Introduction To Shoe Last

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING D.E.I.
DAYALBAGH
B .Tech.(Footwear technology)
Semester:4
INTRODUCTION OF SHOE LAST
DAYALBAGH EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE
Submitted by:- Submitted to:-
PRAGYA BALI Mr. G.P.SHARMA
154225
INTRODUCTION
OF
SHOE LAST
WHAT THE TERM “LAST” MEANS?
The most important single feature in shoe making has always been the
last.
The word “last” comes from angle Saxon work ‘last’ which means a foot-
print a foot tracks. A foot traces.
The last is a reproduction of the approximate shape of human foot.
The first last maker was William Young, Philadelphia, in 1807.
E.B. Stimpson, of New York, prepared a last measurement chart and was
Published for the first time in 1881.
Basic measurements adopted in 1887 are in use today.
must also be able to hold tacks (known as "lasting tacks"), which are used to hold
shoe parts together temporarily before the sole is added. Although hardwoods
satisfy these criteria, modern lasts, especially those used by mass production
factories in places such as China, are often made from high-density
polyethylene plastic (HMW-HDPE), which allows for many tack holes before
needing repair. Such plastics also have the benefit that they can be recycled and
remoulded when they wear out.
What is a Shoe Last ?

The solid form around which a shoe is molded...
The fit of a shoe depends on the design, shape and volume of the Shoe Last.
The shoe last must represent the anatomical information of the foot, at the same
time giving the finished shoe a pleasing and fashionable appearance.
Chart showing the main parts of a " Shoe Last "
Each "shoe last " is designed for a particular

heel height, toe shape, and type of footwear.
Many styles of shoes can be made on the

same shoe last , but the toe shape and heel
height willbe the same for each pair made on
that shoe last.
If you want to have shoes with different toe

shapes, then it is necessary to create more
than one pair of shoe lasts.
3 Different Shoes
A proper fitting pair of shoe lasts is a Made on the same " Shoe Last
solid investment, and the first step towards "
creating proper fitting and fashionable
footwear.
Notice how each Shoe

Last in this collection is
designed for a different
Heel Height & Profile.
Examples :
Top Left = Western
Boot
Bottom Right = Flat
Moccasin
In this picture,
each drawer contains a
complete size run for that
style of shoe last.
Traditionally, shoe lasts

were made of hardwoods,
such as Maple or Beech.
Modern days shoe lasts

are made of high
density plastics, that are
Craftsmen's Shoe Last
100% recyclable.
Collection
THE LAST
A last is a mechanical form that has a shape similar to that of a human foot.It
is used by shoe makers and cordwainers in the manufacture and repairing of
shoe.Lasts typically come in pairs and have been made from various
material,including hard woods ,cast iron and high density plastics.
The last is a wooden or metal form or mould on which a leather or rubber

shoe is constructed, giving the shoe its shape.
Production
Lasts come in many styles and sizes, depending on the exact job they are designed
for. They range from simple one-size lasts used for repairing soles and heels, to
durable lasts used in modern mass production, to custom-made lasts used in the
making of bespoke footwear. Though a last is made approximately in the shape of
a human foot, the precise shape is tailored to the kind of footwear being made. For
example, a boot last would be designed to hug the instep for a close fit. Modern
last shapes are typically designed using dedicated computer-aided design software.
Historically, lasts were typically made from hardwoods and cast iron because these
materials retain their shape, even when in contact with wet materials (like leather)
and subjected to the mechanical stresses of stretching and shaping shoes on them.
Today, wooden lasts are generally used only for bespoke shoemaking, particularly
in Europe and North America.
The materials used in modern lasts must be strong enough to withstand the forces
of mass production machinery, such as that applied by pullover machines when
bottoming the shoe, and
Last making is altogether a separate branch of the footwear trade and a shoe
designer is not expected to be a last maker. Some important facts regarding the last
and the relations between last and foot, however, a shoe maker should know.
Having the choice between handmade and machine made lasts, a shoemaker who
wants to adopt modern techniques, especially in pattern cutting and grading, must
prefer the machine made last. The lasts made by recognized last manufacturers are
precisely graded and turned on a lathe automatically from a model, reaching a
degree of accuracy even a skilled hand last maker can hardly achieve. A good last
factory also guarantees that is properly selected and treated i.e. steamed seasoned
(air dried). The wood must strand humidity changes without changing its shape.
Since the start of modern shoe manufacturing about 70 years age in Europe and
America lathe for making last are in use to meet the requirement of a mass
production. S0ince this time a big amount of accurate and cheap lasts are required
and manufactured.
SCINENTIFIC METHOD REQUIRED
What is normal foot?

Until we know what a structurally normal foot is, we cannot hope to
make foot conforming lasts and shoes. Foot is fundamentally a structure
built on a liner plan. That is, instead of being, composed of an endless
variety of ‘curves’ or rounded portions, it is basically composed of straight
lines.
First step being proposed on a group of ‘longitudinal Axes’. These
axes must be constant in their position in the normal foot.
Proposed systems are four focal measurement points or landmarks on the
foot.
FOOT FITTING
a) Infants.
Complete freedom of movements should be allowed for the infants, feet at
all times. At least 12 mm of growing space should be allowed for in front of
the longest art the foot.
b) Teenage
More style is demanded, but is still essential to give at least 5/8”
growth from in front of the toes
ANATOMY OF HUMAN FOOT
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HUMAN FOOT AND SHOE LAST
.The surface of feet is irregular and it varies from one to other.
While
The surface of the last is being kept smooth to enable the closed shoe upper to be
moulded smoothly to get thee shape of the shoe.
.The foot has no feather edge or outline and no heel pitch.

While
The outline of last is regular and has a sharp feather edge around the seat and
forepart visible on the bottom of the last.and heel pitch exist on last.
Foot is a composition of flesh bones.As such it is softer and more flexible.

While
Last is made of wood or high density plastic.It is hard and firm.
The foot has five individual toes and it can move while wearing a shoe.
While
The toe portion of the last kept solid.Only chappal last has got an individual bidg
toe for fitting the front strap.
Back of the foot develops as per the anatomy of foot of the individual.
While
Back of the last is being kept more curve for the better gripping of the shoe.
Comb area of human foot is different in shape between inside and outside.
While
Comb area is being kept thinner on the last in respect of foot for better gripping.
The length of the foot is fixed,girth and size interval is irregular on feet.
While
The length of the last is more than that of individual foot,girth and size interval is
regular on feet.
The foot is being used for weight bearing and propulsion of the body.
While
The last is being used as the basic tool for manufacturing shoe.
THE RELATION BETWEEN THE LAST AND THE FOOT

