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Industrial Electronics
N3
R B J van HEERDEN
Industrial Electronics N3

R B J van Heerden

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TROUPANT
Publishers
Copyright © 1997 by R.BJ van Heerden

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means
without prior written permission by the publisher.

ISBN: 978 1 920334 97 0

First edition 1997

Second impression 2011
Third impression 2012

Published by
Troupant Publishers
Suite 10, Private Bag XI2
Cresta, 2118

Cover designby Insight Graphics

Set in 9.5 on 12pt Times New Roman
Setting by Roelf van Heerden using Corel VENTURA 5.0
Printed andbound by Ultra Litho (Pty) Limited
PREFACE
The success of my N2 textbook has encouraged me to write this N3 book. In this book I build on the
philosophy of the N2 book, which was to include more descriptions and background information on the
topics under discussion. Many students do not have access to other research material such as textbooks or
journals. In addition, with the modern tendency towards large classes, lecturers have less time to repeat
explanations. As many explanations are included in the textbook, the lecturer is able to spend less time on
certain sections in class, while at the same time allowing the student greater scope for meaningful self-study.
I am in the unique position of doing the typesetting of this new series of electronics textbooks myself. I
hope that this will add a valuable dimension which will ultimately benefit the reader. It also allows for greater
synergy between author and publisher andI am grateful to Southern Book Publishers for this opportunity.
Finally, I would like to thank you - the lecturer and student - for your support and positive feedback. I
hope that this book will also live up to your expectations.

