the exchanger, hence a reduction in plant throughput per day.
 With one exchanger down for inspection and cleaning/washing, the other can be used.
 It should be noted that the plant shutdown is usually scheduled around the time this
exchanger needs to be cleaned.
 114-C is taken out of service twice per year just to facilitate cleaning.
 One shutdown/downtime for this exchanger takes 3 days (It usually takes 24-36 hours for
Operations to prepare the exchanger for handover to maintenance to begin power washing.
Power washing can take as much as 36 hours as well depending on the level of fouling
present)
 1st day: depressuring and cooling
 2nd day: opening and inspection
 3rd day: washing and cleaning
 The parallel exchanger should be designed exactly like the existing 114-C since this
exchanger is adequately designed.
 The system should incorporate a 20 inch nozzle and piping made from SA 240 304
Stainless Steel with design pressure and temperature of 585 psig and 160 to 250 °F
respectively at the shell side outlet.
 The shell side inlet nozzle and piping should be 24 inches and fashioned from SA 240 304
Stainless Steel at 585 psig and 590 to 795 °F.
 The cold channel (tube side outlet) nozzle and piping shouldbe 20 inches and made from
SA 516 70 Normalized Carbon Steel with design pressure and temperature of 585 psig and
428 °F.
 The hot channel (tube side inlet) nozzle and piping should be 20 inches and built from SA
240 304 Stainless Steel at 585 psig and 660 to 800 °F.

90
  Double block and bleed valving system should be installed on the new and existing piping
arrangement (parallel system) along the two piping inlets to the exchanger and the two
piping outlets from the exchanger. A Diaphragm Control Valve should be placed at the
centre of the double block Gate Valves. Drainage piping should be positioned between the
double block and the control valve to accommodate a bleed valve. All valves should be
constructed from their respective materials as dictated by the piping onto which they will
be installed.

2. Install a parallel Absorber Overhead Knockout Drum 102F-2B (see Appendix A – P&ID 3)
 This second Knockout Drum (102F-2B) can be used when the initial (102-F2) Knockout
Drum’s demister pad is saturated and cannot perform according to design.
 With a parallel system production losses/downtime due to the 114-C exchanger fouling are
minimized.
 The parallel knockout drum should be designed exactly like the existing 102-F2.
 The system should incorporate a 24 inch nozzle and piping made from SA 240 304
Stainless Steel with design pressure and temperature of 585 psig and 160 to 250 °F
respectively at the inlet to the vessel (from CO2 Absorber).
 The outlet nozzle and piping leading to 115-F (Benfield Solution Sump) should be 2 inches
and fashioned from SA 240 304 Stainless Steel at 600 psig and 160 °F.
 The outlet nozzle and piping leading to the 114-C exchanger (Methanator Feed / Effluent
Exchanger) should be 24 inches and made from SA 240 304 Stainless Steel with design
pressure and temperature of 585 psig and 160 to 250 °F.
 Again, a double block and bleed valving system should be installed on the new and existing
piping arrangement (parallel system) along the two piping inlets to the exchanger and the
two piping outlets from the exchanger. A Diaphragm Control Valve should be placed at
the centre of the double block Gate Valves. Drainage piping should be positioned between
the double block and the control valve to accommodate a bleed valve.
 All valves should be constructed from SA 240 304 Stainless Steel materials and sized in
accordance with the piping onto which they will be installed.

91
 COSTING FOR NEW PARALLEL 114-C EXCHANGER

Cost of the New 114-C Methanator Feed/Effluent Exchanger

Capacity of Shell and tube Heat Exchanger in 2012 = 17,581.0000 ft2

Cost of Shell and tube Heat Exchanger in 2012 = TT$ 10,000,000.00

Capacity of Shell and tube Heat Exchanger in 2015 = 17,581.0000 ft2

Cost of Shell and tube Heat Exchanger in 2015 = TT$ xxxxxxxx

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2015 0.6

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2015 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2012 𝑥 ( )
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2012

0.6
17,581.0000 𝑓𝑡 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2015 = 𝑇𝑇$ 10,000,000 𝑥 ( )
17,581.0000 𝑓𝑡 2

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2015 = 𝑇𝑇$ 10,000,000 𝑥 1

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2015 = 𝑇𝑇$ 10,000,000

92
 Fixed Capital Investment for the Process Plant

FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT FOR PROCESS PLANT

COMPONENTS COST (TTD)

Purchased equipment (delivered) $ 10,000,000.00

Purchased equipment installation 35% $ 3,500,000.00

Instrumentation (installed) 25% $ 2,500,000.00

Piping (installed) 28% $ 2,800,000.00

Electrical (installed) 9% $ 900,000.00

Buildings (including services) 10% $ 1,000,000.00

Yard improvements 6% $ 600,000.00

Service facilities (installed) 45% $ 4,500,000.00

Land 0% $ -

TOTAL DIRECT COST $ 25,800,000.00

Engineering and supervision 30% $ 3,000,000.00

Construction expenses 31% $ 3,100,000.00

TOTAL DIRECT AND INDIRECT COST $ 31,900,000.00

Contractor's fees 5% $ 1,595,000.00

Contingency 10% $ 3,190,000.00

FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT TT$ 36,685,000.00

Table 16: Fixed Capital Investment for purchase and installation of exchanger in 2015

93
 Payment for Capital Investment for New 114-C Exchanger

PAYBACK TIME FOR CAPITAL INVESTMENT / LOAN

COMPONENTS COST (TTD)

Loan $ 36,685,000.00

Interest on Loan 12.00%

Interest on Loan to be repaid $ 4,402,200.00

Total monies to be repaid TT$ 41,087,200.00

Table 17: Payment for Capital Investment

Plant shutdown is scheduled twice per year and averages three (3) days of downtime for
every shutdown. This totals approximately six (6) days when the plant is not online which produces
a loss of 12000 metric tons of ammonia. At present according the Ministry of Energy and energy
affairs, the average price of ammonia is TT$3,798per metric ton which amounts toTT$
45,468,000.00of lost revenue.

With the implementation of a parallel heat exchanger system (114-CA/B) the plant can
remain online and thus losses due to downtime of this exchanger will be reduced. The cost of
implementing the parallel exchanger was calculated to be TT$41,087,200.00. However, losses of
TT$ 45,468,000.00 incurred due to 6 days of 114-C downtime can be made be alleviated by
implementing the parallel system. In less than one year of employing this system, the plant will
recover all the monies that were invested for its implementation.

Unfortunately, payback period could not be calculated; due to lack of financial statistics
from the company, from when the exchanger has been cleaned to the next scheduled cleaning
which is 6 months of accumulated fouling and increased pressure drop within the exchanger.

94
 Process Description for Parallel Heat Exchanger

Operation of Parallel Heat Exchangers

1. Start-up (114-CA): When placing a unit in operation, open the vent connections and start
to circulate the cold medium only. Be sure the passages in the exchanger are entirely filled
with cold fluid before closing the vents. The hot medium should then be introduced
gradually until all passages are filled with the vapour. Then close the vents and slowly
bring the unit up to temperature.

2. Bolted joints: Heat exchangers are hydrostatically tested in accordance with Code
requirements and are certified as satisfactory by inspection agencies agreed upon by the
manufacturer and the purchaser. However, normal yielding of gaskets will occur in the
interval between hydrostatic testing in the manufacturer’s shop and installation at the job
site. Therefore, all external bolted joints should be properly re-tightened after installation
and again after the exchanger has been heated, to prevent leaks and blowing out of gaskets.

3. Design and operating conditions: The equipment is not to be operated under pressure and
temperature conditions in excess of those indicated on the nameplate.

4. Increase in pressure drop: Over time, the exchanger will begin to foul and the allowable
pressure drop across the exchanger will start to rise.

5. Start-up of (114-CB): Before 114-CA reaches its maximum allowable pressure drop, a
second heat exchanger, that is clean and parallel to the system, should begin warming up
and getting ready to come online.

6. Shutting down (114-CA): In shutting down, flow of hot fluid should be shut off first. If it
is necessary to stop circulation of cooling medium, the circulation of the hot medium

95
 should be stoppedvia bypassing of the fluid to the 114-CB exchanger. The hot fluid from
the 114-CA exchanger, while shutting down and cooling, can be used to preheat and warm-
up the 114-CB exchanger before if comes online. This will ensure there is no decrease in
the overall throughput of the plant.

7. Maintenance of 114-CA: As soon as the shell and tube side fluid flows have been stopped,
ensure all block valves are in their closed position and the vent and bleed lines are opened.
Once this exchanger has been adequately cooled, drained and vented, it should be
thoroughly inspected and then cleaned according to standard operating procedures for
cleaning of the exchanger, using the required chemicals and mechanical devices.

8. Parallel system will alternate between the exchangers to optimize plant throughput.

Process Description for Parallel Knock Out Drum

Operation of the 102-F2 CO2 Absorber Knock Out Drum

96
 1. Process gas leaves the top of the CO2 Absorber (101-E) and goes to the CO2 absorber
overhead knockout drum (102-F2) whose primary function is recovery of any Benfield
solution which may have been entrained in the gas leaving the Absorber.

2. The gas enters the vessel and flows upwards to the top of the knockout drum.

3. A demister pad is located internally at the top of the vessel and combines the smaller liquid
droplets in the process gas by obstructing their path thereby increasing collisions among
the liquid droplets. Most of these droplets stick together and form bigger droplets which
are too heavy to rinse with the gas stream, hence the bigger liquid drops drop down in the
pool of liquid below. Demister pads may be a mesh type coalescer, vane pack or other
structure intended to aggregate the mist into droplets that are heavy enough to separate
from the vapour stream.

4. Gas stream is not affected by the obstruction in the path and escapes through top vapor
outlet.

5. Process gas then leaves the top of the overhead knockout drum (102-F2) and continues
downstream to the Methanator Feed/Effluent Exchanger (114-C).

6. Liquid from the bottom of the drum is drained and sent to the Benfield sump for storage
and regeneration.

Operation of Parallel Knock Out Drums

1. Inside the 102-F2A Knockout Drum, after using for some time, the wire mesh/demister
pad in the knock out drum becomes partially clogged and prone to flooding, and the

97
 pressure drop in the vessel increases, due to particles in the gas stream.The demister pad
now needs proper maintenance in order for the knockout drum to function at its designed
capacity.

2. However, the 102-F2 knockout drum is very important and needs to be online in order to
knock out any entrained Benfield in the process gas which can crystallize and foul the 114-
C exchanger.

3. As such, again when the pressure drop increases inside the vessel, a second knock drum
(102-F2B) can be placed online to keep production at a reasonable rate.

4. While 102-F2A is being cooled, drained, and depressurized, the process gas stream can be
routed to the second knockout, 102-F2B.

5. During maintenance of the vessel, with a parallel Benfield knock out system, the plant’s
production rate will remain on-stream since no downtime will be incurred for this section
of the plant.

CONCLUSION

98
 It was determined from modeling calculations that the 114-C exchanger is adequately
designed to deal with pressure drops and heat transfer required to preheat the methanator feed and
therefore a redesign is not necessary. The exchanger has an efficiency of 97.90% and piping
arrangements, metallurgy and construction showed that exchanger is correctly designed. The
problem arose from the fouling of the exchanger, which reduced the available area for heat transfer.
Hence,a parallel heat exchanger should be placed to reduce energy losses in the system. Along
with the parallel heat exchanger we propose that a parallel knock out drum be installed to minimize
production losses and/or downtime due to fouling of the 114-C heat exchanger.