To understand clearly the relation between the last and the feet, it is essential
to understand first of all the main differences between a foot and the last
along with the reasons difference. The main differences between the last and
the foot are as follows:
* The last is always longer than the foot
* The last does not reproduce any of the irregularities of the foot i.e. the last
represents only the major and average curvatures of the foot and not all of
them.
* The foot generally lees flat on the ground when paced on a flat. Surface
whereas when a last is put on a flat surface with the proper heel height
provided, the toe portion of the last does not touch the ground this shows
that a certain amount of toe spring has been introduced in the last.
* The last is thinner along the comb portion of the last than the
corresponding portion of the foot.
LAST SHAPES AND FOOT TYPES

It gives basics for the English terminology of last and introduces partly the relation
between the shape of foot and shape of last.the shoemaker can learn about basics
for the wearers comforts.
THE VARIOUS PARTS OF LAST:
1.Fore part 2.back part 3. back cone 4.back cone height 5.back seam tack height
6. base plane 7.breast line 8. front cone 9 .heel curve 10.heel curve angle
11.heel elevation 12.heel featherline 13.instep point 14.instep girth 15.last joint
break 16.long heel girth 17. last bottom centerline 18. last bottom feather line
19.shank 20.thimble 21.thread point 22.toe spring 23.waist girth 24.wall
25.wedge angle.
1. Base plane:
layout of the plane to which the last, in its proper attitude, conforming to heel
elevation, is referenced for the purpose of defining certain terms.
2. Toe spring:
vertical distance between the base plane and the toe point of a last having the
desired heel elevation.
3. Tread or striking point:
the contact point of the bottom forepart and the base plane.
4. Last joint break:
along the edge-last of the shank or the plantar arch zone.
5. Forepart:
of the last, which covers the zone, bordered at the back by the separating line
whose path on the plane is point 4 and, at the front, by the plant itself.
6. Backpart of the last
, which covers the zone bordered at the front by the separating line whose path on
the plane is point 4 and which, extends at the back until it covers the whole heel.
7. Breast line
, along the edge-last, of the heel start. It is the path of an arbitrary line defining the
forward boundary of the heel seat.
8. Shank:
the bottom area of the bordered last: at the front, by the line whose path is pint 4
and at the back, by the line whose path on the plant is point 7.
9. Back maximum end point of the edge-last in the heel zone.
10. Heel elevation:

vertical distance between the base plane and the back maximum end point of the
edge-last in the heel zone, once the last is correctly placed.
11. Plane of heel featherline:
it is the plane, in a geometrical last, perpendicular to the plane of the last centreline
and therefore perpendicular to axis of the thimble hole.
12. Wedge angle of heel seat:
it is the angle between the heel featherline plane and the base plane.
13. Back cone height:

vertical distance between the heel featherline plane and the back cone top plane.
14. Height of the reference tack on the heel:
vertical distance between the heel featherline plane and the reference tack on the
heel. 14’. Backseam tack height: limit reference point for the placing on the top
edge of the upper during lasting.
15. Heel curve angle:
the angle between the heel featherline plane and a line drawn from the heel point
(9) which intersects the heel curve at a height of 63 mm (this is and arbitrary
measurement).
16. Heel curve:
a side profile of the back end of the last from top of the last to the heel seat on
featherline.
17. Back cone:
portion of the cone surface located between the “V” cut and the back end of the
last.
18. V cut:
cone portion removed to obtain the alpha hinge cut of the last and its shortening,
facilitating extraction of the lasted shoe.
19. Front cone:
portion of the cone surface located between the “V” cut and the vamp point (point
22).
20. Instep Reference point:
a point established arbitrarily by the model maker for grading purposes. It is
located approximately at mid-point of the last length on the front cone profile.
21. Profile of the front cone:
a side view of the front cone profile at the instep up to the vamp point (also called
“court shoe point”).
22. Vamp tack:
a tack placed on the top of the last forepart along the profile at an arbitrary distance
back from the toe as specified by the stylist-pattern-maker shoe manufacturer.
23. Toe profile:

a side view of the last forepart profile from the toe up to the connection with the
profile of the front cone.
24. Vamp length:
distance measured along the toe profile, from the vamp tack to the point.
REQUIRMENT OF THE LAST’S SHAPE:
A.The last’s shapes must suit the construction and the movement of the foot.
B.The last’s shape must satisfy the requirements of fashion.
TOP SPRING AND HEELPITCH:
TOE -SPRING:
Toe spring is the distance from the ground to the tread surface of the
sole at the extreme tip of the toe in a shoe. The slightly turned up effect at
the toe portion of the finished shoe is known as toe spring. To further
elaborate the definition and put it in the technical manner, it may be defined
as the distance from the ball tread to the tip of the toe of the sole when
bearing no body weight.
Practically every shoe has a built in toe-spring as it is essential part

of the shoe. It affects the sole, feet, walking ease and comfort of the shoe at
the vamp. Too much or too little toe-spring can affect the look, feel and wear
of shoe.
There is no exact standard as to the amount of toe-spring in either a
last or shoe. The amount of toe-spring introduced in the last is entirely
different from the amount which is left in the finished shoe. This is because
the toe-spring must take into consideration the thickness of outsole and
insole, heel height and sole feather on the finished shoe.
Although no definite formula is available regarding the amount of the

spring a study has been made and it show that on a men’s shoe with single
sole and 8/8 heel, there would be about 1” of toe spring in the last and about
half inch left in the finished shoe .On a7/8 heel, the toe –spring would be
slightly lower.
NECESSITY OF TOE-SPRING:
Toe –spring is introduced because it helps the person in walking.

During walking the weight moves from heel into toe; then spring off as the
steps are taken. The outsole of the shoe has a certain amount of rigidity. So,
depending upon the rigidity of the sole, the last should be provided with a
certain amount of toe.
LAST LENGTH:
The length is measured in a straight line and is therefore different from the insole
length. This measurement is used for construction and production.
INSOLE LENGTH: The insole length is measured along the last bottom and is
dependent on the foot length.
BALL MEASUREMENT: The ball measurement i.e. the circumference around the
ball joint, is measured at the widest part of the forefoot.
HEEL HEIGHT: The heel height defines the waist curve, the contact point and the
toe-spring. This measurement is critical for last construction.
Toe extension: Toe extension refers to the difference between the foot length and
the shoe length.
This allowance is necessary so that the foot can roll. Foot length + toe extension =
shoe length The toe extension varies according to the last shape.
As a rule: - Narrow toe-pints = long toe extension - Wide toe-points = short toe
extension
INSTEP MEASUREMENT: The ball measurement i.e. the circumference of the

ball joint is measured around the middle of the instep area.
HEEL MEASUREMENT: The heel measurement (sometimes called heel girth) is

taken from the highest instep point to the lowest heel point. This measurement is
important for the opening of bootees and boots.
26
Figure 2.3
Big toe height is the vertical height from the walking surface to the highest point
on the big toe. Toe heights for men and women are between 14 to 17 mm. Toe-
spring is the distance between the shoe toe point and the walking surface. Toe-
spring makes rolling during walking easier and is determined by the type and
thickness of the sole, the last profile and visual aspects. Waist curve is the
curvature between the heel height and the contact point. Contact point of the last
corresponds to the ball joint of the foot. Heel width is the widest part of the heel.
With adults this point is measured 45 mm from the furthest part at the back of the
heel, in the direction towards the front of the foot.
LAST MEASUREMENTS
The last measurements can be classified in three categories, namely