Roelf van Heerden

1997
CONTENTS

1. ATOMIC THEORY 1 3.6.4 The parallel RL circuit 23

1.1 Introduction 1 2.6.5 The parallel Rc circuit 24
1.2 Matter 1 3.6.6 The parallel Xc, XL and R circuit 25
1.3 Elements 1 3.7 Resonance 27
1.4 The atom 1 3.7.1 Series resonance 28
1.5 Valency electrons 2 3.7.2 Parallel resonance 29
1.6 Free electrons 3 Exercise 3.1 32
1.7 Covalent bonds 3
1.8 Conductors 3
1.9 Insulators 4
1.10 Electrical current 4 4. SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY
1.11 Resistance 5 AND DIODES 34
1.11.1 Resistivity 5 4.1 Introduction 34
1.12 Voltage 5 4.2 Characteristics of materials 34
1.13 Energy levels and bands in solids 5 4.2.1 Metals 34
1.14 Bonds between atoms and molecules 6 4.2.2 Semiconductors 35
1.14.1 Ionic-bond 7 4.2.3 Temperature 35
1.14.2 Covalent bond 7 4.2.4 Photo-conduction 36
1.14.3 Metallic bond 7 4.3 Intrinsic semiconductors 36
1.14.4 Van der Waal’s forces (bonds) 7 4.5 N-type semiconductors 37
Exercise 1.1 7 4.6 P-type material 37
4.7 The P-N junction 38
4.8 Fermi-levels 39
2. DIRECT CURRENT THEORY 9 4.9 Bias 40
2.1 Introduction 9 4.9.1 Bias on the P-N junction 40
2.2 Current law 9 4.10 Diode characteristics 41
2.3 Voltage law 9 4.11 Diode ratings factors 42
2.4 Applications of Kirchhoff’s laws 10 4.12 Basis for device ratings 43
Exercise 2.1 12 4.12.1 Voltage ratings (F..) 43
4.12.1.1 Forward voltage drop (VF) 43
4.12.1.2 Peak reverse voltage (PW) 43
4.12.1.3 Reverse breakdown voltage (FBR) 43
3. ALTERNATING CURRENT 4.12.2 Forward-current ratings (IF or /,) 44
THEORY 15 4.12.2.1 Surge current {/rw(Su,go} 44
3.1 Introduction 15 4.12.2.2 Reverse current (IR) 44
3.2 Phase angle 15 4.12.3 Power-dissipation ratings (P) 44
3.3 Ac circuits with resistance 16 4.12.4 Junction-temperature ratings 44
3.4 Ac circuits with inductance 16 4.12.5 Reverse recovery time (t„) 45
3.5 Ac circuits with capacitance 18 4.13 Summary of characteristics 45
3.6 Impedance 19 4.13.1 Low-current rectifiers: 0,1-12 A 45
3.6.1 The series XL circuit 19 4.13.2 Medium-current rectifiers: 15-35 A 46
3.6.2 The series Xc circuit 20 4.13.3 High-current rectifiers: 50-1 000 A 46
3.6.3 The series Xc, XL and R circuit 20 Exercise 4.1 46
5. DIODES AND THEIR 6.17.2.1 The depletion MOS-FET 82
APPLICATIONS 48 6.17.2.2 The enhancement MOS-FET 83
5.1 Introduction 48 6.17.3 Practical circuits 84
5.2 Half-wave rectification 48 Exercise 6.1 84
5.3 Full-wave rectification 49
5.4 Filter circuits 50
5.5 The Zener diode 51
5.5.1 Electrical characteristics 52 7. ELECTRONIC POWER
5.5.2 The Zener as voltage regulator 52 CONTROL 86
5.6 Clipper circuits 53 7.1 Introduction 86
5.6.1 Series and parallel clippers 53 7.2 The SCR 86
5.7 Voltage doubler 54 7.3 Commutation 89
5.8 Varactor diodes 55 7.3.1 Commutation circuits 89
5.9 Photodiodes 56 7.3. 1.1Parallel-capacitor commutation 90
5.10 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 58 7.3.1.2 Series-capacitor commutation 90
Exercise 5.1 59 7.3.1.3 Impulse commutation 91
7.4 Alternating-current circuits 92
7.5 Duty cycle 94
7.6 Phase control 95
6. TRANSISTOR THEORY 60 7.7 Phase delay 97
6.1 Introduction 60 7.8 Interference 97
6.2 The basic junction transistor 60 7.9 Transients 98
6.3 Characteristic curve 63 7.9.1 L-C filters 98
6.4 The three basic circuits 64 7.9.2 Zener diodes 98
6.4.1 The common emitter circuit 64 7.9.3 Trans-zorps 98
6.4.2 The common base circuit 65 7.9.4 Varistors (MOFs) 98
6.4.3 The common collector circuit 65 7.12 Different control methods 99
6.5 Biasing 65 7.12.1 Phase control 99
6.6 Interstage couplings 67 7.12.2 Cycle control 99
6.7 Frequency response 68 7.12.3 Cyclotronic control 100
6.8 Switching speed 69 Exercise 7.1 101
6.9 Electronic switch 70
6.10 Operating point 71
6.10.1 The loadline 71
6.10.2 Stabilisation of the bias voltage 72 8. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 102
6.11 Classes of amplifier operation 73 8.1 Introduction 102
6.12 Push-pull amplifiers 74 8.2 Differential amplifier 102
6.13 Distortion 75 8.2.1 Single-ended input 103
6.13.1 Cross-over distortion 75 8.2.2 Differential or double-ended input 103
6.13.2 Feedback 75 8.3 The op-amp 104
6.14 Cut-off frequencies of transistor 8.3.1 The ideal op-amp 104
amplifiers 77 8.4 Operating modes 105
6. 15 Regulators 77 8.4.1 Inverting amplifier 105
6.15.1 Series voltage regulation 77 8.4.2 Non-inverting amplifier 106
6.15.2 Shunt voltage regulation 78 8.4.3 The voltage follower 106
6.15.3 Constant current power supply 79 8.4.4 Voltage summer (adder) 106
6.15.4 Current limiting power supply 79 8.4.5 Integrator 107
6.16 The phototransistor 80 8.4.6 Differentiator 107
6.17 Field-effect transistors (FETs) 80 8.4.7 Summary 108
6.17.1 Characteristics of the J-FET 80 8.5 Audio amplifier 108
6.17.2 MOS-FET construction 82 Exercise 8.1 110
9. TRANSDUCERS 111 10.8 The operational amplifier in meters 133
9.1 Introduction 111 10.9 Different measurements 133
9.2 Wheatstone bridge 111 10.10 Analogue-to-digital conversion (ADC) 134
9.3 Potentiometer 112 10.10.1 Basic principles of the ADC 134
9.4 Strain gauges 114 10.10.2 Accuracy 134
9.5 Thermistors 115 10. 10.3 Series-mode rejection 134
9.6 pH measurements 117 10.10.4 Speed 135
9.7 Capacitive transducers 117 10. 10.5 Kick-back signals and input
9.8 Inductive transducers 118 impedance 135
9.8.1 Variable reluctance transducer 119 10.11 The staircase ramp 135
9.8.2 Linear variable differential trans¬ 119 10.11.1 Advantages 136
former (LVDT) 10.11.2 Disadvantages 137
9.9 Solid-state devices 120 10.12 Successive-approximation method 137
9.9.1 Photovoltaic cells 120 10.13 Variable-frequency method 138
9.9.2 Photoconductors or light dependent 10.13.1 Advantage and disadvantage 138
resistors (LDRs) 121 10.14 Dual-slope integration 138
9.9.3 Photoelectric junction devices 122 10.14.1 Advantage 139
9.9.4 Opto-isolator 122 10.15 Delta-pulse modulation system 139
9.10 Crystal transducers 123 10.16 General circuits 139
9.11 Conclusion 124 10.17 Specifications 141
Exercise 9.1 124 10. 18 Advantages and disadvantages of
digital meters 141
10.19 Digital-to-analogue converter (DAC) 141
10.20 The Schmitt trigger 142
10.21 The frequency counter 144
10. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 126 10.22 The oscilloscope 145
10.1 Introduction 126 10.22. 1 Why use an oscilloscope? 145
10.2 Specifications 127 10.22.2 The cathode-ray tube 146
10.3 Measuring errors 127 10.22.3 Stable display of a repetitive signal
10.3.1 Gross errors 127 (triggering) 147
10.3.2 Systematic errors 129 10.22.4 Main controls and their functions 148
10.3.3 Random errors 129 10.22.5 Dual trace and dual beam 148
10.4 Calibration 129 Exercise 10.1 150
10.5 Precautions 130
10.6 Maximum and peak-to-peak values
of a sine wave 130
10.7 Rms and average values of a
sine wave 131 APPENDIX: Formula list 151
1. ATOMIC THEORY
Overview
In this module the basics of atomic theory are dealt with using descriptions and sketches. Apart from
electron shells, conductors, insulators, elements etc., energy- and Fermi-levels, covalent, ionic and
metallic bonds are also discussed.
I