Two methods, Kern’s and Bell’s, were used to calculate shell side heat transfer coefficient
and the allowable pressure drops. Kern’s method is a simplified method which does not consider
obstructions due to baffles. The method is therefore impractical for calculating accurate pressure
drops. Bell’s method however does consider the pressure drops due to bypass and leakage streams
caused by the baffles in the heat exchanger. As such, we chose Bell’s design for our possible
redesign of the heat exchanger since this method was more suitable and accurate. Bell’s method
produced a greater shell side heat transfer coefficient and areasonableallowable pressure drop on
the shell side.

Costing calculations produced a Fixed Capital of TT$36,685,000.00 for the attainment and
installation of a new parallel heat exchanger (114-CB). With an interest rate of 12%, the final
monies to be repaid by the company would be TT$41,087,200.00. The plant will recover all the
monies spent for implementing the parallel system within one year. A payback period could not
be computed due to the company being unable to provide financial data based on losses incurred
during the six month period when Benfield fouling and pressure drops in the exchanger are
accrued.

REFERENCES

99
BOOKS USED

1. Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering, Volume 6,

Fourth edition Chemical Engineering Design
R. K. Sinnott

2. Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook

Seventh Edition

PDF’s USED

1. OPTIMIZING THE CLEANING OF HEAT EXCHANGERS by Richard E. Putman,

Conco Consulting Corp.

2. Synthetic Nitrogen Products - A Practical Guide to the Products and Processes by Gary R.
Maxwell, DuPont Chemical Solutions Enterprise, Memphis, Tennessee

3. Software Evaluation Via a Study of Deviations in Results of Manual and Computer-Based

Step-Wise Method Calculations for Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers – by M. H. Karimi
Donaa of Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, West Blvd., Near Azadi Sports
Complex, Tehran, Iran, and M. R. Jalaliradb ofInstitute of Thermodynamics and Thermal
Engineering (ITW), University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring Stuttgart, Germany

4. Caribbean Nitrogen’s Plant Process Flow Diagrams (Overview)

MANUALS USED

1. Caribbean Nitrogen’s ISBL Operations Training Manuals.

100
P&ID’s USED

1. Caribbean Nitrogen’s Process and Instrumentation Diagrams

WEBSITES SOURCED

1. http://www.energy.gov.tt/our-business/lng-petrochemicals/petrochemicals/ammonia/

2. http://www.caribbeannitrogen.co.tt/

3. http://chemcontrol.co.tt/geomarket/trinidad__tobago_industrial.htm

4. http://www.kbr.com/Technologies/Process-Technologies/KBR-Advanced-Ammonia-
Process/

5. http://www.saginawpipe.com/steel_pipe_chart-4.htm

6. http://me1065.wdfiles.com/local--files/handouts-and-links/shellandtube.pdf

7. http://web.iitd.ac.in/~pmvs/courses/mel709/SHTE.pdf

8. http://www.hcheattransfer.com/selection.html

9. http://www.hcheattransfer.com/fouling1.html

101
 APPENDICES
Appendix A – Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams
P&ID – 1

102
103
P&ID – 2

104
105
106
P&ID - 3

107
108
 Appendix B - Formulas Used

Formulas Used for Kern’s Method

1. Heat load, 𝑄 (𝑘𝑊) = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇

Where 𝑚̇ = Mass flow (kg/s)
𝑐𝑝 = Specific heat capacity of fluid (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)
∆𝑇 = Change in temperature (℃)

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
2. Cooling flow, (kg/s)= 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )

𝜃1 − 𝜃2
3. Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference, ∆TLM (°C) = ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 𝜃
𝐼𝑛( 1 )
𝜃2

Where 𝜃1 = Temp of hot inlet fluid – temp of cold outlet fluid (℃)
𝜃2 = Temp of hot outlet fluid – temp of cold inlet fluid (℃)

𝑄
4. Provisional area, 𝐴 (𝑚2 ) = 𝑈 ∆𝑇𝑚

Where 𝑄 = Heat load (kW)

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (𝑊/𝑚2 ℃)
∆TLM= Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference(℃)

5. Area of 1 tube (𝑚2 ) = Length x O.D. x 𝜋

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
6. Number of tubes needed, 𝑁𝑡 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒

1
𝑁 𝑛
7. Bundle diameter, 𝐷𝑏 (mm) = 𝑑𝑜 (𝐾𝑡 ) 1
1

Where 𝑑𝑜 = Outer diameter (mm)

𝑁𝑡 = Number of tubes
𝐾1 = Values obtained from Table 22. Constants for K1 and n1

109
 𝑛1 = Values obtained from Table 22. Constants for K1 and n1
8. Shell diameter,𝐷𝑠 (mm)= 𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑏 + 𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

9. Mean tube side temperature drop, (℃)= 2

𝜋
10. Cross sectional area for one tube (mm2) = 4 𝑥 𝐼. 𝐷2

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠

11. Number of tubes per pass = 1

12. Total flow area per pass (m2) = Tubes per pass x Tube cross-sectional area

𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
13. Mass velocity on tube side,𝐺𝑡 (kg/sm2)= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒

14. Linear velocity on tube side,𝑢𝑡 (m/s) = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝜌 𝑢 𝑑𝑖
15. Reynolds number on tube side, 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇

Where𝜌 = Fluid density (kg/m3)

𝑢 = Linear velocity (m/s)
𝑑𝑖 = Inner diameter (m)
𝜇 = Fluid Viscosity (kg/ms)

𝐶𝑝 𝜇
16. Prandtl number on tube side,𝑃𝑟 = 𝑘𝑓

Where 𝑐𝑝 = Specific heat capacity of fluid (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)

𝜇 = Fluid Viscosity (kg/ms)
𝑘𝑓 = Fluid thermal conductivity (W/m℃)

110
 𝑘𝑓
17. Tube side coefficient,ℎ𝑖 (W/m2℃ )= 𝑗 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 0.33
𝑑𝑖 ℎ

Where 𝑘𝑓 = Fluid thermal conductivity (W/m℃)

𝑑𝑖 = Inner diameter (m)
𝑗ℎ = Tube side heat transfer factor
𝑅𝑒 = Reynolds Number on tube side
𝑃𝑟 = Prandtl Number on tube side

18. Baffle spacing,𝑙𝐵 (mm)= 𝐷𝑠 𝑥 1.2

Where𝐷𝑠 = Shell diameter (mm)

19. Tube pitch,𝑝𝑡 (mm)= 1.25 𝑥 𝑂. 𝐷

Where O.D= Outer diameter (mm)

(𝑝𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜 )𝐷𝑠 𝑙𝐵
20. Cross-flow area,𝐴𝑠 (m2)= 𝑝𝑡

Where 𝑝𝑡 = Tube pitch (mm)

𝑑𝑜 = Outer diameter (mm)
𝐷𝑠 = Shell diameter (mm)
𝑙𝐵 = Baffle spacing (mm)

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟

21. Mass flow,𝑊𝑠 (kg/s) = 3,600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

𝑊𝑠
22. Mass velocity,𝐺𝑠 (kg/sm2)=
𝐴𝑠

Where 𝑊𝑠 = Mass flow (kg/s)

𝐴𝑠 = Cross-flow area (m2)

1.1
23. Equivalent diameter,𝑑𝑒 (m)= (𝑝𝑡2 − 0.917 𝑑𝑜2 )
𝑑𝑜

Where 𝑝𝑡 = Tube pitch (mm)

𝑑𝑜 = Outer diameter (mm)

111
 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
24. Mean shell side temperature, (℃)= 2

𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑒
25. Reynolds number on shell side, 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇

Where 𝐺𝑠 = Mass velocity (kg/sm2)

𝑑𝑒 = Equivalent diameter (m)
𝜇 = Fluid Viscosity (kg/ms)

𝐶𝑝 𝜇
26. Prandtl number on shell side, 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑘𝑓

Where 𝑐𝑝 = Specific heat capacity of fluid (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)

𝜇 = Fluid Viscosity (kg/ms)
𝑘𝑓 = Fluid thermal conductivity (W/m℃)

𝑘
27. Shell side coefficient,ℎ𝑠 (W/m2℃ )= 𝑑𝑓 𝑗ℎ (𝑅𝑒)(𝑃𝑟)0.33
𝑒

Where 𝑘𝑓 = Fluid thermal conductivity (W/m℃)

𝑑𝑒 = Equivalent diameter (m)
𝑗ℎ = Shell side heat transfer factor
𝑅𝑒 = Reynolds Number on shell side
𝑃𝑟 = Prandtl Number on shell side

28. Mean temp difference across all resistances (℃) = mean tube side temp – mean shell side temp

𝑈
29. Mean temperature difference across shell side film(℃) = 𝑥 ∆𝑇
ℎ𝑜

Where 𝑈= Overall heat transfer coefficient(W/m2℃ )

ℎ𝑜 = Shell side coefficient(W/m2℃ )
∆𝑇 = Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (℃)

30. Mean wall temperature, (℃) = mean tube side temp – mean temp diff across shell side film

112
31. Overall coefficient,𝑈0 (W/m2C)
𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 𝐼𝑛 ( 𝑑𝑜 ) 𝑑𝑜 1 𝑑𝑜 1
𝑖
= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( 𝑥 ) + ( 𝑥 )
𝑈𝑜 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2 𝑥 𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖

Where ℎ𝑜 = Shell side coefficient (W/m2℃ )

ℎ𝑖 = Tube side coefficient (W/m2℃ )
ℎ𝑖𝑑 = Tube side fouling factors (coefficient) (W/m2℃ )
ℎ𝑜𝑑 = Shell side fouling factors (coefficient) (W/m2℃ )

𝐿 𝜇 −𝑚 𝜌𝑢𝑡2
32. Pressure drop on tube side, ∆𝑃𝑡 (kPa)= 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 (𝑑 ) (𝜇 ) + 2.5]
𝑖 𝑤 2

Where 𝑁𝑝 = number of tube-side passes

𝑗𝑓 = Tube side friction factor
𝐿 = Tube length (mm)
𝑑𝑖 = Inner diameter (m)
𝜌 = Fluid density (kg/m3)
𝑢𝑡 = Linear velocity on tube side (m/s)

𝐺𝑠
33. Shell Side Linear Velocity,𝑢𝑠 (m/s)= 𝜌
2
Where 𝐺𝑠 = Mass velocity (kg/sm )
𝜌 = Fluid density (kg/m3)

𝐷 𝐿 ρ us 2 μ −0.14
34. Shell side pressure drop, ∆𝑃𝑠 (kPa)= 8 𝑗𝑓 (𝑑 𝑠 ) (𝑙 ) (μ )
𝑒 𝑏 2 w

Where 𝐷𝑠 = Shell diameter (mm)

𝑗𝑓 = Shell side friction factor, segmental baffles
𝑑𝑒 = Equivalent diameter (mm)
𝐿 = Tube length (mm)
𝑙𝑏 = Baffle spacing (mm)
𝜌 = Fluid density (kg/m3)
𝑢𝑠 = Linear velocity on shell side (m/s)

113
 Formulas Used for Bell’s Method

1. Heat load, 𝑄 (𝑘𝑊) = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇

Where 𝑚̇ = Mass flow (kg/s)
𝑐𝑝 = Specific heat capacity of fluid (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)
∆𝑇 = Change in temperature (℃)

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
2. Cooling flow, (kg/s) = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )

𝜃1 − 𝜃2
3. Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference, ∆TLM (°C) = ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 𝜃
𝐼𝑛( 1 )
𝜃2