(1) last length scale (2) last girth scale, and (3) last fitting scale.
1. Length Scale:
The present size scale or the shoe sizing system was originated by
King Edward II in the year 1524. It is he who decreased that 3 barely corns
placed end to end equal to one inch. Later, it was also found that 39 barely
corns placed end to end equal to the length of a longest normal foot, Which
was divisible by three. Hence, the longest foot, which was divisible by three,
was called as size13. It was on the basis of this foundation that all other sizes
were graded down by one barely corn or 1/3 of an inch. The method of
sizing which exists today is on the basis of the above decree.
This system of sizing is also known as 'orthodox size scale' and as

stated earlier, it has three sizes to an inch and commences with size 'O'
which is 4" in length and continuous with an interval of 1/3 of an inch up to
size 13 which is 8 1/3 " in length. The numbering breaks off at this and re-
commences till 12 and above. In that the large size may even go to size
16.The full sizes are further divided into half sizes which is equal to 1/6 of
an inch.
The whole scale i.e. size 0 to 13 and size 1 to size 12 or above are
further divided according to the type of shoes to be made. As already
explained in the lecture titled 'Development of foot from childhood to
maturity' the characteristics of foot vary along with the growth of the foot
and so lasts for different age groups are in general use. These ranges can be
modified according to requirements and there is no hard and fast rule about
this classification. Some overlapping between ranges, particularly in older
group can be found in these ranges. Ranges which are generally in use are as
follows:-
Sizeto size
Infants 0 6
Children 7 11
Boys and Girls 12 2
Youths and Males 3 6
Women 3 9
Men 5 12 and above
2. Girth Scale:
As in the earlier paragraph, the length size between each size differs
by 1/3" of an inch. The larger size also has greater girth measurements and
as per the orthodox rule, it is of an inch per size. For example, if size 7 has a
joint girth of 9", size 8 will have a joint girth of 9 1/4".This is of courses will
vary according to the type of shoes to be made. A shoe made from heavy
material will have a greater girth than the one made from light material in
order to compensate for the loss of flexibility and greater thickness of upper
material. The girth grades which are in use of various size ranges are as
follows:-
Joint Girth:
Size 0 to size 6 1/8 of an inch size to size.

-do “ 7 to " 10 3/16 -do-
-do- " 11 upwards 4 -do-
Instep girth: The difference from size to size is the same as for joint girth.
Thread width: This is taken generally as 1/3 of the joint girth increase which
comes to as follows:
Size 0 to size 6 .. 1/24" size to size

Size 7 to size 10 .. 3/64" -do-
Size 11 upwards .. 1/16" -do-
Seat width: This is taken as 1/4 of joint girth increase which comes to:
size 0 to size 6 .. 1/32" size to size

size 7 to size 10 .. 3/64" -do-
size 11 upwards .. 1/16" -do-
3.Fitting Scale:
As stated above, there are different girth measurements for different

lengths. But there is also different girth measurement for the same size
length. This enables us to get last with the same size length but with various
girth measurements. This makes it possible to fit more felt efficiently for the
same size length. This practice is known as 'fitting' as mentioned earlier, the
difference between the fittings are not fixed but this most widely used grades
are 1/4 of an inch between sizes. The distribution of this 1/4 of an inch is
1/12 across the width of the last and 1/6 i.e.2/12 on the top. The bottom
measurement is taken across the joints corresponding to the widest part of
the foot.
The fittings in which the shoes are made depend upon the type of
shoes e.g. generally closed shoes are made in multi-fittings, whereas sandals
are restricted to one or two fittings. The fitting can be indicated either by
alphabetical letters or numerical number. In English scales the fitting
generally starts for 3 which is equivalent to the '0' fitting or American
footwear Trade. A few examples of joint girth measurement for various sizes
and fittings are as follows:
SIZES
6 7 8 9 10 11
C or 3 fittings 8 1/2 9 3/4 9 9 1/2 9 1/2 9 3/4
D or 4 " 8 3/4 9 9 1/4 9 1/2 9 3/4 10
E or 5 " 9 9 1/4 9 1/2 9 3/4 10 101/4
Multi-fittings:
From experience it has been found that with the orthodox grade of 1/4
of an inch it is not possible to fit the feet of a larger number of customers.
Hence, a modification to the existing grade has been made and this is called
as multi-fitting which ranges from 4A (AAAA) to 4E (EEEE).This practical
in this case is to have a grade of 3/16 of an inch instead of 1/4 of an inch.
The system also introduces a practice of lengthening the last by 1/24 of an
inch between all the fittings. The following is a table giving the length and
girth for multi-fitting, size 5:
Fitting Length (in) Girth (in)

AAAA 9-19/24 7-5/16
AAA 9-20/24 7-8/16 3/16 Grade.
AA 9-21/24 1/24 Reduction 7-11-/16
A 9-22/24 7-14/16
B 9-23/24 8-1/16
C 10 8-4/10
D 10 No alteration 8-8/16 1/4 Grade.
E 10 8-12/16
EE 10-1/24 8-15/16
EEE 10-2/24 1/24 increase 9-2/16 3/16 Grade
EEEE 10-3/24 9-5/16
American Size Scale:
This system is the same as that of the English system. Known as

orthodox scale, with the exception that the American begins with size '0'
which is equivalent to 3-11/12 of an inch and thereby making each size 1/12
of an inch shorter than its English equivalent. The different between size to
size remains the same as in the English scale i.e.1/3 of an inch. It is a general
practice in the American shoe industry to stamp their shoes 1 1/2 size up and
two fittings down e.g. a size 4 of orthodox scale would be marked as size 5
1/2 in the American shoe industry with 4 fittings of the English scale marked
down to 'B' fittings according to the American fitting scale.
Paris Points:
The size unit in the centimeter is 'Paris Point' which equals to 2/3 cm.
The size scale begins from '0' cm and continuous without break up to the
largest size. No provision for the half sizes is made in 'Paris Points'.
Conversion of English sizes into Paris Points
1. Convert English size into inches (2) convert inches into centimeter (3)
convert centimeters into Paris Points by multiplied 3/2.
Examples:
1. Size 5 has a length of 10"