1.1 INTRODUCTION •A liquid normally takes the form of its container,

The basic atomic theory dealt with in the N2 sylla¬
bus is used as the starting point and basis for expla¬
nations in this course, but a stronger accent is placed
on principles such as that of energy bands. The
simple view of the atom, of which hydrogen is the
simplest form, is known as the Bohr model and is a
representation of the two-plane model of the atom.
It is, however, only applicable to hydrogen. To
understand the nature of other atoms, the quantum
theory as well as Pauli’s exclusion principle must
be used, which falls beyond the scope of this book.
Energy bands will be focused on and a simplified
rendering is given here.
1.2 MATTER
Matter is anything that takes up space. It cannot be
created or destroyed. It is possible to change its state
from one form to another. Until recently, it was
thought that there were only three forms of matter,
but it has been proved that there are four: solid,
liquid, gas and plasma. Ice is a solid; heat it and it
becomes water, which is a liquid; heat it further and
it becomes steam, which is a gas. The temperature
thus determines the state of the matter. Plasma is the
fourth form of matter. (We are not referring to blood
plasma.) Plasma consists of ionised particles, and
emits light, like lightning or the gas in a gas-dis¬
charge chamber.
•A solid does not usually change its natural state
unless it is subjected to pressure or other influ¬
ences. Solids can be subdivided into metals and
non-metals, which we shall refer to later.
and, if the volume of the liquid is less than that of
the container, it will only partly fill the container.
• gas will always fill its container, but with a
A
decrease or increase in pressure.
1.3 ELEMENTS
Elements are substances that consist of only one
type of atom, such as iron, copper, germanium and
silicon. A compound or an alloy is formed when one
or more elements react chemically. The most com¬
mon compound is water, which forms when two
hydrogen atoms combine with one oxygen atom to
form a molecule, H20.
•A molecule is the smallestpart ofa compound that
retains the characteristics of the original com¬
pound without breaking up into atoms.
1.4 THE ATOM
The atom is the smallest part of an element to take
part in a normal chemical reaction. The known
elements are classified in a table known as the
periodic table. It contains important information
such as atomic number, atomic symbol and density.
There are 103 known elements.
Fig. 1.1 represents the simplest atom, the hydro¬
gen atom, with its symbol “H”, while fig. 1.2 shows
the different shells, electrons, and the nucleus which
consists of protons and neutrons. The electrons re¬
volve around the nucleus in fixed orbits or shells.

1
 An exception is the so-called inert gases, which
have a maximum of eight electrons in the outer
shell. These elements are also called non-active
neutrons
elements.
protons

w electrons
The nucleus, which consists of protons and neu¬
trons, has been mentioned. The protons have a
+ AP! positive charge while the neutrons have no charge
at all. The electron has a negative charge. There is
if always the same amount of protons and electrons in
an atom, which keeps the atom electrically neutral.
The atomic number always indicates the amount
ofprotons or electrons in the atom. The mass of the
protons differs considerably from that of the elec¬
trons. If the mass of the proton is taken as 1, then the
Fig. 1.1 mass of the electron is in the order of 5,488 x 10ÿ*.
When an electron is removed from an atom, there
is no significant influence on the atom as a whole,
An electron is usually represented by the symbol e.
except that the charge of the atom changes.
The orbits of the electrons are called the K, L, M, N,
etc., orbits. When an electron is in one of its orbits,
it will not move to another, higher energy orbit
1.5 VALENCY ELECTRONS
unless it is given enough energy by external means.
Those electrons in the outermost shell, or the shell
pnotons and farthest from the nucleus of an atom, are often called
electrons neutrons
valency electrons. In this study, we are concerned
primarily with the behaviour of valency electrons
shells since they can, under certain conditions, leave their
“parent” atoms. The number of valency electrons in
atoms also determines several important electrical
and chemical characteristics of the substance made
up of these atoms.

nucleus (32 protons, 41 neutrons)

first shell [K]

second shell [L]

third
shell [M]
/ .©f

rf
1 , ' ' *
fourth
shell [N]
® # i i JIN; !
V ’»
Fig. 1.2
/
Each orbit can take up only a certain number of
electrons. The number is determined by the formula
In where n represents the orbit number; in the first
'' ©L .

orbit, it is 2 x 1 x 1=2 and in the second orbit it

is 2 x 2 x 2 = 8. Fig. 1.3

2
 Consider an atom of germanium, which has an gas, for instance, consists of two hydrogen atoms
atomic number of 32 (fig. 1.3). It can be seen that (H2). The gas is lighter than air and is readily avail¬
the K shell contains only two electrons, the L shell able. It is used to send weather balloons into the air.
has eight and the M shell has 18. This leaves only It is highly inflammable and dangerous to use.
four electrons for theN shell. Therefore, germanium When two hydrogen atoms combine, a bond is
has four valency electrons. If the valency electrons formed that is known as a covalent bond, which
are easily removed from the atom, the element is means the atoms share their free electrons with each
called a conductor. When electrons are removed other (see fig. 1.4).
from the atom, it gains a positive charge. This
positively charged atom is called a positive ion or a
cation. The process of removing or adding electrons
is called ionisation. A negative ion or anion results
when electrons are added to an atom; such an atom
has a negative charge. If the last orbit is not com¬
pletely filled with electrons, then that orbit is called
the valency band. The electrons in that band are e
known as the valency electrons. It is these electrons
that are important to us, because they determine
whether an element is a conductor, a semiconductor
or an insulator.
When the valency electrons are not easily re¬
moved, the element is an insulator. There is a group
between conductors and insulators, namely the
semiconductors. This group will be discussed later.
e