Where 𝜃1 = Temp of hot inlet fluid – temp of cold outlet fluid (℃)
𝜃2 = Temp of hot outlet fluid – temp of cold inlet fluid (℃)

𝑄
4. Provisional area, 𝐴 (𝑚2 ) = 𝑈 ∆𝑇𝑚

Where 𝑄 = Heat load (kW)

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (𝑊/𝑚2 ℃)
∆TLM= Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (℃)

5. Area of 1 tube (𝑚2 ) = Length x O.D. x 𝜋

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
6. Number of tubes needed, 𝑁𝑡 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒

1
𝑁 𝑛
7. Bundle diameter, 𝐷𝑏 (mm) = 𝑑𝑜 (𝐾𝑡 ) 1
1

Where 𝑑𝑜 = Outer diameter (mm)

𝑁𝑡 = Number of tubes
𝐾1 = Values obtained from Table 26. Constants for K1 and n1
𝑛1 = Values obtained from Table 26. Constants for K1 and n1

114
8. Shell diameter,𝐷𝑠 (mm) = 𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑏 + 𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

9. Baffle spacing,𝑙𝐵 (mm) = 𝐷𝑠 𝑥 1.2

Where 𝐷𝑠 = Shell diameter (mm)

10. Tube pitch,𝑝𝑡 (mm) = 1.25 𝑥 𝑂. 𝐷

Where O.D= Outer diameter (mm)

(𝑝𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜 )𝐷𝑠 𝑙𝐵
11. Cross-flow area,𝐴𝑠 (m2) = 𝑝𝑡

Where 𝑝𝑡 = Tube pitch (mm)

𝑑𝑜 = Outer diameter (mm)
𝐷𝑠 = Shell diameter (mm)
𝑙𝐵 = Baffle spacing (mm)

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟

12. Mass flow,𝑊𝑠 (kg/s) = 3,600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

𝑊𝑠
13. Mass velocity,𝐺𝑠 (kg/sm2) = 𝐴𝑠

Where 𝑊𝑠 = Mass flow (kg/s)

𝐴𝑠 = Cross-flow area (m2)

𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑜
14. Reynolds number on shell side, 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇
2
Where 𝐺𝑠 = Mass velocity (kg/sm )
𝑑𝑜 = Outer diameter (m)
𝜇 = Fluid Viscosity (kg/ms)

𝐶𝑝 𝜇
15. Prandtl number on shell side, 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑘𝑓

Where 𝑐𝑝 = Specific heat capacity of fluid (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃)

𝜇 = Fluid Viscosity (kg/ms)
𝑘𝑓 = Fluid thermal conductivity (W/m℃)

115
 𝑘𝑓 1⁄3
16. Ideal bank coefficient,ℎ𝑜𝑐 (W/m2℃) = 𝑗 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟
𝑑𝑜 ℎ
Where 𝑘𝑓 = Fluid thermal conductivity (W/m℃)
𝑑𝑜 = Outer diameter (m)
𝑗ℎ = Heat transfer factor cross-flow tube banks
𝑅𝑒 = Reynolds Number on tube side
𝑃𝑟 = Prandtl Number on tube side

17. Tube vertical pitch,𝑝𝑡′ (mm)= 0.87 𝑥 𝑝𝑡

Where 𝑝𝑡 = Tube pitch (mm)

𝑝
18. Baffle cut height,𝐻𝑐 (mm)= Ds x ( 𝑡⁄100)
Where 𝑝𝑡 = Tube pitch (mm)
𝐷𝑠 = Shell diameter (mm)

19. Height between baffle tips, (mm)= Ds – 2Hc

Where 𝐻𝑐 = Baffle cut height (mm)
𝐷𝑠 = Shell diameter (mm)

(𝐷𝑠 −2𝐻𝑐 )
20. Number of tube rows crossed (in the cross-flow region), 𝑁𝑐𝑣 = 𝑝𝑡′
Where 𝐷𝑠 = Shell diameter (mm)
𝐻𝑐 = Baffle cut height (mm)
𝑝𝑡′ = Vertical tube pitch (mm)

𝐷𝑏
21. Height from the baffle chord to the top of the tube bundle,𝐻𝑏 (mm)= − 𝐷𝑠 (0.5 − 𝐵𝑐 )
2
Where 𝐷𝑏 = Bundle diameter (mm)
𝐷𝑠 = Shell diameter (mm)
𝐵𝑐 = Tube pitch (fraction)

22. Bundle cut,𝐵𝑏 = 𝐻𝑏 ⁄𝐷𝑏

Where 𝐷𝑏 = Bundle diameter (mm)
𝐻𝑏 = Height from the baffle chord to the top of the tube bundle (mm)

116
23. Tubes in one window area,𝑁𝑤 = 𝑁𝑡 𝑥 𝑅𝑎′
Where 𝑁𝑡 = Number of tubes
𝑅𝑎′ = Baffle geometrical factors.

24. Tubes in cross-flow area, 𝑁𝑐 = 𝑁𝑡 − 2𝑁𝑤

Where 𝑁𝑡 = Number of tubes
𝑁𝑤 = Tubes in one window area

2𝑁𝑤
25. Ratio of the number of tubes in the window zones to the total number in the bundle,𝑅𝑤 = 𝑁𝑡
Where 𝑁𝑡 = Number of tubes
𝑁𝑤 = Tubes in one window area

26. Clearance area between the bundle and the shell,𝐴𝑏 (m2)= 𝑙𝑏 (𝐷𝑠 − 𝐷𝑏 )
Where 𝑙𝑏 = Baffle spacing (mm)
𝐷𝑏 = Bundle diameter (mm)
𝐷𝑠 = Shell diameter (mm)

𝐴 2𝑁 1⁄3
27. Bypass correction, 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [−𝛼 𝐴𝑏 (1 − (𝑁 𝑠 ) )]
𝑠 𝑐𝑣

Where 𝐴𝑏 = Clearance area between the bundle and the shell (m2)
𝐴𝑠 = Cross-flow area (m2)
𝛼 = 1.35 for transitional and turbulent flow Re > 100
𝑁𝑠 = number of sealing strips met by the bypass stream in the cross-flow zone
𝑁𝑐𝑣 = the number of constrictions, tube rows, met in the cross-flow section

𝑐𝑡 𝜋𝑑𝑜
28. Tube to baffle clearance area, per baffle,𝐴𝑡𝑏 (m2)= (𝑁𝑡 − 𝑁𝑤 ) 𝑥 10−6
2
Where 𝑐𝑡 = Diametrical tube-to-baffle clearance (diff between the hole and tube
diameter) (mm), from Table 27. Typical baffle clearances and tolerances
𝑑𝑜 = Outer diameter (mm)
𝑁𝑡 = Number of tubes
𝑁𝑤 = Tubes in one window area

117
 𝑐𝑠 𝐷𝑠
29. Shell to baffle clearance area, per baffle,𝐴𝑠𝑏 (m2)= (2𝜋 − 𝜃𝑏 ) 𝑥 𝑥 10−6
2
Where 𝑐𝑠 = Baffle-to-shell clearance (mm), from Table 27. Typical baffle clearances and
tolerances
𝐷𝑠 = Shell diameter (mm)
𝜃𝑏 = Baffle geometrical factors.

30. Total leakage area,𝐴𝐿 (m2) = (𝐴𝑡𝑏 + 𝐴𝑠𝑏 )

Where 𝐴𝑡𝑏 = Tube to baffle clearance area, per baffle, (m2)
𝐴𝑠𝑏 = Shell to baffle clearance area, per baffle (m2)

(𝐴𝑡𝑏 + 2𝐴𝑠𝑏 )
31. Leakage correction, 𝐹𝐿 = 1 − 𝛽𝐿 [ ]
𝐴𝐿
Where𝛽𝐿 = Coefficient for FL, heat transfer calculations
𝐴𝑡𝑏 = Tube to baffle clearance area, per baffle, (m2)
𝐴𝑠𝑏 = Shell to baffle clearance area, per baffle (m2)
𝐴𝐿 = Total leakage area, (m2)

32. Shell-side coefficient,ℎ𝑠 (W/m2℃)= ℎ𝑜𝑐 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑤 𝐹𝑏 𝐹𝐿

Where ℎ𝑜𝑐 = Ideal bank coefficient, (W/m2℃)
𝐹𝑛 = Tube row correction factor
𝐹𝑤 = Window correction factor
𝐹𝑏 = Bypass correction
𝐹𝐿 = Leakage correction

Gs
33. Shell side velocity,us (m/s)= ρ
Where 𝐺𝑠 = Mass velocity (kg/sm2)
𝜌 = Fluid density (kg/m3)

𝜌 𝑢𝑠 2 𝜇 −0.14
34. Ideal tube bank pressure drop, ∆𝑃𝑖 (N/m2)= 8 𝑗𝑓 𝑁𝑐𝑣 (𝜇 )
2 𝑤
Where jf= Friction factor for cross-flow tube banks
𝑁𝑐𝑣 = Tube row correction factor
𝜌 = Fluid density (kg/m3)
𝑢𝑠 = Shell side velocity, (m/s)

118
 𝐴 2𝑁 1⁄3
35. Bypass correction factor for pressure drop, 𝐹𝑏′ = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [−𝛼 𝐴𝑏 (1 − (𝑁 𝑠 ) )]
𝑠 𝑐𝑣

Where 𝐴𝑏 = Clearance area between the bundle and the shell (m2)
𝐴𝑠 = Cross-flow area (m2)
𝛼 = 4.0 fortransition and turbulent region, Re > 100
𝑁𝑠 = number of sealing strips met by the bypass stream in the cross-flow zone
𝑁𝑐𝑣 = the number of constrictions, tube rows, met in the cross-flow section

(Atb + 2Asb )
36. Leakage factor for pressure drop, FL′ = 1 − β′L [ ]
AL
Where 𝛽𝐿′ = Coefficient for FL’, pressure drop
𝐴𝑡𝑏 = Tube to baffle clearance area, per baffle, (m2)
𝐴𝑠𝑏 = Shell to baffle clearance area, per baffle (m2)
𝐴𝐿 = Total leakage area, (m2)

37. Pressure drop in cross flow zone,∆𝑃𝑐 (N/m2)= ∆𝑃𝑖 𝐹𝑏′ 𝐹𝐿′
Where ∆𝑃𝑖 = Ideal tube bank pressure drop, (N/m2)
𝐹𝑏′ = Bypass correction factor for pressure drop
𝐹𝐿′ = Leakage factor for pressure drop

πD2s πd2o
38. Window area less the area occupied by the tubes,Aw (m2)= ( 4
x R a ) − (Nw 4
) 𝑥 10−6
Where 𝐷𝑠 = Shell diameter (mm)
Ra = Baffle geometrical factors
𝑁𝑤 = Tubes in one window area
𝑑𝑜 = Tube outer diameter (mm)

𝑊𝑠
39. Velocity in the window,𝑢𝑤 (m/s)=
𝐴𝑤 𝜌
Where 𝑊𝑠 = Mass flow, (kg/s)
𝐴𝑤 = Window area less the area occupied by the tubes, (m2)
𝜌 = Fluid density (kg/m3)

119
40. Geometric mean velocity,𝑢𝑧 (m/s)= √𝑢𝑤 𝑢𝑠
Where 𝑢𝑤 = Velocity in the window, (m/s)
𝑢𝑠 = Shell side velocity, (m/s)

𝐻𝑏
41. Number of restrictions for cross flow in window zone, 𝑁𝑤𝑣 = 𝑝𝑡′
Where 𝐻𝑏 = Height from the baffle chord to the top of the tube bundle (mm)
𝑝𝑡′ = Vertical tube pitch (mm)