2. 10 multiplied by 2.54 equals to 25.40
3. 25.40 multiplied by 3/2 equals to 38.00 (nearest size)
2. Convert 42 Paris Points to English size :
1. 42 x 2/3 equals to 28 cm
2. 28 cm x 2.54 equals to 11 inches
3. 11 inches is equal to size 8
Girth Scale: Girth scales between sizes are 5 mm and across the tread is 1.
2/3 mm.
The following is the extract of ISI specification No. IS 1638-1960 on

sizes and fittings formulated for adoption by our shoe industry?
The ISI (IS: 1638-1960) recommends the following dates for sizes and
fittings.
Instep Girth:
The circumference of the foot measured at the length of the foot,

where there is bony prominence. This is represented on the last as half the
total length of the last illustration of last showing the points where
measurement for length joint girth and instep girth are taken.
Joint Girth:
The circumference of the foot around the middle of the big and small
toe joints.
Length Scale:
a) Foot length-
The length of foot measured from the tip of toe to the centre of the curve at
the back of the foot with a measuring tape of a tool.
b) Last Length-
The distance from the centre of the curve of the back to the extreme tip of
the toe when measured with a measuring stick.
Categories of Sizes:
The standard sizes giver in Tables 1 fall in six categories as given below:
Categories Standard Size
Babies 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
Children 7, 8, 9 and 10
Boy and Girls 11, 12 and 13
Youths 1, 2, 3 and 4
Ladies 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
Gents 5,
TRADITIONAL WAY OF LAST MAKING
The traditional way of last making is to shape a last from a spoke of wood with a
last makers long knife and bench. The conventional wood is beach, maple or some
other types of hard wood, up to date, those who still utilized wooden lasts still
prefer American maple for it's properties. As reported by a long time footwear
maker, D.A Satguto, "European red beechwood lasts from the Continent, I fear
we'll need to brace ourselves as they are another experience if you're accustomed
to using Canadian rock maple lasts, or even plastic.
The beech lasts I've seen are not very consistent, nor consistently bark-bottomed in
their orientation. They tend to twist, warp, develop splits, cracks, and will "tack-
out" [no longer hold tacks after repeated use] faster than maple[ which bark bottom
tends to resist]. French "charme" or hornbeam lasts are nicer I think, but this wood
is softer than beech, and much softer than maple. "
Historically, part of the last maker's job was to carefully select a wood that would
give him the best shaping and lasting characteristics. Beginners in last making,
hear that rock hard maple is the only type of wood that can be utilized for making
lasts. However, the reason behind why these woods are used is more important to
understand than the finest wood to utilize. The characteristics of Maple and beech
make them a good type of wood for last making, however, other hardwoods (that
have similar characteristics) can be utilized too.
1. A clean cutting wood.

i.e. a wood which cuts "clean " under the knife, with no tendency to fray. Ash and
oak have the latter tendency, but beech has not.
2. A wood free from knots.

The presence of knots presents great difficulty in cutting, and, of minor
importance, is unsightly. Again, after a time the knots are liable to fall out, and,
consequently, may destroy the outline of the last. Beech and charme are singularly
free from this affliction.
3. A wood not liable to split.

Liability to split would make knifing very difficult, and such an accident at salient
points of the last would undo in a second hours of endeavor. Further, nails and
rivets are driven into lasts, and these would quickly destroy a last with a tendency
to split.
4. A wood, which has hardness of texture.

This is necessary to ensure that the last does not dent due to any blow, and that
defined edges on the last keep their shape during wear and tear.
5. A wood, which is close, grained.

This property ensures a last, which will take a high polish.
6. A wood, which is not hydroscopic. All woods are hygroscopic but some much
less than others. However, lasts can be polished with wax, or enameled with
cellulose, and such treatment protects the wood against the atmospheric conditions.
NO WOOD SATISFIES ALL THESE IDEALS, BUT A CAREFUL SELECTION

OF THE WOOD AND ITS PROPER TREATMENT WILL LEAD TO A
SATISFACTORY APPROACH TO THEM.
Because of the characteristics of wood, these wooden lasts could not be relied on
for absolute size and shape. To solve this problem, preserve the wood and to help
prevent swelling and shrinking lasts were soaked in Vaseline and gas solutions,
many others concoctions.
In the 1960's plastic was introduced as a more stable last making material, thus
lasts began to be made from plastic instead of wood. No longer the need for
careful selection of wood, as plastic is a predictable material. Today, although
some custom lasts are still made of hard wood, lasts now are made of HDPE #2.
This plastic is a common plastic utilized for making milk bottles, medicine bottles,
laundry detergent bottles, many other household containers, grocery bags and
house wrap. It is an easily melt-able plastic that can be recycled to make newly
formed lasts. Although wooden lasts are still produced today we continue to
promote utilizing plastic as a viable last making medium.
During the early 1900's the Gilman last making machine was utilized to crank out
lasts faster than production last makers could. It spit out more than a thousand
lasts per day as appose to a few the last makers could make in a day. However, this
machine still relied on an initial last maker to sculpt and shape the initial last
ordered from the shoe designer before operations could commence. This first
last, was called a pattern or model. because the model last was placed on one side
and the newly forming lasts was shaped on the other. I believe a better name
for this sort of machine would be a duplicating machine more than a last making
machine.
As last making went from the hands of the local cordwainer to the factories, new
scientific experiments began to emerge regarding how the last can be shaped
efficiently. Luckily through these experiments, (each manufacture trying to gain a
competitive edge) the last went from an asymmetrical foot like block to a
medically scientific based rights and lefts. Also, along with this, journey last
making theory was developed and continued to be developed through the 20th
century. It is thanks to the ambitions of footwear manufacturers of the this time
that we have better fitting shoes than our predecessors and a solidification of last
making theory.
In the late 19th century, many manufactures experimented with casting a foot and
making a last with it. Their experiments were not successful. However, in the
1980's these experiments were revisited successfully for the purpose of of
orthopedic and shoe therepy. An art student, found a way to make orthopedic
shoes by casting a foot and making a last from a foot model. These lasts began as
plaster and ended up being made of firm foam. In the beginning the shoes turned
out to look like feet with the toe bumps and all, had no artistic design, and the
original shoes had a similar look to a moon shoe. Later, however, his methods
were improved upon, making his form of last and shoe making more desirable. The
draw back to this type of last making is the lasts made from his method, did not
have a heel option more than a half an inch, nor did they include modern sole
shapes and styles, especially ladies shoe considerations. These shoes were not
designed for beauty; they were designed for function and shoe therapy. None the
less, his way of making lasts went on to become the prominent method
of corrective ped-orthic lasts utilized today, His system is taught in many ped-
orthic schools across America. This art student developed his technique so well,
that as computer technology was being integrated into last making manufacturing
in the later 1980's, he was recruited to assist in many of the computerized last
making software we know today.
Although the computerized systems found a way to scan feet, they only used it as a
fitting tool. The software had been prepared with a multitude of previously carved
and scanned lasts placed in its library for the last designer to choose from. This
software becomes a virtual fitting tool, as a person would try on a shoe. Once a
"close match" was achieved, the match was selected and last making adjustments
were made directly into the program. The initial foot pair was forgotten and often
only one foot was utilized for a "virtual last fitting". As efficient as this may seem,
many bugs still need to be corrected in this sort of system. For example, it is
guaranteed that most feet pair for one human are not the same size, thus utilizing
one foot to match the other can be a gross mistake. Secondly, if the individual is
already having trouble finding shoes that fit, finding a "close match" is not what
they are looking for in a "Custom" last pair. Additionally, if one is utilizing a last
library as a virtual fitting tool but does not consider the planter surface of
the individual's feet, proper foot support for ANY heal height would be difficult to
achieve. Traditional last makers who followed the medically sound rights and lefts
treated the foot pair by shaping a last for each foot individually. Contrastly,
in modern last/foot scanning software the foot being scanned is not actually the
starting point for an individual custom last pair. Instead, a last shape is found (that
slightly resembles that foot pair) small adjustments are made, the last is carved in
wood or plastic block on a tabletop lathe that is computer numerically controlled,
when the designer is satisfied the foot pair is then forgotten. One might think that
they were scanning the foot to make a last but this image is a misnomer. As
explained in the paper written by SamualLauchner called "The Automation of the
Shoe Last" in order for a scanned foot to have a direct corrolation to a custom last
a reality more research must and needs to be done. As with most things, in order
for computer software to be developed, items must first be hand crafted in order to
program computer software to replicate the actions of ones own hands. To this
date, foot-scanning software remains still just a fitting tool for the custom footwear
designer, however this computerized advancement is incredibly useful for factories
and shoe designers developing lasts for a general market.
My previous work as a fashion wedding gown designer gave me an understanding