1.6 FREE ELECTRONS

When external energy such as heat, light or electri¬
cal energy is applied to certain materials, the elec¬
trons within the atoms of these materials gain
energy. This may cause the electrons to move to a
higher energy level (paragraph 1.13), i.e. to move
further from the nuclei of their atoms. When an
electron has moved to the highest possible energy
level, or the outermost shell, it is least attracted by
the positive charges of the protons within the nu¬
cleus of the atom. If enough energy is then applied
to the atom, some of the outermost shell’s electrons
(valency electrons) will leave the atom. These elec¬
trons are called free electrons.
Free electrons remain in the mobile state for a
comparatively short time. By a process known as
recombination, they soon release the acquired en¬
ergy and once again become part of an atom.
1.7 COVALENT BONDS
Some atoms cannot exist on their own as a stable
element. The hydrogen atom is an example. Such
an atom must combine either with another atom like
itself or with a completely different atom. Hydrogen
H+H=H2
Fig. 1.4
Note that oxygen has only six valency electrons. To
complete the last orbit, the atom needs two more
electrons. When oxygen combines with hydrogen,
one oxygen atom must combine with two hydrogen
atoms so that it obtains two more electrons in the
last orbit. This forms a complete orbit, and the result
is H20, which is one molecule of water.
1.8 CONDUCTORS
A conductor is a material containing a large number
of free electrons that can pass through the material
quite easily under the influence of a driving force,
called voltage. (We will learn about this in module
2.) In such materials, the valency electrons in the
outermost shell can be quite easily removed from
their parent atoms by the above-mentioned force.

3
•A conductor is a material having many free elec¬
trons.
Three good electrical conductors are silver, copper
and aluminium. In fact, metals generally are good
conductors. Certain gases are also used as conduc¬
tors under special conditions. For example, neon
gas, argon gas, mercury vapour and sodium vapour
are used in various types of lamps.
1.9 INSULATORS
Electrical insulation is material which does not eas¬
ily conduct current. Such materials contain valency
electrons which are tightly bound to the nuclei of
their atoms. As a result, it requires an unusually high
voltage to produce significant numbers of free elec¬
trons. Such materials are also called insulators,
non-conductors or dielectrics.
Just as there are good and bad conductors, there
are good and bad insulators. There are several fac¬
tors that determine the quality of an insulator: the
material of which it is made, the temperature, humid¬
ity, etc.
Typical insulating materials include glass, porce¬
lain, mica, rubber, plastics, paper and wood. These
materials are used to electrically isolate conductors
so that the current which they carry will not leak off
or pass through unwanted conductor materials.
There is no sharp, well-defined dividing line sepa¬
rating conductors from insulators. All insulating
materials will break down and conduct current if a
sufficiently high voltage is applied across them.
1.10 ELECTRICAL CURRENT
Electrons further away from the nucleus are more
easily removed than those nearer to the nucleus, and
conductors easily emit or replace their free elec¬
trons. In practice, normal room temperature is
enough to free the valency electrons in a good
conductor.
It must always be remembered that the atom is
very small. For interest’s sake 1 cm3 (1 cm x 1 cm
X 1 cm) of copper consists of approximately 10“
atoms. An electron is even smaller than the atom. If
only one out of every 100 atoms in a cubic centime¬
tre of copper is removed from the metal, there will
be a vast number of electrons moving freely in the
copper at room temperature. When this small piece
4
of copper is stretched out in the form of a wire, and
one side is made positive and the other side nega¬
tive, most of these electrons will be attracted to the
positive side, and pushed from the negative side at
the same time.
bond free conductor
electrons electrons
\ \
©
We
Fig. 1.5
This movement of electrons in one direction along
the conductor is known as current flow.
An electrical cell has the ability to set electrical
energy free. This is normally achieved by means of
a chemical reaction within the cell. The cell nor¬
mally has two terminals, one positive and the other
one negative. The negative terminal has an excess
of electrons while the positive has a shortage of
electrons. When a conductor is connected to the
terminals, electrons will move through the conduc¬
tor from the negative terminal to the positive termi¬
nal; this conduction process will last until the
chemical reaction is exhausted.
The electrons within the cell move from positive
to negative and in the outer circuit from negative to
positive. It is the outer-circuit movement of elec¬
trons that is important, in contrast with conventional
current flow, which flows from positive to negative
in the outer circuit. This may sound confusing but
will soon become clear.
When one electron starts to move, all the other
electrons will start to move one by one. This can be
compared to a locomotive pulling trucks: when the
locomotive starts pulling, all the trucks start mov¬
ing, and the second one moves to where the first one
was, etc. All the trucks cover the same distance. The
positions differ in that all the trucks at a station are
in different positions. The difference with electrical
movement is that the electrons are not linked to¬
gether, but forces that cause movement are imposed
on the electrons.
The unit used to measure current flow is the
ampere (symbol A). If a current of 1 A flows through
a conductor, about 6,26 x 1018 electrons pass any
point in one second. Current flow is usually indi¬
cated by means of anIin a circuit and with an arrow
pointed in the direction of the current flow. The
ampere can be subdivided into smaller units. There
are, for instance, 1 000 or 103 milliamperes (mA) in
one ampere. There are 106 microamperes (pAÿ) in
one ampere, 103 pA in one mA, or 1 mA = 10 A.
1.11 RESISTANCE
There are good and bad conductors, but a perfect
conductor does not exist. The process whereby an
electron travels through a conductor with difficulty,
and does not move instantly, but in fact very slowly
from point A to point B, is known as resistance.
Resistance is expressed as R and measured in ohms
(symbol Q).
1.11.1 Resistivity
We already know that the availability of free elec¬
trons determines the conductivity of a conductor.
This characteristic also has a special name: resistiv¬
ity (p - Greek rho). The unit of resistivity is the
ohm-metre (Q.m). It is sometimes known as the
conductivity of a conductor and is determined by the
material of which a conductor is made.
1.12 VOLTAGE
From what we have learned so far, it is clear that the
higher the resistance of a conductor, the more diffi¬
cult it will be for the electrons to flow through the
conductor, and vice versa, provided that the source
of electricity is kept constant. The source of elec¬
tricity is known as voltage (V) or the electromotive
force (emf). Voltage is measured in volts.
Note
•The module dealing with Ohm’s law and its ap¬
plication should be revised before module 2 is
attempted. It is even more important to do so if the
student has not done the N2 course.
1.13 ENERGY LEVELS AND BANDS IN
SOLIDS
A stable (in balance) atom has a certain amount of
energy, which is equal to the sum of the energies of
5
its electrons. Electrons, in turn, have different ener¬
gies called energy levels. The energy level of an
electron is proportional to its distance from the
nucleus. Hence, the energy levels of electrons in
orbits further from the nucleus are higher than those
closer to the nucleus.
It has already been mentioned that electrons move
in orbits around the core. These electrons are held
to the core by a certain field or force, just as the
moon is held to the earth. The field which holds the
electrons in an orbit around the positive core is an
electrical field. Thus when the electron moves near
the surface, and the movement is directed in such a
way that it can break free, the electron will come up
against a potential barrier which obstructs its es¬
cape. if the electron has enough energy, it will
overcome this barrier and escape from the metal.
This energy can be given to the electron in a number
of ways, for example, from photons, thermal energy,
etc. If the metal is looked at as a whole, and attention
is directed from the extremes of the metal to its
principle parts (essentially a microscopic view), it
will be seen that the electrical charge is not of a
uniform nature. Irrespective of the fact that the
valency electrons are shielded from the core by
means of other bonded electrons, they are still at¬
tracted by the core. These forces cause potential
variations in a crystal. (Different textbooks have
different viewpoints on this theory of the difference
between conductors, semiconductors and insula¬
tors. Only one of these theories is dealt with here.)
The distribution of the load depends on the type
of crystal. The permissible energy levels are ob¬
tained in a group known as energy bands. Within
these bands, the discrete energy levels are so near
to each other that it seems they touch each other.
The bands are separated by means of forbidden
bands in which there is no permissible energy. The
impression of bands touching each other is in fact
collections of very narrowly spaced energy levels.
We assume that each permissible band can only
contain a certain amount of electrons.
Electrons in a metal, which can move around and
carry a current, have a high degree of energy, and
are said to be in the conduction band. The electrons
with a lower degree of energy are kept in position
by means of chemical valency forces and they are
found in the valency band.
The energy diagrams of different materials are
shown in fig. 1.6. It is clear that conduction bands
are situated above the valency bands, because the
higher the electron is situated on this diagram, the
higher its energy is. In the case of a good insulator
such as a diamond, the valency band is completely
filled with electrons, while the conduction band is
empty. It is not possible for an electron to gain
enough energy to occupy a position between the two
levels. The space between the two levels is thus
called the forbidden area. In the case of a diamond,
the space between the two levels is about 5,2 elec¬
tron volt (eV). (The electron volt is an energy quan¬
tity and is measuredinjoule.Ifan electronisaccelerated
by means of a potential difference of 1 V, the gain
in kinetic energy by the electron will be 1 eV. Thus
1 eV= 1,6 x lCT19 x 1 joule = 1,6 x HT19 J.) This
means that the energy needed by an electron to
move from the valency band to the conduction
band is 5,2 eV. Normally, the energy gained by an
electron by means of room temperature is about
0,05 eV. Therefore, the chances of an electron
gaining enough energy at room temperature is very
slight. The conduction band thus remains empty
and the diamond is an insulator.
This explanation is valid for all normal insulators,
but with semiconductors, the band is only 1,1 eV.
This value is still much higher than what is normally
available at room temperature. If, however, the
movement of the free electrons due to the available
energy is considered, it will probably be possible to
prove theoretically that the energy gained by means
of collisions and friction between electrons and
atoms will be enough to improve the chance of 3 in
10 000 000 000 that an electron will gain enough
energy to jump the band.
1.14 BONDS BETWEEN ATOMS AND
MOLECULES
To end this module, we describe and define some
concepts in more detail.
The atoms in molecules and solids, liquids and
gases are kept together by means of so-called bonds.
There are different bonds, but all have their origin
in the electrostatic forces between the positive load
of the core of the atom and its surrounding electrons,
which have negative loads.