𝜌𝑢𝑧2
42. Pressure drop in window zone,∆𝑃𝑤 (N/m2)= 𝐹𝐿′ (2 + 0.6𝑁𝑤𝑣 )
2
Where 𝐹𝐿′ = Leakage factor for pressure drop
𝑁𝑤𝑣 = Number of restrictions for cross flow in window zone
𝜌 = Fluid density (kg/m3)
𝑢𝑧 = Geometric mean velocity, (m/s)

(𝑁𝑤𝑣 + 𝑁𝑐𝑣 )
43. Pressure drop in end zone,∆𝑃𝑒 (N/m2) = ∆𝑃𝑖 [ ] 𝐹𝑏′
𝑁𝑐𝑣
Where ∆𝑃𝑖 = Ideal tube bank pressure drop, (N/m2)
𝑁𝑤𝑣 = Number of restrictions for cross flow in window zone
𝑁𝑐𝑣 = Number of tube rows crossed (in the cross-flow region)
𝐹𝑏′ = Bypass correction factor for pressure drop

𝐿
44. Number of baffles 𝑁𝑏 = [(𝑙 ) − 1]
𝑏
Where 𝐿= Tube length (mm)
𝑙𝑏 = Baffle spacing (mm)

45. Clean condition pressure drop,∆Ps (kPa) = 2∆𝑃𝑒 + ∆𝑃𝑐 (𝑁𝑏 − 1) + 𝑁𝑏 ∆𝑃𝑤
Where ∆𝑃𝑒 = Pressure drop in end zone, (N/m2)
∆𝑃𝑐 = Pressure drop in cross flow zone, (N/m2)
𝑁𝑏 = Number of baffles
∆𝑃𝑤 = Pressure drop in window zone, (N/m2)

120
 Appendix C – Kern’s Method

Kern’s Method to design an exchanger to heat process gas (methanator feed) from the shell
side from 70.0000 ºC to 313.4917 ºC flowing at 90,300.1063 kg/hr using process gas (methanator
effluent) on the tube side at 346.6667 ºC to 100.7333 ºC flowing at 89,306.6052 kg/hr.

Tube Side Fluid Properties

 Heat capacity = 3,232.2096 J/kg℃

 Density = 6.3433 kg/m3
 Viscosity = 2.0 x 10-5kg/ms
 Thermal conductivity = 0.1781 W/mK
 Fouling factor = 6,194.5000 W/mºC
 Mass flow rate = 89,306.6052 kg/hr

Shell Side Fluid Properties

 Heat capacity = 3,161.0340 J/kg℃

 Density = 11.6775 kg/m3
 Viscosity = 1.2 x 10-5 kg/ms
 Thermal conductivity = 0.1159 W/mK
 Fouling factor = 6,194.5000 W/mºC
 Mass flow rate = 90,300.1063 kg/hr

121
SOLUTION - Only thermal design was considered.

90,300.1063 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟 3,161.0340

1. Heat load, 𝑄 = ( 3,600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠/ℎ𝑟 ) 𝑥 ( 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃) 𝑥 (346.6667𝐶 − 100.7333𝐶)
1000

Heat load, 𝑄 = 19,499.9026 𝑘𝑊

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
2. Cooling flow, = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )

19,499.9026 𝑘𝑊
Cooling flow, = 3,232.2096 = 24.7770 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
( 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃) 𝑥 (313.4917℃−70.0000℃)
1000

3. Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference, ∆TLM°C

𝜃1 − 𝜃2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 𝜃
𝐼𝑛 ( 1 )
𝜃2

(𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 ) − (𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )

∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝐼𝑛 ((𝑇 ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 ))
ℎ𝑜 𝑐𝑖

(346.6667 − 313.4917) − (100.7333 − 70.0000)

∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = (346.6667− 313.4917)
𝐼𝑛 ( (100.7333−70.0000) )

(33.1750) − (30.7333)
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = (33.1750)
𝐼𝑛 ((30.7333))

∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 31.9386𝐶

122
4. From Figure 35, guessed value for overall heat transfer coefficient; 𝑈 = 358.1404 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃

Figure 35: Guessed value for overall heat transfer coefficient, U

𝑄 19,499,902.6000 𝑊
5. Provisional area, 𝐴 = = = 1,704.7600 𝑚2
𝑈 ∆𝑇𝑚 358.1404 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐶 𝑥 31.9386℃

6. From exchanger data sheet,12.70 mm O.D, 10.21 mm I.D, 12.192-m-long tubes(40𝑓𝑡), 304SS
(stainless steel).

7. Allowing for tube-sheet thickness, take 𝐿 = 12.192 𝑚 − 0.05 𝑚 = 12.142 𝑚

8. Area of 1 tube = 𝐿 𝑥 𝑂. 𝐷 𝑥 𝜋 = 12.142 𝑚 𝑥 0.0127 𝑚 𝑥 𝜋 = 0.4844 𝑚2

123
 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 1,704.7600 𝑚2
9. Number of tubes needed,𝑁𝑡 = = = 3,519.0000 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 0.4844 𝑚2

10. Shell-side fluid is relatively clean, so we used 1.25 triangular pitch

From Table 19, we obtained for a single pass exchanger,𝐾1 = 0.319 and 𝑛1 = 2.142

Table 18: Constants for K1 and n1 to be used in calculation number 11

1
𝑁 𝑛
11. Bundle diameter 𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 (𝐾𝑡 ) 1
1
1
3,519.0000 2.142
Bundle diameter 𝐷𝑏 = 12.7𝑚𝑚 [( 0.319 ) ]

Bundle diameter 𝐷𝑏 = 979.7576 𝑚𝑚

12. Used a fixed tubesheet type.

Bundle diametrical clearance = 239.2424 𝑚𝑚

13. Shell inner diameter, 𝐷𝑠 = 𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑏 + 𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Shell inner diameter, 𝐷𝑠 = 979.7576 𝑚𝑚 + 239.2424 𝑚𝑚 = 1,219.0000 𝑚𝑚

(Note. standard pipe size is50 inch).

124
 346.6667 + 100.7333
14. Mean tube side temperature drop = = 223.70000𝐶
2

𝜋 𝜋
15. Cross sectional area for one tube = 4 𝑥 𝐼. 𝐷2 = 𝑥 (10.21 𝑚𝑚)2 = 81.8731 𝑚𝑚2
4

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 3,519.0000

16. Number of tubes per pass = = = 3,519.0000 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
1 1

17. Total flow area per pass = 𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Total flow area per pass = 3,519.0000 𝑥 81.8731 𝑚𝑚2 𝑥 10−6 = 0.2881 𝑚2

𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 24.7770 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

18. Mass velocity on tube side, 𝐺𝑡 = = = 86.0014 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 𝑚2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 0.2881𝑚2

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 86.0014 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 𝑚2

19. Linear velocity on tube side, (𝑢𝑡 ) = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
=
6.3433 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
= 13.5578 𝑚/𝑠

𝜌 𝑢 𝑑𝑖
20. Reynolds number on tube side, 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇

6.3433 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 13.5578 𝑚/𝑠 𝑥 0.01021𝑚

𝑅𝑒 = = 43,903.6089
0.0000200 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠

𝐶𝑝 𝜇 3,232.2096 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃ 𝑥 0.000020 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠

21. Prandtl number, 𝑃𝑟 = = = 0.3630
𝑘𝑓 0.1781 𝑊/𝑚𝐶

𝑙 12,142 𝑚𝑚
22. 𝑑 = 10.21 𝑚𝑚
= 1,189.2262
𝑖

125
23. From Figure 36, 𝑗ℎ = 3.3 𝑥 10−3

Figure 36: Tube side heat transfer factor, jh

𝜇 0.14
We disregarded (𝜇 ) in our calculations because its value was negligible.
𝑤

𝑘𝑓
24. Tube side coefficient, ℎ𝑖 = 𝑗 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 0.33
𝑑𝑖 ℎ
0.1781𝑊/𝑚𝐶
Tube side coefficient, ℎ𝑖 = 𝑥 3.3 𝑥 10−3 𝑥 43,903.6089 𝑥 0.36300.33
0.01021 𝑚

Tube side coefficient, ℎ𝑖 = 1,808.9290 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃

25. Baffle spacing, 𝑙𝐵 = 𝐷𝑠 𝑥 1.25 = 1219.0000 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 1.25 = 1,523.7500 𝑚𝑚

126
26. Tube pitch, 𝑝𝑡 = 1.25 𝑥 12.70 𝑚𝑚 = 15.875 𝑚𝑚
(𝑝𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜 )𝐷𝑠 𝑙𝐵
27. Cross-flow area, 𝐴𝑠 = 𝑝𝑡

(15.875 𝑚𝑚 − 12.70 𝑚𝑚) 𝑥 1,219.0000 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 1,523.7500 𝑚𝑚

𝐴𝑠 = 𝑥 10−6
15.875 𝑚𝑚
= 0.3715 𝑚2

90,300.1063 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
28. Mass flow, 𝑊𝑠 = = 25.0834 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
3,600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠/ℎ𝑟

𝑊𝑠 25.0834 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
29. Mass velocity, 𝐺𝑠 = = = 67.5192 𝑘𝑔/s𝑚2
𝐴𝑠 0.3715 𝑚2

30. For an equilateral triangular pitch arrangement:

1.1
Equivalent diameter, 𝑑𝑒 = (𝑝𝑡2 − 0.917 𝑑𝑜2 )
𝑑𝑜

1.1
𝑑𝑒 = [(15.875 𝑚𝑚)2 − 0.917 𝑥 (12.7 𝑚𝑚)2 ] 𝑥 10−3 = 0.0090 𝑚
12.70 𝑚𝑚

313.4917 + 70.0000
31. Mean shell side temperature = = 191.7459 ℃
2

𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑒 67.5192 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑚2 𝑥 0.0090 m

32. Reynolds number on shell side, 𝑅𝑒 = = = 50,639.4000
𝜇 0.0000120 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠

𝐶𝑝 𝜇 3,161.0340 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃ 𝑥 0.000012 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠

33. Prandtl number, 𝑃𝑟 = = = 0.3273
𝑘𝑓 0.1159 𝑊/𝑚𝐶

34. Using a baffle cut of 25%, and the shell side Reynolds number and Figure 37, 𝑗ℎ = 2.8 𝑥 10−3

127
 Figure 37: Shell side heat transfer factor, segmental baffles, jh

Without the viscosity correction term

0.33
𝑘𝑓 𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑒 𝐶𝑝 𝜇
35. Shell side coefficient, ℎ𝑠 = 𝑑 𝑗ℎ ( )( )
𝑒 𝜇 𝑘𝑓

𝑘
Shell side coefficient, ℎ𝑠 = 𝑑𝑓 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 0.33
𝑒

0.1159 𝑊/𝑚℃
Shell side coefficient, ℎ𝑠 = 2.8 𝑥 10−3 𝑥 50,639.4000 𝑥 0.32730.33
0.0090 𝑚

Shell side coefficient, ℎ𝑠 = 1,263.0475 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃

ℎ𝑠 = ℎ𝑜

36. Mean temp difference across all resistances = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 – 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝

128
 Mean temp difference across all resistances= 223.70000℃ − 191.7459 ℃ = 31.9541 ℃
𝑈 358.1404 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃
37. Mean temperature difference across shell side film = ℎ 𝑥 ∆𝑇 = 1,263.0475 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃
𝑥 31.9541℃
𝑜