that to make an article of clothing truly custom; a form must be made beginning
with a duplicate of the wearer. Therefore, my school has continued the work of
creating a last directly from an identical model of the foot. Our science basted
method of custom moulded last making combines the scientific research done from
the factories through the 20th century. It is thanks to them who developed proper
last making theory that this theory is the foundation to all lastmaking classes we
teach in our school when developing custom lasts. Additionally, we have
successfully found the missing key that everyone overlooked regarding shaping a
last from an identical replica of an individual foot pair In ANY heel hieght.
Treating each foot in a pair individually is key to a custom fit.
By knowing what I have discovered and, you get a better control over your
footwear designs based on what is the best look and fit, support for the foot pair.
This information now completes the quest for a shoe that is comfortable, follows
the contour of an individual, and can be manipulated into ANY fashionable
footwear and in ANY heal height and shape for comfort, beauty and design. For
the custom last/shoe designer, learning the process of last design and shaping both
traditional and our school's custom mould lasts will create quality-fitting footwear
for one self or for your customers. What we teach is not relegated to orthopedic.,
although it can be utilized for orthopedic shoe wear, it has no contraints regarding
heel hight. style or sole shape. This custom moulded last allows boots and shoes
retain the planter surface of the individual, is guaranteed to replicate foot volume,
breadth, that allows a more comfortable fit and fuction. Finally, our system of
developing lasts, takes the guess work out of the traditional measureing method
and creates an exact fitting last making method.
In our classes we show you how to optimized feet moulds and models as a
beginning point to last making as we believe all modern scanned software should,
We show you how to utilize Last Design Theory to your advantage, creating
beautiful footwear last shapes for walk able footwear that is truely custom. What is
most wonderful about the custom mould last making method is that allows a
beginning last maker to have success at last making from the start once they
understand our methods of last making. The intemediate course presents a
comprehensive education in last making. This course can can be applied to our
proprietary custom moulded last making method or any other last making method
traditionally presented. Because both ways are based from sound last making
theories, any other classes offered from Lastmaking School.com regarding last
making are epserps of the intermediate class. For a truly comprehesive education in
last making, our intermediate course and privet classes are the best education you
can find on the subject of last making. By teaching this method to boot and shoe
designers, attain a competitive edge in the comfort results to their customers as
well as individuals designing and making footwear for themselves.
In our future classes we will include classes on how to shape the last from a plastic
or wood block based on the profile of an individual.
LAST wooden or plastic model over which shoe upper

and sole are formed during manufacture (see Table 1and Table 2)
 bespoke last made to exact dimensions of patient's foot
 board-lasted shoe upper is stitched to a board of same shape as inner sole;
creates a more rigid shoe than a slip-lasted model, and can accept an orthosis
 combination-lasted slip-lasted forepart and board-lasted rear part; creates
moderately flexible but relatively light-weight shoe
 curved last last with marked forefoot medial in-flare; indicated for highly
arched foot, or runners with mid- or forefoot strike
 generic last last that matches foot size of specific population bands
 semibespoke last generic or bespoke last adapted to fit a similarly shaped
foot
 semicurved last last with moderate degree of medial in-flare; suitable for
majority of population
 semistraight last last with minimal forefoot in-flare; used for sports shoes
 slip-lasted; slipper-lasted closure of upper around underside of last; outsole
is fixed to underside of closed upper; flexible and light-weight shoe
construction
 straight last last with minimal/no medial in-flare; forms very supportive
shoe suited to low-arched or excessively pronating feet
Table 1: Last shapes
Last type Rationale

Table 1: Last shapes
Last type Rationale

Out flare Slight out flare along the lateral border of the shoe
The distal projection of the longitudinal bisection of the underside
of the shell divides the forefoot into two unequal halves, where the
lateral segment is slightly larger than the medial segment
Indicated for patients with marked pes planovalgus
Straight/ No or very slight in-flare along the medial border
semistraight The distal projection of the longitudinal bisection of the underside
of the heel divides the forefoot sole into two equal halves
The most supportive shoe shape
Indicated for patients who overpronate or those with pes valgus
Semicurved Greater degree of in-flare along the medial border
of the heel divides the forefoot sole into two unequal halves,
where the medial segment is slightly wider than the lateral
segment
It offers some medial support, but not so much as the straight last
The greater majority of shoes are manufactured to a semicurved
last
Curved Marked in-flare along medial border
of the heel divides the forefoot sole into two unequal halves,
where the medial segment is much wider than the lateral segment
Used for the manufacture of light-weight running shoes as the in-
flare is reputed to maximize forward speed
Suitable for patients with non-mobile pes cavus, and for those that
mid- or forefoot strike
It is important that the foot shape is compatible with the shape of the last to which
the shoe is made. For example, the dorsa of the third, fourth and fifth toes will be
subject to marked shoe trauma if a foot that shows excess pronation is
accommodated in a shoe made to a curved last.
Table 2: Footwear and last terminology