ik Energy A Energy * k Energy

'cUxtaU
v Cossio" \v
Free
electrons to
establish con¬
duction
\\\
vM\yA
Conduction
band

A
Eg = UeV(Si) Bands
\\
Eg > 5eV Eg = 0,67eV(Ge) overlap

yValence band

mm, Valence band

Valence
electrons
bound to
the atomic
structure
/ / Valence band
Un n n 1 1
Jj

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.6

6
1.14.1 Ionic-bond carbon atoms which are held together by means of
covalent bonds. From the above, it should be clear
Ordinary table salt has the formula of NaCl, which
that these bonds are very strong.
means that it consists of sodium and chlorine atoms.
The sodium ions have a positive charge and the
chlorine ions a negative charge. The ions are formed
1.14.3 Metallic bond
because an electron is easily given from the sodium
atom to the chlorine atom. The ions in the crystal In the case of solid metals such as sodium and
are kept together by means of electrostatic forces copper, one or more electrons can leave the outer
between the opposite charges. This is called an ionic orbit and occupy the orbit of another atom. These
bond and is shown in fig. 1.7 (a). so-called free atoms wander through the metallic
crystal stnicture, which consists of positive ions. A
metallic bond is like a covalent bond, except that the
4
Ions
+ Nucleus
electrons are not coupled to specific atoms; it keeps
the metal in its solid state. This bond is not as strong
f- t-sr
as the covalent or ionic bonds.