Mean temperature difference across shell side film = 9.0606 ℃

38. Mean wall temperature = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚
Mean wall temperature = 223.70000 ℃ − 9.0606 ℃ = 214.6394 ℃

(Note. The following shows that the correction for a low-viscosity fluid is not significant).
μw = 0.025 mNs/m2
μ = 0.017 mNs/m2
0.14
μ 0.14 0.012 mNs/m2
( ) = ( ) = 0.9310
μw 0.020 mNs/m2

39. Conductivity of stainless steel metal was taken as 16 W/m2 ºC from Table 20

Table 19: Conductivity of metals

40. Fouling coefficients were obtained from Table 21

Interpolated Air and Industrial Gases (shell side fluid),ℎ𝑜𝑑 = 6,194.50000 W/m2 ℃

129
 Interpolated Air and Industrial Gases (tube side fluid),ℎ𝑖𝑑 = 6,194.50000 W/m2 ℃

Table 20: Fouling factors (coefficients), typical values

41. Overall coefficient, 𝑈0

𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 𝐼𝑛 ( 𝑑𝑜 ) 𝑑𝑜 1 𝑑𝑜 1
𝑖
= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( 𝑥 ) + ( 𝑥 )
𝑈𝑜 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2 𝑥 𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖

0.01270 𝑚
1 1 1 0.0127 𝑚 𝑥 𝐼𝑛 ( 0.01021𝑚 )
= ( ) + ( ) + ( )
𝑈𝑜 1,263.0475 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃ 6,194.50 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃ 2 𝑥 16

0.01270 𝑚 1 0.01270 𝑚 1
+ ( 𝑥 2
) + ( 𝑥 )
0.01021𝑚 6,194.50 𝑊/𝑚 ℃ 0.01021𝑚 1,808.9290 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃
1
= (0.000791735) + (0.000161433) + (0.000086611) + (0.000200803) + (0.00068764)
𝑈𝑜
1
= 0.001928222
𝑈𝑜
∴ 𝑈𝑜 = 518.6125 𝑊/𝑚2 C

This is above the assumed value of358.1404 𝑊/𝑚2 C

130
42. From Figure 38, Re = 43,903.6089, tube side friction factor, 𝑗𝑓 = 3.3 𝑥 10−3

Figure 38: Tube side friction factors, jf

𝐿 𝜇 −𝑚 𝜌𝑢𝑡2
43. Pressure drop on tube side, ∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 (𝑑 ) (𝜇 ) + 2.5]
𝑖 𝑤 2
2
Where ∆𝑃𝑡 = tube-side pressure drop, N/m (Pa),
𝑁𝑝 =Number of tube-side passes,
𝑢𝑡 =Tube-side velocity, m/s,
𝐿 = Length of one tube.
𝐿 𝜇 −𝑚 𝜌𝑢𝑡2
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) + 2.5]
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
12,142 𝑚𝑚 6.3433 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 (13.5578 𝑚/𝑠)2
∆𝑃𝑡 = 1 [8 𝑥 3.3 𝑥 10−3 ( ) + 2.5]
10.21 𝑚𝑚 2
∆𝑃𝑡 = 1 [33.8956] 𝑥 582.9935
∆𝑃𝑡 = 19,760.9145 𝑃𝑎

131
 ∆𝑃𝑡 = 19.7609 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐺𝑠 67.5192 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑚2
44. Shell Side Linear Velocity, (𝑢𝑠 ) = = = 5.7820 m/s
𝜌 11.6775 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

45. From Figure 39, &Re = 50,639.4000, shell side friction factor, segmental baffles, 𝑗𝑓 =
3.9 𝑥 10−2

Figure 39: Shell side friction factors, segmental baffles, jf

𝐷 𝐿 ρ us 2 μ −0.14
46. Shell side pressure drop, ∆𝑃𝑠 = 8 𝑗𝑓 (𝑑 𝑠 ) (𝑙 ) (μ )
𝑒 𝑏 2 w

1,219.0000 𝑚𝑚 12,142 𝑚𝑚 11.6775 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 (5.7820𝑚/𝑠)2

∆𝑃𝑠 = 8 𝑥 (3.9 𝑥 10−2 ) ( )( )
0.0090 𝑚𝑚 1,523.7500 𝑚𝑚 2
Shell side pressure drop, ∆𝑃𝑠 = 65,730.7148Pa

132
 Shell side pressure drop, ∆𝑃𝑠 = 65.7307 kPa

Appendix D – Bell’s Method

Bell’s Method to design an exchanger to heat process gas (methanator feed) from the shell
side from 70.0000 ºC to 313.4917 ºC flowing at 90,300.1063 kg/hr using process gas (methanator
effluent) on the tube side at 346.6667 ºC to 100.7333 ºC flowing at 89,306.6052 kg/hr.

Tube Side Fluid Properties

 Heat capacity = 3,232.2096 J/kg℃

 Density = 6.3433 kg/m3
 Viscosity = 2.0 x 10-5 kg/ms
 Thermal conductivity = 0.1781 W/mK
 Fouling factor = 6,194.5000 W/mºC
 Mass flow rate = 89,306.6052 kg/hr

Shell Side Fluid Properties

 Heat capacity = 3,161.0340 J/kg℃

 Density = 11.6775 kg/m3
 Viscosity = 1.2 x 10-5 kg/ms
 Thermal conductivity = 0.1159 W/mK
 Fouling factor = 6,194.5000 W/mºC
 Mass flow rate = 90,300.1063 kg/hr

133
SOLUTION - Only thermal design was considered.

1. Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference, ∆TLM°C

𝜃1 − 𝜃2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 𝜃
𝐼𝑛 (𝜃1 )
2

(𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 ) − (𝑇ℎ𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 )

∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝐼𝑛 ((𝑇 ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 ))
ℎ𝑜 𝑐𝑖

(346.6667 − 313.4917) − (100.7333 − 70.0000)

∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = (346.6667− 313.4917)
𝐼𝑛 ( (100.7333−70.0000) )

(33.1750) − (30.7333)
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = (33.1750)
𝐼𝑛 ((30.7333))

∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 31.9386𝐶

2. From exchanger data sheet, 12.70 mm O.D, 10.21 mm I.D, 12.192-m-long tubes (40ft),
304SS (stainless steel).

90,300.1063 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟 3,161.0340

3. Heat load, 𝑄 = ( )𝑥 ( 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃) 𝑥 (346.6667𝐶 − 100.7333 𝐶)
3,600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠/ℎ𝑟 1000

Heat load, 𝑄 = 19,499.9030 𝑘𝑊

4. From Figure 40, guessed value for overall heat transfer coefficient; 𝑈 = 358.1404 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃

134
 Figure 40: Guessed value for overall heat transfer coefficient, U

𝑄 19,499,902.60000 𝑊
5. Provisional area, 𝐴 = = = 1,704.7600 𝑚2
𝑈 ∆𝑇𝑚 358.1404 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐶 𝑥 31.9386℃

6. Allowing for tube-sheet thickness, take 𝐿 = 12.192 𝑚 − 0.05 𝑚 = 12.142 𝑚

7. Area of 1 tube = 𝐿 𝑥 𝑂. 𝐷 𝑥 𝜋 = 12.142 𝑚 𝑥 0.0127 𝑚 𝑥 𝜋 = 0.4844 𝑚2

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 1,704.7600 𝑚2

8. Number of tubes needed,𝑁𝑡 = = = 3,519 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 0.4844 𝑚2

135
9. Shell-side fluid is relatively clean, so we used 1.25 triangular pitch
From Table 22, we obtained for a single pass exchanger, 𝐾1 = 0.319 and 𝑛1 = 2.142

Table 21: Constants for K1 and n1 to be used in calculation number 10

1
3,519.0000 2.142
10. Bundle diameter 𝐷𝑏 = 12.7𝑚𝑚 [( 0.319 ) ]

Bundle diameter 𝐷𝑏 = 979.7576 𝑚𝑚

11. Used a fixed tubesheet type.

Bundle diametrical clearance = 239.2424 𝑚𝑚

12. Shell inner diameter, 𝐷𝑠 = 𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑏 + 𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Shell inner diameter, 𝐷𝑠 = 979.7576 𝑚𝑚 + 239.2424 𝑚𝑚 = 1,219.0000 𝑚𝑚
(Note. standard pipe size is 50 inch).

13. Baffle spacing, 𝑙𝐵 = 𝐷𝑠 𝑥 1.25 = 1,219.00 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 1.25 = 1,523.75 𝑚𝑚

14. Tube pitch, 𝑝𝑡 = 1.25 𝑥 12.70 𝑚𝑚 = 15.875 𝑚𝑚

(𝑝𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜 )𝐷𝑠 𝑙𝐵
15. Cross-flow area, 𝐴𝑠 =
𝑝𝑡

(15.875 𝑚𝑚 − 12.70 𝑚𝑚) 𝑥 1,219.00 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 1,523.7500 𝑚𝑚

𝐴𝑠 = 𝑥 10−6 = 0.3715 𝑚2
15.875 𝑚𝑚

136
 90,300.1063 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
16. Mass flow, 𝑊𝑠 = = 25.0834 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
3,600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠/ℎ𝑟
𝑊𝑠 25.0834 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
17. Mass velocity, 𝐺𝑠 = = = 67.5192 𝑘𝑔/s𝑚2
𝐴𝑠 0.3715 𝑚2

𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑜 67.5192 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑚2 𝑥 0.0127m

18. Reynolds number on shell side, 𝑅𝑒 = = = 71,457.8200
𝜇 0.0000120 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠

𝐶𝑝 𝜇 3,161.0340 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃ 𝑥 0.000012 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠

19. Prandtl number, 𝑃𝑟 = = = 0.3273
𝑘𝑓 0.1159 𝑊/𝑚𝐶

20. From Figure 41, heat transfer factor for cross-flow tube banks,𝑗ℎ = 3.8 𝑥 10−3

Figure 41: Heat transfer factor for cross-flow tube banks, jh

Neglected viscosity correction factor 𝜇 ⁄𝜇𝑤

137
 𝑘𝑓 1⁄3
21. Ideal bank coefficient, ℎ𝑜𝑐 = 𝑗 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟
𝑑𝑜 ℎ

0.1159 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃
Ideal bank coefficient, ℎ𝑜𝑐 = 3.8 𝑥 10−3 𝑥 71,457.8200 𝑥 0.32731⁄3
0.0127 𝑚

ℎ𝑜𝑐 = 1,707.7662 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃

22. For an equilateral triangular pitch, 𝑝𝑡′ = 0.87pt.

23. Tube vertical pitch 𝑝𝑡′ = 0.87 𝑥 15.8750 = 13.8113 𝑚𝑚

24. Baffle cut height 𝐻𝑐 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝐷 𝑥 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 1.25 ∆

Baffle cut height 𝐻𝑐 = 1,219.0000 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 0.15875 = 193.5163 𝑚𝑚

25. Height between baffle tips = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝐷 − 2𝐻𝑐

Height between baffle tips = 1,219.0000 𝑚𝑚 − (2 𝑥 193.5163 𝑚𝑚) = 831.9674 𝑚𝑚

(𝐷𝑠 −2𝐻𝑐 )
26. Number of tube rows crossed (in the cross-flow region), 𝑁𝑐𝑣 =
𝑝𝑡′
831.9674 𝑚𝑚
Number of tube rows crossed (in the cross-flow region), 𝑁𝑐𝑣 = 13.8113 𝑚𝑚
Number of tube rows crossed (in the cross-flow region), 𝑁𝑐𝑣 = 60.2382

27. Tube row correction factor from Figure 42, 𝐹𝑛 = 1.05

(The highest value was taken since the graph only went to 35)

Figure 42: Tube row correction factor, Fn

𝐷𝑏
28. Height from the baffle chord to the top of the tube bundle, 𝐻𝑏 = − 𝐷𝑠 (0.5 − 𝐵𝑐 )
2
979.7576 𝑚𝑚
𝐻𝑏 = ( ) − 1,219.0000 𝑚𝑚(0.5 − 0.15875) = 73.8951 𝑚𝑚
2
Where 𝐷𝑏 = bundle diameter.