Footwear/last Comment
element
Tread line That part of the forepart of a shoe that is in direct contact with the
ground surface when the heel height, pitch and toe spring are
correct; i.e. the area that runs obliquely across the fore sole, which
in a well-fitting shoe corresponds to the MTPJs and thus is subject
to the greatest wear. Where the tread line of the shoe and MTPJ
parabola of the foot do not coincide, the foot will be subject to
shoe trauma: if the MTPJ parabola lies distal to the tread line the
lesser toes will be compressed
Toe spring The elevation of the toe end of the last from the horizontal surface
when the seat is raised to its correct height (pitch) so that the last
stands correctly on its tread line or the elevation of the toe end of
the shoe from the horizontal when the sole and heel rests on a
horizontal surface
The toe spring reduces the resistance to flexion that the shoe
places on the foot when the foot is flexed at the MTPJs, and thus
reduces both fatigue during walking and wear at the vamp area of
the upper
The more rigid the outsole, the greater the effort required to allow
flexion of the foot at the MTPJs; thus the more rigid the outsole,
the greater the height of the toe spring. (Consider the height of the
toe spring of a clog, which, although totally inflexible, allows the
foot to 'rock' forward in response to the forward motion of the
body's centre of gravity)
The toe spring of 'slip-on' shoes is shallow, and designed to flatten
during gait, so that the quarters close into the rearfoot and the
shoe does not fall off
The toe spring of a high-heeled shoe is shallow as this style of
shoe automatically places the toes in a dorsiflexed position, and
the degree of toe spring is only required to prevent the toe end of
the sole scuffing against the ground during gait
Heel pitch The angle of elevation of the heel seat of the last from the
horizontal surface when the last is standing correctly on its
treadline; the heel pitch varies directly with the height of heel of
the shoe, and the toe spring will be increased if too shallow a heel
element
is used, or decreased if too high a heel is added to the shoe
A significant increase in heel height throws the body weight
forward, with the need to make a resultant compensatory
alteration in back posture (an increase in the lumbar curvature,
and decrease in the thoracic curvature, so that the bottom and
chest are exaggerated) with constant plantarflexion of the ankle
and inversion of the subtalar joint reducing normal shock
absorption
Flare The relative positions in the centre of the heel seat and the sole.
Flare is determined by projecting the line that bisects the centre of
the heel seat distally through the treadline of the sole of the shoe
• An in-flare shows a greater sole area medial to the line of
bisection
• An out-flare shows a greater sole area lateral to the line of
bisection
• straight-flare shows equal amounts of sole on either side of the
line of bisection
The plantar aspect of the foot should be examined in a similar
manner. The foot bisection passes:
• Through the middle of the third toe in a straight-flare foot
• Between the second and third toes in an out-flare (e.g. pes
valgus) foot
• Between the third and fourth toes in an in-flare (e.g. pes cavus)
foot
Misfit of foot and shoe flare will cause shoe-related foot trauma
Sizing Heel to ball length:
The distance between the posterior aspect of the heel and the
midpoint of the medial aspect of the first MTPJ (ideally
equivalent to 0.7 of the heel to toe length)
Heel to toe length:
The distance from the heel to the toe
Both lengths should be measured to ensure that the widest part of
the foot co-incides with the widest part of the shoe
element
Girth/width measurement (A-E fittings)
There are a number of shoe-sizing conventions (see Table 3)
Styles Oxford/brogue: a conventional laced shoe with a decorative toe
cap, close-fitting quarters and facings, a stitched tongue, five pairs
of eyelets; unsuitable for oedematous or highly arched feet
Derby/Gibson: a conventional laced shoe with a wide throat and
integral tongue, three pairs of eyelets; more suitable for
oedematous and highly arched feet
Moccasin/loafer: a slip-on style with an apron front on to which
the vamp is stitched; the seam does not stretch, and thus can
traumatize prominent toe joints
Sandal: a shoe with a cut-away upper
Court shoe/pump: close-fitting, thin-soled, slip-on shoes, often
made for women, with a high-heeled style
Sports shoes/trainers: shoes that are designed to incorporate
features that protect the foot from the trauma incurred by heavy
exercise
Monk shoe: an Oxford or Derby-style shoe, where the medial
quarter is extended to overlap the lateral quarter, with a side
buckle or Velcro fixing
Boots: footwear that extend proximally to just below the malleoli,
to cover the malleoli, or as far as the knee
MTPJ, metatarsophalangeal joint.
Table 3: Comparison of UK, US and continental adult shoe sizes
• UK: There is a 8.5-mm difference in the length of the shoe between each full
shoe size, and a half-size difference adds 4.25 mm to the length; children's shoes
are sized from 0 (102mm long) to 13; adult shoes are sized from 1 (8.5mm longer
than a child's size 13) to 13
• USA: There is a 8.5-mm difference in the length of the shoe between each full
shoe size, and a half-size difference adds 4.25 mm to the length; shoe sizes are
based on a child's size 0 of 100 mm long (that is, 1/12-inch shorter than the UK
size 0; women's shoes are marked up 1.5 sizes greater than the UK length
equivalent, and men's by 1 size greater than the UK equivalent)
• Continental: The length difference between each full size is 6.6 mm, known as
the Paris point, with 3 Paris points in each 2 cm of shoe length
UK (men and USA (women) USA (men) Continental (men and
women) women)
5 6.5 6 38
6 7.5 7 39
7 8.5 8 41
8 9.5 9 42
9 10.5 10 43
Illustrated Dictionary of Podiatry and Foot Science by Jean Mooney © 2009
Elsevier Limited. All rights reserved.
LASTS FOR DIFFERENT DESIGN AND KINDS OF FOOTWEAR:
Like all other articles which are used in our day-to-day life, footwear
has also a very wide variety of possible uses and function. One shoe cannot
be expected to perform all these at the same time. For example, we have
some clothing to keep us warm, some to keep us cool, some just for
decorative purpose and some for rough wear. Similarly it applies footwear
also. In this case it applies more forcefully as one a shoe is made, it cannot
be altered or adjusted to suit the requirement as can be done in case of
clothing. In the above context, it is apparent that each design' of article
whether it is shoe or a piece of garment or any other day-to-day utility
articles has a definite 'purpose' a specified 'material' used and has definite
'method ' of manufacture.
The 'purpose' of the article i.e. what for the article is required? As
referred to in the earlier Para, one footwear cannot serve all the purposes
e.g.an ankle boot made out of zuggrain upper leather and made by the
riveted, stitched and screwed method cannot be used for walking shoe or
vice verse.
The 'material' of the article with which the article is to be made is

another important factor this is again very intimately connected with the
earlier point namely, the 'purpose'. The material would vary according to the
purpose, e.g. light calf or glace kind upper leather would not be suitable for
an ankle boot which is required for rough wear by the army and so on.
The method of manufacture again is as important as the others. This

also has a bearing on the two earlier points and they influence the method of
manufacture greatly e.g. a footwear required for dancing purpose the shoe
should be as light as possible. The 'material' would be quite light and so
should be 'method' of construction be. The method of manufacture in this
case should be cemented or machine sewn.
Most of the possibilities of shoe functions are covered by the

following points under the three above mentioned heads.
'A” Purpose:
1. Protection to the foot from injury by knocking, cutting or bruising on
the varied ground surfaces encountered.
2. Protection from dampness or wet weather.
3. In conditions of necessity arising for a prolonged wear without much

opportunity for rest to the foot muscles, the shoe should assist and
support these muscles and help to reduce the fatigue.
4. A shoe should fit well enough and closely to eliminate any possibility
of abrasion from its various parts. The shoe should further assist the foot
the natural movement rather than to retard the normal movement.
'B' Material:
1. The shoe should flex while walking, at this same time should not lose
its shapes (elasticity and plasticity or material).
2. Insulation against excrement heat or cold (permeability and thermal

conductivity of material).
3. Absorption of perspiration combined with the property of drying out again
quickly so that the foot is not encased for a long time in a damp covering.
'C' Methods:
There are three main types of manufacturingmethods, the details of which

will be dealt with in the other class.
1. Indirect attachment
2. Direct attachment
3. Single sole construction.
The shoe should allow the full function of blood circulation muscle and joint
movement of the foot, unhindered.
TYPES OF FOOTWEAR FOR DIFFERENT REQUIREMENTS