Covalent
Ionic bond bond 1.14.4 Van der Waal’s forces (bonds)
(a) (b) After a long time interval the middle of an electron
Free electrons cloud around the core will be at the core itself - see
fig. 1.7 (d). It can happen at any time that there are

+ tr 17 Fixed ions
Electron cloud more electrons on the one side of the core than on
the other. In these conditions, it can happen that the
+ + “*• \ HP + “middle” of the electron cloud, or the negative

**
+~ + Centre
Van der Waal’s
Metallic bond
bond
(c) (d)
Fig. 1.7
1.14.2 Covalent bond
This concept was also discussed in paragraph 1.7.
A slightly different approach is taken here when
discussing bonds between atoms. When the mole¬
cule H (hydrogen gas) is observed, it can be seen
that the electron in an atom wanders from one to the
other. The moment the electron moves from A to B,
A will be positive and B will be negative - see fig.
1.7 (b). Under these conditions, the atoms will at¬
tract each other. The opposite will happen when the
electron moves from B to A. The bond which exists
when atoms share electrons is known as a covalent
bond. Clearly, the electrons do not have to move any
distance as in the case of ionic bonding. For in¬
stance, a diamond is a solid which is built up of
charge, is somewhat displaced relative to the posi¬
tive charge on the core. These two charges then form
an “electrical dipole”. A dipole attracts electrons
from neighbouring atoms to form new dipoles.
These dipoles have very weak forces between them
and are known as Van der Waal 's forces. Solid neon,
an ideal element, is kept in its solid state by means
of these forces. The low melting point of this solid
indicates how weak these forces are in reality.
(Some textbooks explain Van der Waal’s bonds to
be forces of weak bonds which keep molecules in
molecular crystals and molecules of liquids to¬
gether. Molecular crystals have low melting points,
in other words, they require very little energy to
overcome the Van der Waal’s forces to melt.)
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Make simple labelled sketches and describe
the following:
a) an atom;
b) an element;
c) electrons;
d) a cation;

7
 e) a covalent bond; 20. In addition to metals, certain ... are also used
f) ionisation. as conductors.
2. Electrons move about the nucleus of an atom 2 1. All insulating materials will break down and
in paths which are usually referred to as .... conduct current if a sufficiently high ... is
3. The nucleus of an atom consists of particles applied to them.
called ... and ... 22. The ability of a material to act as an insulator
4. Atoms differ from one another only in the is measured in terms of its ...
number of... and ... which they contain. 23. Describe the composition of an atom.
5. By using labelled sketches, explain briefly 24. How do atoms differ from one another?
the difference between conductors, semicon¬ 25. What is:
ductors and non-conductors. (Also show the a) an element;
energy levels.) b) a compound;
6. The number of protons in the nucleus of an c) a molecule?
atom is known as the atomic ... of that atom. 26. Define the atomic number of an atom.
7. When all the atoms within a substance are 27. Explain what is meant by a neutral atom.
alike, the substance is called a chemical ... 28. What are valency electrons?
8. Common examples of chemical elements are 29. Explain the relationship between electron en¬
... , ... and ... ergy levels and free electrons.
9. Different elements can combine to form a 30. How does an atom become
substance called a ... a) a negative ion;
10. A ... is the smallest particle of a compound b) a positive ion?
which retains all the properties of that com¬ 31. Define an electrical conductor and name at
pound. least three good conductor materials.
11. Electrons are basic ... charges, while protons 32. Describe the movement of electrons through
are basic ... charges. a conductor.
12. A ... atom is one which contains the same 33. Define electrical insulation and name five
number of ...and ... common insulating materials.
13. The electrons in the outermost shell of an 34. Under what condition can a material which is
atom are often called the ... electrons. normally an insulator become a conductor?
14. The energy ... of an electron is determined by 35. Describe how temperature and light influ¬
its distance from the nucleus of an atom. ence the nature of semiconductors.
15. If a neutral atom gains electrons, it becomes 36. What do you understand by intrinsic and
a ... ion. extrinsic materials?
16. If a neutral atom loses electrons, it becomes 37. What do you understand by the term “elec¬
a ... ion. tron volt”?
17. The process by which atoms either gain or 38. Describe the valence band, conduction band
lose electrons is called ... and forbidden gap.
18. A conductor is a material through which elec¬ 39. Discuss by using sketches the metallic, cova¬
trons can flow ... lent and ionic bonds.
1 9. In a conductor material, there are many ...

8
 .
2 DIRECT CURRENT THEORY

Overview
In this module students should be able to draw diagrams of resistor networks and explain Kirchhoff s
laws. They will be able to calculate direct current and voltage values in simple series and parallel resistive
circuits. Only Kirchhoff’s laws will be used for this section and Ohm’s law can be used to check the
answer.