138
29. Bundle cut, 𝐵𝑏 = 𝐻𝑏 ⁄𝐷𝑏 = 73.8951 𝑚𝑚⁄979.7576 𝑚𝑚 = 0.0754 = 7.54%

Where 𝐵𝑏 = “bundle cut” 𝐻𝑏 ⁄𝐷𝑏

𝐷𝑏 = bundle diameter.

30. Ratio of the bundle cross-sectional area in the window zone to the total bundle cross-sectional
area, from Figure 43, and using at a cut of 0.0754 , 𝑅𝑎′ = 0.0900
(Graph does not decrease to 0.0754 so the lowest value on the graph was used)

Figure 43: Baffle geometrical factors, 𝑅𝑎′

31. Tubes in one window area, 𝑁𝑤 = 𝑁𝑡 𝑥 𝑅𝑎′

Tubes in one window area, 𝑁𝑤 = 3,519 𝑥 0.09 = 316.7100 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠

32. Tubes in cross-flow area, 𝑁𝑐 = 𝑁𝑡 − 2𝑁𝑤

Tubes in cross-flow area, 𝑁𝑐 = 3,519.0000 − (2 𝑥 316.7100 ) = 2,885.5800 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠

139
33. Ratio of the number of tubes in the window zones to the total number in the bundle,𝑅𝑤
2𝑁𝑤 2 𝑥 316.7100 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑤 = = = 0.1800
𝑁𝑡 3,519.0000 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠

34. Window correction factor, read from Figure 44,𝐹𝑤 = 1.13

Figure 44: Window correction factor, Fw

35. Clearance area between the bundle and the shell, 𝐴𝑏 = 𝑙𝑏 (𝐷𝑠 − 𝐷𝑏 )
𝐴𝑏 = 1,523.7500 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 10−6 (1,219.0000 𝑚𝑚 − 979.7576 𝑚𝑚)
Clearance area between the bundle and the shell, 𝐴𝑏 = 0.3645 𝑚2
Where 𝑙𝑏 is the baffle spacing

𝐴𝑏 2𝑁 1⁄3
36. Bypass correction, 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [−𝛼 (1 − (𝑁 𝑠 ) )]
𝐴𝑠 𝑐𝑣

0.3645 𝑚2 2 𝑥 1 1⁄3
Bypass correction, 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [−1.35 𝑥 (1 − ( ) )]
0.3715 𝑚2 9

Bypass correction, 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝[−1.3246 (0.3943)]

Bypass correction, 𝐹𝑏 = 0.5931

140
 𝛼 = 1.35 for transitional and turbulent flow Re > 100
Ns = number of sealing strips encountered by the bypass stream in the cross-flow zone
Ncv = the number of constrictions, tube rows, encountered in the cross-flow section

37. Using clearances as specified in the Standards, from Table 23, Typical baffle clearances and
1
tolerances; Diametrical tube-to-baffle clearance (Tube-to-baffle), 𝑐𝑡 = 𝑖𝑛. = 0.8 𝑚𝑚
32

Table 22: Typical baffle clearances and tolerances

𝑐𝑡 𝜋𝑑𝑜
38. Tube to baffle clearance area, per baffle, 𝐴𝑡𝑏 = (𝑁𝑡 − 𝑁𝑤 )
2
0.8 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 12.7000 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑡𝑏 = (3,519.0000 − 316.7100) = 0.0511 𝑚2
2

3
39. From Table 23 above, Baffle-to-shell clearance, 𝑐𝑠 = 𝑖𝑛. = 4.8 𝑚𝑚
16

40. For a 25% baffle cut 𝐵𝑐 , 𝜃𝑏 was obtained from Figure 45 as 2.08

141
 Figure 45: Baffle geometrical factors,𝜃𝑏
𝑐𝑠 𝐷𝑠
41. Shell to baffle clearance area, per baffle, 𝐴𝑠𝑏 = (2𝜋 − 𝜃𝑏 )
2
4.8 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 1,219.0000 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑠𝑏 = (2𝜋 − 2.08)
2
𝐴𝑠𝑏 = 12,296.8389 𝑚𝑚2 = 0.0123 𝑚2

42. Total leakage area, 𝐴𝐿 = (𝐴𝑡𝑏 + 𝐴𝑠𝑏 ) = 0.0511 𝑚2 + 0.0123 = 0.0634 𝑚2

𝐴𝐿 0.0634 𝑚2
43. = = 0.1707
𝐴𝑠 0.3715 𝑚2

44. Coefficient for FL, heat transfer calculation, from Figure 46, 𝛽𝐿 = 0.18

142
 Figure 46: Coefficient for FL, heat transfer calculations, 𝛽𝐿

(𝐴𝑡𝑏 + 2𝐴𝑠𝑏 )
45. Leakage correction, 𝐹𝐿 = 1 − 𝛽𝐿 [ ]
𝐴𝐿

(0.0511 𝑚2 + (2 𝑥 0.0123 𝑚2 ))
𝐹𝐿 = 1 − 0.18 [ ]
0.0634 𝑚2
𝐹𝐿 = 1 − 0.2149 = 0.7851
46. Shell-side coefficient, ℎ𝑠 = ℎ𝑜𝑐 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑤 𝐹𝑏 𝐹𝐿
ℎ𝑠 = 1,707.7662 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃ 𝑥 1.05 𝑥 1.13 𝑥 0.5931 𝑥 0.7851
ℎ𝑠 = 943.5155 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃

47. From Figure 47, friction factor for cross-flow tube banks, with Re = 71,457.8200and for
1.25 ∆ pitch, 𝑗𝑓 = 4.8 𝑥 10−2

143
 Figure 47: Friction factor for cross-flow tube banks, jf

Gs 67.5192 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑚2
48. Shell side velocity, us = = = 5.7820 m/s
ρ 11.6775 kg/m3

𝜌 𝑢𝑠 2 𝜇 −0.14
49. Ideal tube bank pressure drop, ∆𝑃𝑖 = 8 𝑗𝑓 𝑁𝑐𝑣 (𝜇 )
2 𝑤
𝜇
Neglecting viscosity term ( ⁄𝜇𝑤 )

−2
11.6775 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 (5.7820 𝑚/𝑠)2
∆𝑃𝑖 = 8 𝑥 4.8 𝑥 10 𝑥 60.2382 𝑚𝑚 ( )
2
∆𝑃𝑖 = 4,515.2236 𝑁/𝑚2

50. Transition and turbulent region, Re > 100, 𝛼 = 4.0

𝐴𝑏 2𝑁 1⁄3
51. Bypass correction factor for pressure drop, 𝐹𝑏′ = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [−𝛼 (1 − (𝑁 𝑠 ) )]
𝐴𝑠 𝑐𝑣

0.3645 𝑚2 2 𝑥 1 1⁄3
𝐹𝑏′ = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [−4.0 𝑥 (1 − ( ) )]
0.3715 𝑚2 9

2 1⁄3
𝐹𝑏′ = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [−4.0 𝑥 0.9812 (1 − ( ) )]
9
𝐹𝑏′ = 𝑒𝑥𝑝[−1.547521399]

144
 𝐹𝑏′ = 0.2127

52. From Figure 48, coefficient for 𝐹𝐿′ pressure drop, 𝛽𝐿′ = 0.3500

Figure 48: Coefficient for FL’, pressure drop, 𝛽𝐿′

(Atb + 2Asb )
53. Leakage factor for pressure drop, FL′ = 1 − β′L [ ]
AL

(0.0511 𝑚2 + (2 𝑥 0.0123 𝑚2 ))
FL′ = 1 − 0.35 [ ]
0.0634 𝑚2
FL′ = 1 − 0.4179 = 0.5821

54. Pressure drop in cross flow zone,∆𝑃𝑐 = ∆𝑃𝑖 𝐹𝑏′ 𝐹𝐿′

Pressure drop in cross flow zone, ∆𝑃𝑐 = 4,515.2236 𝑁/𝑚2 𝑥 0.2127 𝑥 0.5821
Pressure drop in cross flow zone, ∆𝑃𝑐 = 559.0419 𝑁/𝑚2

55. From Figure 49, baffle geometrical factors, for baffle cut 25 per cent (0.25)𝑅𝑎 = 0.1700

145
 Figure 49: Baffle geometrical factors, Ra

πD2s πd2o
56. Window area less the area occupied by the tubes, Aw = ( x R a ) − (Nw )
4 4

π 𝑥 (1,219.0000𝑚𝑚)2 π 𝑥 (12.70 𝑚𝑚)2

Aw = ( x 0.17) − (316.71 x )
4 4
Aw = 198,402.0768 − 40,119.8314
Aw = 158,282.2454 𝑚𝑚2 = 0.1583 𝑚2

𝑊𝑠 90,300.1063 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟 1 1
57. Velocity in the window, 𝑢𝑤 = = 𝑥 𝑥 =
𝐴𝑤 𝜌 3600 𝑠/ℎ𝑟 0.1583 𝑚2 11.6775 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
13.5692 𝑚/𝑠

58. Geometric mean velocity, 𝑢𝑧 = √𝑢𝑤 𝑢𝑠 = √13.5692 𝑚/𝑠 𝑥 5.7820 𝑚/𝑠 = 8.8576 𝑚/𝑠

𝐻𝑏 73.8951 𝑚𝑚
59. Number of restrictions for cross flow in window zone, 𝑁𝑤𝑣 = = 13.8113 𝑚𝑚 = 5.3503
𝑝𝑡′

146
 𝜌𝑢𝑧2
60. Pressure drop in window zone, ∆𝑃𝑤 = 𝐹𝐿′ (2 + 0.6𝑁𝑤𝑣 )
2

11.6775 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥(8.8576 𝑚/𝑠)2

∆𝑃𝑤 = 0.5821(2 + (0.6 𝑥 5.3503 ))
2
∆𝑃𝑤 = 0.5821 (5.2102) 458.0913
∆𝑃𝑤 = 1,389.3256 𝑁/𝑚2

(𝑁𝑤𝑣 + 𝑁𝑐𝑣 )
61. Pressure drop in end zone, ∆𝑃𝑒 = ∆𝑃𝑖 [ ] 𝐹𝑏′
𝑁𝑐𝑣

(5.3503 + 60.2382)
∆𝑃𝑒 = 4,515.2236 𝑁/𝑚2 [ ] 0.2127
60.2382
∆𝑃𝑒 = 4,515.2236 𝑁/𝑚2 [1.0888] 0.2127
∆𝑃𝑒 = 1,045.6705 𝑁/𝑚2

𝐿 12,142.0000 𝑚𝑚
62. Number of baffles 𝑁𝑏 = [( ) − 1] = [( ) − 1] = 6.9685 ≅ 7
𝑙𝑏 1,523.7500 𝑚𝑚

63. Clean condition pressure drop, ∆Ps = 2 end zones + (Nb − 1) cross-flow zones + Nb window
zones
∆𝑃𝑠 = 2∆𝑃𝑒 + ∆𝑃𝑐 (𝑁𝑏 − 1) + 𝑁𝑏 ∆𝑃𝑤
∆𝑃𝑠 = (2 𝑥 1,045.6705 𝑁/𝑚2 ) + 559.0419 𝑁/𝑚2 (7 − 1) + (7 𝑥 1,389.3256 𝑁/𝑚2 )
∆𝑃𝑠 = 2,091.3410 𝑁/𝑚2 + 3,354.2514 𝑁/𝑚2 + 9,725.2792 𝑁/𝑚2
∆𝑃𝑠 = 15,170.8716 𝑁/𝑚2
∆𝑃𝑠 = 15.1709 𝑘𝑃𝑎

64. Calculation #63 is for the exchanger in the clean condition.

However, using the factors given in Table 24, ratio of fouled to clean pressure drop, we
estimated the pressure drop in the exchanger in the fouled condition.