AND VARIATIONS IN THE LASTS:
The requirements of different types of footwear can be classified in

the following major heads:-
1. Men's footwear
2. Women's footwear
3. Sports footwear
4. Occupational footwear
'Men's shoes' and 'women's shoes can be further classified as:
1. Dress shoes
2. Walking shoes
3. Occasional footwear
'Sports Footwear 'can also be classified in various type of footwear

used for a particular game e.g.
1. Football boot
2. Cricket boot
3. Golf shoe etc.
'Occupational Footwear' consists of various types of shoes and boots
required for specific purpose e.g.
1. Miner's boots
2. Nurse's shoes
3. Bed-room slippers
TYPES OF LASTS AND LASTS FOR DIFFERENT METHODS OF

ATTACHMENT
TYPES OF LASTS:
There are structurally three basic types of lasts, these being (1) solid
lasts (2) Block lasts and (3) Hinged lasts.
1. SOLID LASTS:
This is a solid block of wood carved in the shape of a last but without
any separate part, e.g. Cone or back piece etc. These types of lasts are
generally used for making of slippers or slip-lasted shoes, where the lasts
can be removed any injury to the shoe.
2. BLOCK LASTS:
This is a toe piece last with the instep or 'cone' part removable .In this
case, when the shoe is ready for last-slipping the 'cone' portion of the last is
removed first and there after the last -slipped becomes easy. To avoid this
instep piece from shifting a pin is inserted through this piece in to the main
body inserted of a simple pin or nail. This type of last is generally used for
making high class shoes, mostly on hand made method.
3. HINGE TYPE LASTS:
Under this category, there are two or three different varieties, viz. the
hinged lasts. Gap-spring lasts, and slido-matic lasts.
4. HINGED LASTS:
This is the most commonly used last and adaptable to all shoe-
constructions. In this case, the lasts after they have been turned in the late,
are cut into two sections, viz. the back and the forepart. Just above the
spring. After this portion of the wood is removed in the shape of 'V', it
enables the back portion of the last and makes space at the back for easy
exist of the last from the shoe.
5. GAP-SPRING LASTS:
The actual difference between the hinged last and this last is that
instead of a hinged, a gap-spring is fitted to hold both the sections of the last,
rest of the operations being the same as for the hinged last.
6. SLIDO-MATIC LASTS:
In this case also, a type of hinge is used where the back portion of the
last, instead of just bending, slides up shortening the overall length of the
last.
7. PLASTIC LASTS:
A very recent development in the field of last manufacture is the invention of

plastic lasts. This has been developed as a result of long research by several
organizations and only in 1961. It was possible to manufacture the first plastic last.
It is claimed that the plastic lasts will make a revolution in the field of last industry
and may even eliminate the wooden last. The reason being that the adventures of
plastic lasts are so enormous that it would be very difficult for the wooden lasts to
survive over them. Among the advantages of the plastic lasts are the elimination of
possibilities of shrinkage expansion, cracking and breakage of the lasts. It is also
claimed that it would now be possible to make lasts to very accurate measures
THE BOTTOM STEEL PLATE
The steel plate of the bottom, when required, can have different shapes as in figure
4.15, which shows four different types of galvanised sheet steel bottom covers.
From left, first version is called a “steel-plated heel”, second version “half steel
plate”, third version “three quarter steel plate” and the fourth version “full steel
plate”.
Figure 4.15
Steel plated heel: this type of steel plating is used when lasting the sides at the
inner and outer edge of the hollow is only done with cement, in particular for
men’s shoes and ladies’ low-heeled shoes.
Half steel plating: This type of steel plating is present in many lasts and is justified
by the fact that it beats both the nails of the seat-lasting machine and the clips or
nails that anchor the waist edge.
Half steel plating and steel-plated toe: This type of steel plating is designed to give
a concrete response to everything shown in the previous point and maintain the
toe-end contour intact; it is applied almost exclusively on lasts with very pointed
toes.
Full steel plating: With the full steel plating of the last sole, a set of screws or
spiral bits apply a galvanised sheet steel slab that keeps the edge-last intact and
permit the beating of nails or clips during upper lasting in certain types of shoe
bottom processing. In terms of dimensions, the steel plating of part or the entire
last bottom, necessary to beat the nails when present in the lasting phase or in the
application of the heel, is not an obstacle to the positioning of any anchoring plate
in automatic shoe assembly cycles
LAST SHAPES
The last and insole lengths are influenced by the shape of the last. A pointed, flat
last is longer than a wide, bulky last.
LASTS FOR DIFFERENT METHOD OF ATTACHMENT:
Different types of lasts are used for different methods of bottom

construction. The differences are depending upon the additional
requirements which have to provide in the lasts to accommodate extra
material or facilitate the process. The extra provisions can thus be classified
in two portions, namely (1) provisions generally made on the upper portion
of the last and (2) provisions generally made at the bottom of the last. Under
the first it may be mentioned that at time a special ridge around the front of
the last is left to accommodate the apron front seam. Besides this, in the
veldts chosen construction the last have a slight bevel along the feather
better feather edge at the forepart. This is to facilitate better feather edge in
making. The upper can be pressed conveniently into the cavity so formed
due to the beveling and a clear feather edge obtained. Finishing lasts can
also be classified under this head, as necessary provisions for the shoes to be
released in the finishing room have to be made. As already explained in
earlier lecture the finishing lasts are half size shorter in length and the girth
is also about 1/16” less. Besides this, seat portion of the last is rounded. This
ensures its easy insertion and the removal from the footwear. This last is in
two parts and the two parts hinged together
The second classification as mentioned earlier, namely the lasts
where provisions have to be made at the bottom of lasts, are the lasts which
are required for hand-welted construction, thread lasted construction etc.
These do not have any iron plates at their foreparts. This enables the laster
to last the upper on the last with nails which penetrates the last through the
upper and insole and during the operation of welt sewing, these nails are
removed with ease. The seat portion is, of course plated, the reason being
that the heels are nailed during attachment and this enables the nails to
clench the insole.
Unlike the above, all lasts required for tack lasted type of work, last
bottom have got to be plated with thin iron plates to enable the light hand-
tack with which the upper is lasted to the insole to be clenched in the insole.
The function of plate is not to allow the tacks to be driven into the last but to
the insole.
It is also found that at time a small toe-plate is fixed at the toe-