2.1 INTRODUCTION bus. Students who did not take N2 and started at
N3 must ensure that they have a good knowledge
Many types of circuits have components that are not
of Ohm’s law and how to apply it to solve prob¬
in series, in parallel, or in series-parallel. One exam¬
lems. Ohm’s law is the most important concept in
ple is a motor car, in which the battery is on the one
end and the generator on the other end with all the
electronics and electrical trade.
lights, radio, CD-player, wires, etc. Another exam¬
ple is an unbalanced bridge circuit. Where the rules
of series in parallel circuits cannot be applied, more 2.2 CURRENT LAW
general methods of analysis become necessary.
These methods include the application of Kirch¬ The algebraic sum of the currents into any point of
hoff’s laws, as described here, and the network the circuit must equal the algebraic sum of the
theorems explained inN4. Any circuit can be solved currents out of that point, i.e. the current in equals
by applying Kirchhoff’s laws because they do not the current out (see fig. 2.1).
depend on series or parallel connectors. The law was
stated in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav R.
Kirchhoff. It is necessary to analyse circuits to
calculate the currents, voltages and powers in the .IA = 5 A
relative components to be able to obtain a good
design. It is often possible to use two or more P IT— 8 A
methods to solve a problem. The calculations con¬
cerning the problems in this section must always be
done using Kirchhoff’s laws. These laws provide a
method to work out in what ratios the currents and 7s=3 A
voltages would divide in any circuit. There are two
of these laws, i.e. the current and voltage laws. The
best way to explain these laws is to work through
examples where the laws are applied. Ohm’s law Fig. 2.1
can sometimes be used to check the answers.
Note
2.3 VOLTAGE LAW
•Students are strongly recommended to revise the
section dealing with Ohm’s law in the N2 sylla- The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed

9
path is zero, or the algebraic sum of the voltages in Example 2.2
a circuit is equal to the voltage applied (see fig. 2.2).
Calculate the voltage drop across the internal resis¬
R\ Ri Ri tance Ri of the battery shown in fig. 2.4 by using
Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

Vr = VR,+VRl+VR2
Vl ><- v2 <ÿ Vi
vRi = vT- vRi+vRi
But /?, and R2 are in parallel
VT
7?, x R2
VRl = IT R, + R2
Fig. 2.2 20x60
= lx = 15 V
20 + 60
V„ =20 - 15 + 4,9 =0,1 V
Example 2.1
To check the answer, use Ohm’s law
Calculate the resultant current IT for the circuit
shown in fig. 2.3.
F/?, = IT x R,
= 1 X 0,1 = 0,1 V
From Kirchhoff’s law, we get:
.'.IT = /, + 12 + — /3 = /, + /2 - 73
:.IT = 10 A + 12 A -15 A 2.4 APPLICATIONS OF KIRCHHOFF’S
IT = 7 A LAWS
By using Kirchhoff’s laws, complex quantities can
h= be solved. Take fig. 2.5 for example.
Ri 15 A
R1-80
R\
IT A 11
*- vwv B h-h
r>-1
r
/i= 10 A
m A VT= 24 V
«2 =
h

+2
6fi Ri =
12 Q
R2
F
<-
E D

>k/z=12A
Fig. 2.5

Fig. 2.3 If Ohm’s law is used to solve the problem in fig. 2.5,
then the total resistance must first be worked out,

• ww T
IT= 1 A Ri = 60 Q
the total current can then be calculated and then the

-»
v 4,9 £2
relevant currents can be calculated. By using Kirch¬
hoff’s laws, it is just a matter of setting up equations,
0,1 a
VR, as many as there are unknowns, and then by solving
—\IWv
#2=20Q
VR,
the equations, the relevant quantities are calculated.

--
I
T- -20 V ir

Example 2.3

Fig. 2.4 By using Kirchhoff’s laws, calculate the currents,

10
voltages and power dissipated by each resistance in .'. 7, -72 = 2-1,333
fig. 2.5. = 0,667 A
To solve this problem using Kirchhoff’s laws,
the circuit is identified by one or more “loops” as Ohm’s law must be used to calculate the voltage
can be seen in fig. 2.5, i.e. loops ABEFA and drop across each resistor and then we can calculate
ABCDEFA the power dissipated by each resistor.

K, = M = V; VK, = *3
= 8x2 = 6x1,333 = 12 x 0,667
= 16 V = 8 V =8V
Solution
.'. Vx = 16 V .'. Fj = 8V
.-. V2 =8V
Take loop ABEFA first. It has a series circuit and
therefore the voltage law must by used. These answers can now be checked by means of
According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get: Ohm’s law or by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law; we
VT = V, + V2 : © do it by means of Kirchhoff to give you extra
According to Ohm’s law, exercise.
V\ — R j x /, and V2 — R2 X 12
Vt =8x7, and P», = hVR, PR2 = hVRj Ph= Wz V*3
= 2x16 = 1,333x6 = 0,667x12
V2 = 12 7,- I2 as well as = 32 W =8W =8W
V2 = 6 x 72
Now substitute the values given in fig. 2.5 in these Now the power consumed by each resistor can be
equations: calculated as follows:

VT = 77, x 7, + R2 x I7 VT = 24 V (Given left-hand side of equation)

.'.24= 87, +672 ’• • • © VT = K, + V2
= 16 + 8
Loop ABCDEFA is also made up by means of a = 24 V (Calculated values right-hand side)
series circuit and the voltage law must again be LHS = RHS
used. It is again applied to equation 1. .'. answers for7,,/2,/3 and VX,V2 are correct.
.•. VT = /?, 7, + 7?3 7,-7,
Note
.-. 24= 87, +12 7, -12
= 87, +127, -127, •If a problem does not indicate the current direc¬
tion, then the examiner expects you to use the
.-. 24 = 207, - 1272 conventional current flow direction which is from
We now have two equations with two unknowns. the positive terminal, through the network, back
We use normal algebra to solve these equations as to the negative terminal of the power supply. This
follows: is important especially when two or more power
Multiply © with 2 sources are involved. (The syllabus states “only
two unknowns and one power supply must be
48 = 167, +1272
used”.)
Add © and ©
72 = 367,
.-. 7, = 2 A Example 2.4
Replace 7, = 2 A in © Refer to fig. 2.6 and use Kirchhoff’s laws to calcu¬
24 = 8X2 + 16/2
late the following:
24-16= 67, 1. the voltage drop across 7? i;
2. the value of Ry,
.-. 7, = -6 = 1,33 A
2 3. the value ofthe current flowing through Ri, i.e.
between C and D.