∆𝑃𝑠 = 1.12 𝑥 15.1709𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 16.9914 𝑘𝑃𝑎

147
Table 23: Ratio of fouled to clean pressure drop

148
Appendix E – Stream Data Modeled using HYSYS

149
 Appendix F – Analysis of Stream Data Modeled using HYSYS

Overall Performance Detailed Performance

Duty 66401518.503 Btu/hr UA Curvature Error 199.8775574 Btu/F-hr

Heat Leak 0.000 Btu/hr Hot Pinch Temp 213.3196889 F

Heat Loss 0.000 Btu/hr Cold Pinch Temp 158 F

UA 1151496.103 Btu/F-hr Ft Factor <empty>

Min. Approach 55.320 F Uncorrected LMTD <empty>

LMTD 57.665 F

SHELL SIDE TABLES

Temperature Pressure Enthalpy Heat Flow Cumulative UA
Vapor Fraction
(F) (psia) (Btu/lbmole) (Btu/hr) (Btu/F-hr)
158.000 529.000 57.427 0.000 1.000 0.000

246.306 528.120 673.716 13280412.867 1.000 237775.686

334.612 527.238 1291.741 26598231.287 1.000 471961.203

422.588 526.355 1909.855 39917961.964 1.000 702479.569

510.050 525.473 2527.178 53220670.232 1.000 929450.024

596.285 524.600 3138.872 66402064.337 1.000 1151515.035

TUBE SIDE TABLES

Temperature Heat Flow Cumulative UA
Pressure (psia) Enthalpy (Btu/lbmole) Vapor Fraction
(F) (Btu/hr) (Btu/F-hr)
213.320 512.200 632.925 0.000 1.000 0.000

303.537 512.967 1264.438 13405485.768 1.000 239993.475

392.518 513.727 1889.849 26681442.257 1.000 473412.096

480.788 514.484 2513.294 39915673.644 1.000 702440.261

568.394 515.240 3135.368 53120778.135 1.000 927756.981

656.000 516.000 3760.978 66400972.669 1.000 1151515.035

DETAILED MODEL DATA MODEL PARAMETERS

Tube volume Equivalent Overall U
6.816 1773.540537
[ft3] [Btu/hr-ft2-F]
Shell volume Equivalent Overall UA
80.245 1151496.103
[ft3] [Btu/F-hr]
Heat Trans. Area [ft2] 649.264

Elevation (Base) [ft] 0.000

Shell passes 1.000

Tube passes 1.000

Orientation Horizontal

150
 Appendix G – Excel Modeling of Existing Exchanger using Kern’s Design
METHANATOR EFFLUENT PROPERTIES - tube side TO 114C

Thi = T1 (˚C) Tho = T2 (˚C) ṁ (kg/hr) hid (W/m² °C) Cp (J/kg˚C) μ (kg/ms) ρ (kg/m³) kf (W/m℃)

(tube fouling factor)

346.6667 100.7333 89306.6052 6194.5000 3232.2096 0.00002000 6.3433 0.1781

METHANATOR FEED PROPERTIES - shell side TO 114C

Tci = T1 (˚C) Tco = T2 (˚C) ṁ (kg/hr) hod (W/m² °C) Cp (J/kg˚C) μ (kg/ms) ρ (kg/m³) kf (W/m℃)

(shell fouling factor)

70.0000 313.4917 90300.1063 6194.5000 3161.0340 0.00001200 11.6775 0.1159

Number of tubes 3519.0000

Number of passes 1.0000
Shell I.D. (mm) 1219.0000
Bundle Diameter (mm) 979.7576
Tube O.D. (mm) 12.7000
Tube pitch, ∆ (mm) 1.2500
Tube length, L (mm) 12192.0000
Baffle cut (%) 25.0000

Baffle spacing, lb (mm) 1523.7500

Heat load, Q (kW) 19499.9002

Cooling flow (kg/s) 24.7770
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference, ∆TLM°C 31.9386
Guessed heat transfer rate, U (W/m² °C) from figure 34 358.1404
Provisional Area, A (m2) 1704.7594
O.D 12.7000
I.D 10.2100
Chose 12.192 m long tubes (40 ft)
Allowing for tubesheet thickness, tube length, L (mm) 12142.0000
Material is 304 SS, stainless steel
Area of one tube (m2) 0.4844
Number of tubes needed, Nt 3519.0000

From table 22, K1 0.3190

From table 22, n1 2.1420
Bundle diameter, Db (mm) 979.7576
Using a fixed tube sheet type, bundle diametrical clearance (mm) 239.2424

Shell inner diameter, Ds (mm) 1219.0000

151
TUBE SIDE COEFFICIENT
Mean tube side water temperature (°C) 223.7000
Tube cross sectional area for one tube (mm²) 81.8731
Number of tubes per pass 3519.0000
Total flow area per pass (m²) 0.2881
Mass velocity, Gt (kg/sm²) 85.9979
Linear velocity, ut (m/s) 13.5573
Reynold's Number, Re 43901.9509
Prandtl Number, Pr 0.3630
L/di 1189.2262
From figure 36, Tube side heat transfer factor, jh 0.0033
Tube side coefficient, hi (W/m² °C) 1808.8043

SHELL SIDE
Baffle spacing, lB (mm) 1523.7500
Tube pitch, pt (mm) 15.8750
Cross flow area, As (m²) 0.3715
Mass flow, Ws (kg/s) 25.0834
Mass velocity, Gs (kg/sm²) 67.5209

For an equilateral triangular pitch arrangement

Use 1.1000
Use 0.9170
Equivalent diameter, de (m) 0.0090

Mean shell side temperature (°C) 191.7459

Reynold's Number, Re 50739.9138
Prandtl Number, Pr 0.3273
Using a baffle cut of 25%
From figure 37, Shell side heat transfer factor, segmental baffles, jh 0.0028

SHELL SIDE COEFFICIENT

Shell side coefficient, hs = ho (W/m² °C) 1263.0613

ESTIMATION OF WALL TEMPERATURE

Mean temperature difference across all resistances (°C) = mean tube side temp - mean shell side temp 31.9542
Mean temperature difference across shell side film (°C) 9.0606

Mean wall temperature (°C) 214.6394

152
Viscosity of tube side fluid 0.000020
Viscosity of shell side fluid 0.000012
Therefore (μ / μ w) to power 0.14 0.9310

It can be seen that the correction for a low-viscosity fluid is not significant.

OVERALL COEFFICIENT
Thermal conductivity of stainless steels from table 23, kn (W/m°C) 16.0000
Taking fouling coefficients from table 24
Shell Side (air and industrial gases), hod (W/m² °C) 6194.5000
Tube Side (air and industrial gases) hid (W/m² °C) 6194.5000
Overall coefficient, Uo (W/m² °C) 518.6033

This is above the assumed value of 358.1404 W/m² °C

PRESSURE DROP
Reynold's Number on tube side, Re 43901.9509
From figure 37, tube side friction factor, jf was read off to be 0.0033
Pressure drop on tube side, ∆Pt (kPa) 19.7594
This value is acceptable since the allowable pressure drop on the tube side is 27.5790 kPa

Reynold's Number on shell side, Re 50739.9138

Linear velocity on shell side, us (m/s) 5.7821
From figure 38, shell side friction factors, segmental baffles, jf was read off to be 0.0390
Pressure drop on shell side, ∆Ps (kPa) 65.6053

This value is unacceptable since the allowable pressure drop on the shell side is 27.5790 kPa

153
 Appendix H – Excel Modeling of Existing Exchanger using Bell’s Design
METHANATOR EFFLUENT PROPERTIES - tube side TO 114C
ρ
Thi = T1 (˚C) Tho = T2 (˚C) ṁ (kg/hr) hid (W/m² °C) Cp (J/kg˚C) μ (kg/ms) (kg/m³) kf (W/m℃)

(tube fouling factor)

346.6667 100.7333 89306.6052 6194.5000 3232.2096 0.00002000 6.3433 0.1781

METHANATOR FEED PROPERTIES - shell side TO 114C

ρ
Tci = T1 (˚C) Tco = T2 (˚C) ṁ (kg/hr) hod (W/m² °C) Cp (J/kg˚C) μ (kg/ms) (kg/m³) kf (W/m℃)

(shell fouling factor)

70.0000 313.4917 90300.1063 6194.5000 3161.0340 0.00001200 11.6775 0.1159

Number of tubes 3519.0000

Number of passes 1.0000
Shell I.D. (mm) 1270.0000
Bundle Diameter (mm) 979.7576
Tube O.D. (mm) 12.7000
Pitch, ∆ (mm) 1.2500
Tube length, L (mm) 12192.0000
Baffle Cut (%) 25.0000
Number of baffles, Nb 6.9685

Baffle pitch, lb (mm) 1523.7500

Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference, ∆TLM°(C) 31.9386

O.D 12.7000
I.D 10.2100
Chose 12.192 m long tubes (40 ft) 12192.0000
Allowing for tubesheet thickness, tube length, L (mm) 12142.0000
Material is 304 SS, stainless steel
Heat load, Q (kW) 19499.9002
From figure 40, Guessed heat transfer rate, U (W/m2°C) 358.1404
Provisional Area, A (m2) 1704.7594
Area of one tube (m2) 0.4844
Number of tubes needed, Nt 3519.0000
From table 26, K1 0.3190
From table 26, n1 2.1420
Bundle diameter, Db (mm) 979.7576
Using a fixed tube sheet type, bundle diametrical clearance (mm) 239.2424
Shell diameter, Ds (mm) 1219.0000
Baffle spacing, lB (mm) 1523.7500

154
Tube pitch, pt (mm) 15.8750

SHELL SIDE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Cross flow area, As (m2) 0.3715
Mass flow, Ws (kg/s) 25.0834
Mass velocity, Gs (kg/sm2) 67.5209
Reynold's Number, Re 71459.6349
Prandtl Number, Pr 0.3273
From figure 41, heat transfer factor for cross-flow tube banks, jh was read off as 0.0038
Ideal bank coefficient, hoc 1707.7846
For an equilateral triangular pitch, use 0.8700
Vertical tube pitch, pt' (mm) 13.8113
Baffle cut height, Hc (mm) 193.5163
Height between baffle tips (mm) 831.9675
Number of tube rows crossed (in the cross-flow region), Ncv 60.2384
From figure 42, Tube row correction factor, Fn was read off as 1.0500
Height from the baffle chord to the top of the tube bundle, Hb (mm) 73.8951
Bundle cut, Bb 0.0754
From figure 43, the ratio of the bundle cross-sectional area in the window zone to the total bundle cross-sectional area, Ra' 0.0900
Tubes in one window area, Nw 316.7100
Tubes in cross flow area, Nc 2885.5800
Ratio of the number of tubes in the window zones to the total number in the bundle, Rw 0.1800
From figure 44, Window correction factor, Fw was read off as 1.1300
Clearance area between the bundle and the shell, Ab
(m2) 0.3645
Number of sealing strips encountered by the bypass stream in the cross flow zone, Ns 1.0000
Number of constrictions, tube rows, encountered in the cross flow section, Ncv 9.0000
α for transitional and turbulent flow with Re > 100 1.3500
Bypass correction, Fb 0.5931
Using clearances as specified in the Standards, Tube-to-baffle 1/32 inch in millimeters and Baffle-to-shell 3/16 inch in millimeters from table
27
Diametrical tube-to-baffle clearance (difference between the hole and tube diameter), ct (mm) from table 27 0.8000
Tube to baffle clearance area, per baffle, Atb (m2) 0.0511
From table 27, the baffle-to-shell clearance, cs 4.8000
From figure 45, for baffle cut of 25% Bc, θb was read off as 2.0800
Shell to baffle clearance area, per baffle, Asb (m2) 0.0123
Total leakage area, AL (m2) 0.0634
AL / As 0.1707
Coefficient for FL, heat transfer calculation, from figure 46, βL was read off as 0.1800
Leakage correction, FL 0.7851

Shell side coefficient, hs (W/m2°C) 943.5578

155
Reynold's Number, Re 71459.6349
From figure 47, for a 1.25 ∆ pitch, Friction factor for cross-flow tube banks, jf was read off as 0.0480
Shell side velocity, us (m/s) 5.7821
Ideal tube bank pressure drop, ∆Pi (N/m2) 4515.4535
α for transitional and turbulent flow with Re > 100 4.0000
Bypass correction factor for pressure drop, F'b 0.2127
AL / As 0.1707
From figure 48, Coefficient for F'L pressure drop, β'L was read off as 0.3500
Leakage factor for pressure drop, F'L 0.5821
Pressure drop in cross flow zone, ∆Pc (N/m2) 559.1909

From figure 49, for baffle cut of 25%, Baffle geometrical factors, Ra was read off as 0.1700
Window area less the area occupied by the tubes, Aw (m2) 0.1583
Velocity in the window, uw (m/s) 13.5707
Geometric mean velocity, uz (m/s) 8.8582
Number of restrictions for cross flow in window zone, Nwv 5.3504
Pressure drop in window zone, ∆Pw (N/m2) 1389.5647

Pressure drop in end zone, ∆Pe (N/m2) 1045.9348

Number of baffles, Nb 6.9685

Clean condition pressure drop, ∆Ps (kPa) 15.1126
This value is acceptable since the allowable pressure drop on the shell side is 27.5790 kPa

We can estimate the pressure drop in the fouled condition by using table 28 (ratio of fouled to clean pressure drop) 1.1200
Fouled condition pressure drop, ∆Ps (kPa) 16.9261

This value is acceptable since the allowable pressure drop on the shell side is 27.5790 kPa

156
Appendix I – HYSYS Heat Exchanger Model

157
 Appendix J – Nomenclatures
Nomenclatures Used for Kern’s Exchanger Design

A Provisional area (m2)

As Shell side cross-flow area (m2)

cp Specific heat capacity of fluid (J/kg °C)

Db Bundle diameter (mm)

de Equivalent diameter (m)

Ds Shell diameter (mm)

𝐺𝑡 Mass velocity on tube side (kg/sm2)

𝐺𝑠 Mass velocity on shell side (kg/sm2)

hi Tube side coefficient(W/m2 °C)

ho Shell side coefficient(W/m2 °C)

hs Shell side coefficient(W/m2 °C)

hid Tube side fouling factor (W/m2 °C)

hod Shell side fouling factor (W/m2 °C)

I.D. Inner diameter of tube (mm)

jf Friction factor

jh Heat transfer factor

kf Thermal conductivity of fluid (W/mK)

kn Thermal conductivity of metal (W/mK)

L Length of tube (mm)

158
lb Baffle spacing (mm)

𝑚̇ Mass flow of fluid (kg/hr)

Nt Number of tubes

O.D. Outer diameter of tube (mm)

Pr Prandtl number

pt Tube pitch (mm)

𝜌 Density of fluid (kg/m3)

Q Heat load of fluid (kW)

Re Reynolds number

Tci Inlet temperature of cold fluid(°C)

Tco Outlet temperature of cold fluid(°C)

Thi Inlet temperature of hot fluid(°C)

Tho Outlet temperature of hot fluid(°C)

u Linear velocity on tube side (m/s)

U Overall heat transfer coefficient; guessed value (W/m2 °C)

Uo Overall heat transfer coefficient; calculated value (W/m2 °C)

𝜇 Viscosity of fluid (kg/ms)

Ws Shell side mass flow (kg/s)

∆𝑃𝑠 Shell side pressure drop (kPa)

∆𝑃𝑡 Tube side pressure drop (kPa)

∆TLM Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (°C)

159
 Nomenclature for Bell’s Exchanger Design

A Provisional area (m2)

Ab Clearance area between the bundle and the shell (m2)

AL Total leakage area (m2)

As Shell side cross-flow area (m2)

Asb Shell to baffle clearance area, per baffle (m2)

Atb Tube to baffle clearance area, per baffle (m2)

Aw Window area less the area occupied by the tubes (m2)

Bb Bundle cut

𝛽L Coefficient for FL, heat transfer calculation

cp Specific heat capacity of fluid (J/kg °C)

cs Baffle-to-shell clearance

ct Diametrical tube-to-baffle clearance; diff between the hole & tube diameter (mm)

Db Bundle diameter (mm)

Ds Shell diameter (mm)

Fb Bypass correction

Fbꞌ Bypass correction factor for pressure drop

FL Leakage correction

FLꞌ Leakage factor for pressure drop,

Fn Tube row correction factor

Fw Window correction factor

160
𝐺𝑠 Mass velocity on shell side (kg/sm2)

Hb Height from the baffle chord to the top of the tube bundle (mm)

Hc Baffle cut height (mm)

hoc Ideal bank coefficient

hs Shell side coefficient (W/m2 °C)

I.D. Inner diameter of tube (mm)

jf Friction factor for cross-flow tube banks

jh Heat transfer factor for cross-flow tube banks

kf Thermal conductivity of fluid (W/mK)

L Length of tube (mm)

lb Baffle spacing (mm)

𝑚̇ Mass flow of fluid (kg/hr)

Nb Number of baffles

Nc Tubes in cross flow area

Ncv Number of constrictions, tube rows, encountered in the cross flow section

Ns Number of sealing strips encountered by the bypass stream in the cross flow zone

Nt Number of tubes

Nw Tubes in one window area

Nwv Number of restrictions for cross flow in window zone

O.D. Outer diameter of tube (mm)

Pr Prandtl number

pt Tube pitch (mm)

161
ptꞌ Vertical tube pitch (mm)

𝜌 Density of fluid (kg/m3)

Q Heat load of fluid (kW)

Ra Baffle geometrical factors

Raꞌ Ratio of bundle cross-sectional area in window zone to total bundle cross-sectional area

Re Reynolds number

Rw Ratio of the number of tubes in the window zones to the total number in the bundle

Tci Inlet temperature of cold fluid (°C)

Tco Outlet temperature of cold fluid (°C)

Thi Inlet temperature of hot fluid (°C)

Tho Outlet temperature of hot fluid (°C)

us Shell side velocity (m/s)

uw Velocity in the window (m/s)

uz Geometric mean velocity (m/s)

U Overall heat transfer coefficient; guessed value (W/m2 °C)

𝜇 Viscosity of fluid (kg/ms)

Ws Shell side mass flow (kg/s)

∆𝑃𝑐 Pressure drop in cross-flow zone (N/m2)

∆𝑃𝑖 Ideal tube bank pressure drop (N/m2)

∆𝑃𝑠 Pressure drop on shell side (kPa)

∆𝑃𝑤 Pressure drop in window zone (N/m2)

∆𝑃𝑒 Pressure drop in end zone (N/m2)

162
∆TLM Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (°C)

Appendix K – Graphs

Graph 1: Shell Side Heat Transfer Coefficient Comparison for Kern and Bell

163
 Bar Graph comparing the Shell Side Heat Transfer Coefficient for Kern and Bell’s Design
1300

1275
1263.0475
1250
KERN
1225

1200
Shell Side Heat Transfer Coefficient, hs (W/m2 ℃)

1175

1150

1125

1100

1075

1050

1025

1000

975

950 943.5155

925
BELL
900

875

850

825

800
Design Method

Graph 2: Shell Side Pressure Drop Comparison for Kern & Bell’s Design

164
 Bar Graph comparing the Shell Side Pressure Drop for Kern and Bell’s Design
70

65.7307
65
KERN

60

55

50
Shell Side Pressure Drop, ∆Ps (kPa)

45

40

35

30

25

20

15.1709
15
BELL
10

0
Design Method

165
Appendix L – Exchanger Data Sheet

166
167
 Appendix M – Charts
Gantt chart showing the Time Period Undertaken for each Task

168
169
170
171
Appendix N – Drawing Sheetfor 114-C

172
 Appendix O – Health, Safety and Environmental Considerations associated with
Potassium Carbonate Solution

All plant and area safety rules and regulations must be carried out at all times. The following
specific safety practices must be adopted when handling Potassium Carbonate; Benfield solution.

Safety and Health Hazards associated with Benfield Solution

 Chemical burns
 Thermal burns

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

 To be worn at all times on the plant: Hard hat, safety glasses, Ear protection,
safety boots and Fire-resistant clothing.
 Used when required: Goggles, Rubber gloves, Rubber boots, Rain suits, Face
shield, Chemical suit, Emergency escape breathing device (ELSA) – 10 mins, Self-
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) – 30 mins

Safety Equipment
 Fire Extinguishers
 Safety shower / eyewash fountain
 Fire hydrant / monitor

Environmental Considerations
 Benfield solution spill
 Benfield chemicals spill

Conditions to Avoid: Moisture, heat, dusting, and incompatibles such as acids, chlorine trifluoride
and magnesium.

Fire-Fighting Measures: The product is non-combustible. Appropriate fire-extinguishing media

is to be used for surrounding materials.

173
Potential Health Effects and First Aid Measures
 Inhalation: Causes irritation to the respiratory tract. Symptoms may include coughing,
shortness of breath.
If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen.

 Ingestion: Causes irritation to the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms may include nausea,
vomiting and diarrhea. May have moderate toxic effects if consumed in large enough
quantities. Ingestion of large amounts may be corrosive to mouth, throat and GI tract and
produce abdominal pains, vomiting, diarrhea, and circulatory collapse.
If swallowed; DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING. Give large quantities of water. DO NOT GIVE
anything by mouth to an unconscious person.

 Skin and Eye Contact: Skin contact with dry material causes irritation. In aqueous solution it
is a strong caustic and as such may have corrosive effects on the skin.Eye contact causes
extreme irritation, redness, pain and possibly corneal damage.
In case of contact; immediately flush eyes or skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes.
Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash clothing before reuse.

 Chronic Exposure: A chronic dermatitis may follow repeated contact with this substance.
In all cases, get medical attention.

Accidental Release Measures

 Ventilate area in the event of leakage or spill.
 Wear appropriate personal protective equipment as specified above.
 Small Spills: Mix with sand.
 Large Spills: Contain and mix spillage with sand or earth. Collect spillage in containers, seal
securely and deliver for disposal according to local regulations. Wash spillage site well with
water and detergent, be aware of the potential for surfaces to become slippery. Wash
thoroughly after dealing with a spillage.

174