11
 Ri = 4kO Test:
A B I) -h
It
-ÿ
vwv h=
-ÿ
C
FRI +F„; =25,926 + 174,07
= 200 V (Adds up)
3 mA

-=~ VT= 200 V «3=? Ri = Note

50 kO'
Some common definitions are the following:
•A closed path is a loop.
F E D •A principal node is a branch point where currents
divide or combine.
Fig. 2.6 •A mesh is the simplest possible loop. A mesh
current is assumed to flow around the mesh with¬
out branching.
We follow the same method as before.
Take loop ABEFA. This is a series circuit with
R, and R}.
EXERCISE 2.1
Frÿ+Fÿ
Answer true or false for questions 1 to 6.
.'. 200 = 7, x /?, + I2 x R} [/2 = 3 mA] The algebraic sum of all voltages around any
200 = 4xl03/, + 3 x 1 0~3 x R3 © loop must equal zero.
2. With 7i = 3 A and h = 2 A directed into a
Take loop ACDFA which is also a series circuit.
node, the current h directed out must equal
VT = VRI+VRI 5 A.
200 = 7, x R] + 7?, x 7, - 72 [/2 = 3 mA] 3. In a loop without any voltage source, the
200 = 4 x 103 7, + 50 x 103 7, -3xl0-3 algebraic sum of the voltage drops must equal
200 = 4 x 103 7, + 50 x 1 03 7, - 50 x 103 x 3 x 10~3 zero.
4. The algebraic sumof+40 V and-10 V equals
200 = 54xl037, -150
+30 V.
.'. 350 = 54x 103 7,
5. A principal node is a junction where branch
350
7i = 54 x 103 currents can divide or combine.
6. The rules of series voltage and parallel cur¬
= 6,48 x 10~3 rents are based on KirchhofF’s laws.
= 6,48 mA 7. State Kirchhoff’s current law in two ways.
Substitute /, in © 8. State Kirchhoff’s voltage law in two ways.
200 = 4 x 103 x 6,48 x 10 + 3 x 10~3 x R3
3
9. What is the difference between a loop and a
200 = 25,926 + 3 xlO"3x7?_, mesh?
174,074= 3xl0-3 x R} 10. Define a principal node.
174,074 11. By using Kirchhoff’s current law, determine
•••
*3 = 3 x 1 0-3 the relevant currents in fig. 2.7.
= 58,025 kQ (7i = 3 A;Ii = 2 A)

To calculate the voltages, we again use Ohm’s law. R\=2C1 ft = 49

VR] = 7, X Rt
It h
= 6,48 x 10"3 x 4 x 103 l\-h
= 25,926 V RA =
RI =
3O 20
FR2 = 7, — 72
R2 x VT= 12 V
3
= 6,48 x 10”3 - 3 x 10 50 x 103
= 3,48 x 10”3 x 50 x 103
= 174,07 V Fig. 2.7

12
12. Refer to fig. 2.8 and use Kirchhoff’s laws to 15. Refer to fig. 2.10 and calculate the value of the
determine I\ - h, /4, VT and PR j' currents by using Kirchhoff’s laws.
(50 mA; 350 mA; 150 V; 1,5 W) ( J\ = 12 mA =I 2)

R\ = 150 Q Rl= ison -*ÿ >

O —t VWVI\-h v I\ h

350 mA 300 mA
R4 «4 =
R2 = ~

600 0 200 Cl
150 0
Kr = ?
Rs =
Rs= 150 0 R5= 150 0 200 O
o <wwv—
/4 = ?
ww VT= 12 V 200 0
Fig. 2.8 tfi -
800 0
13. Refer to fig. 2.9 and calculate the value of the
currents by using Kirchhoff’s laws. v *2 =
( 7i = 3 A; I2 = 2 A) 600 0

fil = 100

h
ww
Fig. 2.10
Ri = 100
16. Refer to fig. 2.11 and calculate the relevant
-n
currents by using Kirchhoff’s laws.
> r 7i - h h
-=- Kr=50V (/i = l,333 A;/i+/2 = 2A)
/?2 = *4 =
IOO IOO

ji /| + /2

V /,
Fig. 2.9 h
"
*2 =

14. Consider a 12 V battery where the positive 8Q

terminal is marked A and the negative terminal
F. An ammeter has its positive terminal con¬ *1 =
nected to A and the negative terminal con¬ 3Q
«3 =
60
nected to B. The ammeter indicates a current
with a value ofI\. The ammeter has an internal
resistance R 1 of 2k7 Q. A resistor Ri with a
value of lk8 fi is connected from B to E and E
VT = 20 V
is connected to F. A third resistor R3 with the
two ends of C and D has a value of 3k3 Q and
is connected to B and E respectively, a current
I2 flows through /?3.
Draw the circuit diagram of the above and 4
use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine I\,h, h - h
and the voltage across the ammeter. Fig. 2.11
13
1 7. Refer to fig. 2.12 and use KirchhofFs laws to
calculate the following: /l
a) The voltage drop across Ri; Ri = 11 - h h u
40 Q
b) The current flow between B and E;
c) The power dissipated by R<\. Ri =
75 0
Make use of the following two equations to -=- VT= 100 V =
determine the value of the currents as indi¬ 150 Q
cated: Ri =
1407, - 100/2 = 100 and 25 Cl
407, + 15072 = 100
Prove the validity of these equations. <-
( 7i = 1 A; I\- h = 600 mA;
Fig. 2.12
V\ = 40 V; P4 = 24 W)

14