portion of the last. This is done very rarely where a special reinforcement at
the toe- portion has to be done with the help of some nails due to the extra
thickness of upper material or some other reason
SHOE LASTS AND METROLOGY
Most shoes are made to a last. This is a foot model with dimensions and shape
similar to the anatomical foot but sufficiently different to not be exact. Shoe fit and
to some extent the last influences its durability.
Last
"The close relationship between a man and his shoe maker was based on the shared
secret of the client's measurements. The statistics of clients were never disclosed."
Traditionally before mass production, the original shoemaker started the process by
taking a footprint outline of the sole. He whittled or chiseled a wooden last from
the print. A last (‘last’, Old English meaning footprint) was traditionally made
from wood but are now available now in metal or plastic. They are complex
structures made from many measurements (statistically determined). Lasts are not
the same size and dimensions of the anatomical foot but instead an abstract form
with specific functions. It is usually deeper in the mid foot region, has a sharp
'feather edge' where the upper surface meets the sole, is clipped in along the top
line (around the ankle) and is faired over and extended in the toe region. This
provides shape, which applies appropriate tension when the shoe distorts to contain
the loaded foot.
Lasts provides a working surface on which flat leather components can be given
plastic form. The physical dimensions accommodate the foot during activity and
the last contains contemporary fashion and styles such as toe shape. To allow the
last to be removed from the shoe they are often hinged around the instep. Shoe
lasts are not made to resemble feet but instead to suit the shoe manufacture.
Modern lasts are totally unlike the foot with the sole of the last, flat in order to
assist in manufacture. Shoe making was classified under three headings: turned
shoes, welted shoes and through-seam shoes.
TURNED SHOE
The turned shoe is made inside out with only an outset sole between the foot and
the ground. The upper and soles are very flexible. The last is designed in a single
size and then a set is made in the range of sizes and widths in which shoes are to be
manufactured. Marked sizes will vary slightly from one manufacturer to another.
No longer a popular technique.
WELTED SHOES
Any construction using a welting, either as an intrigue part of the construction or

simply for imitative effect.
THROUGH SEAM SHOES
Anthropometry
Studies show over 90% of people has different sized feet. Despite feet being the
same length other dimensions vary with the individual foot. Activity of the foot
will also change the shape of identical feet in accordance with the structure and
function of the appendage. The idea of a perfect fit is not a reality. Because
distribution or proportions of foot mass differ with individuals, which mean linear
measurement such as length and breadth of the foot alone, are inadequate.
It is important shoemakers consider mass and volume of feet if an exact fit is to be

afforded. To ensure a best fit, measurements are taken at strategic locations and the
shoemaker uses both linear as well volume measurement to construct a shoe. The
modern last is made in three dimensions although it is not a direct replica of the
foot. Instead it is made with production requirements, in mind. The last maker may
take up to 35 measurements before the model last can be made.
A shoe fitter may concentrate on length, ball width, heel, top line, arch and instep.
The shoe is expected to wear well, feel well, keep its shape with wear, retain its
style character, tread properly, allow for reasonable foot freedom, maintain both
foot and shoe balance, remain structurally intact. These features are not always
dependent on the quality of materials or components, or the manufacturing process.
The design and multiple dimensions of the last provide the basis for the above.
Features built into a last include:
Measurements
The majority of measurements are volume rather than the traditional length and
width associated with shoe fit.
Throat opening
The distance from the vamp point to the back seam tucks.
Length
The length measurement of the foot from the back of the heel to the tip of the
longest toe.
Foot Girth
There are four girth and circumference measurements taken on a last. These are the
ball; waist, instep and heel (back of heel to instep). Measurement requires careful
assessment of the foot, which cannot be accomplished with the same precision as
linear measurements.
The modern last maker uses precision instruments to determine girth but the old
shoemakers used the hand span to this same effect. Aspects of the foot were
measured against the shoemaker's hand; the ball of the foot was compared to the
girth between the thumb and the middle finger. The instep was measured between
the thumb and the little finger.
This method was subject to enormous variations depending upon the size of the
shoemaker's hand.
 Ball girth this is the girth measurement around the ball of the last to determine the
width and volume allowance inside the shoe.
 Waist girth the girth at the waist on the last.
 Instep girth the circumference around the foot at the instep.
 Heel girth the distance around the foot from the rear base of the heel to the top of
the instep.
Recede Toe
This is the part of the last, which projects beyond the tip of the toes forming the
rounded contour of the front of the shoe. A tapering recede such as in today’s sharp
shoes increases the overall length of the shoe. In a poorly designed last the recede
may encroach on the toes increasing tension on the ends of the toes. This may be
referred to as tight lasting.
Heel-to-ball
This dictates the position of the hinge of the forefoot (metatarsal phalangeal joints)
and the widest part of the shoe (across the metatarsal heads).
Toe Spring
This describes the elevation of the undersurface of the sole at the toe to give a
slight rocker effect to the shoe. The amount of toe spring (built into the last)
depends on the shoe style, sole thickness and heel height. This is built into the last
design and compensates for the stiffness of the footwear and provided a stress free
take off into propulsion. The more rigid the soling material the greater the toe
spring. Many shoes will also display a slight heel spring.
Tread
This describes the width across the sole under the ball of the last and it should
correspond to the dimension of the feet. The tread point on the last represents the
bottom forepart just behind the ball and in contact with the base plane.
Flare
This describes the curve or contour of the last. The swing is determined by the
position of the forepart when the last is bisected longitudinally forwards from the
centre of the heel arc. With In flare lasts there is an inward medial swing to the
forepart and most modern shoes are made on an in flare last (banana last) because
it is thought shoes are more comfortable. An out flare last describes the opposite
with the swing lying to the lateral side of the forepart. Sometimes used in bespoke
footwear for infants with diagnosed foot development problems. Straights last
describe neither an in flare or out flare preference. The long axis of the last when
drawn through the bisection of the heel curve describes two equal longitudinal
halves. The normal foot has a straight axis and hence straight lasted shoes can be
worn on either foot. Prior to the introduction of machinery to make heeled shoes it
was common to have shoe made with a straight flare until the turn of the twentieth
century.
SYSTEM
The length of the foot is the most commonly used measurement but so too is the
width of the ball when fitting shoes. Measurements for the last are more
complicated with additional data such heel width, heel to ball length, waist and
instep girth necessary to the fit of the shoe. There are several shoe size systems
used throughout the world but the four major systems are United Kingdom,
American, Continental (or Paris Point) and Japanese. Attempts have been made to
introduce an international shoe size system called the Mondo Point but to date this
has not been successful
SIZES AND WIDTHS
Sizing is very important part for shoemaking generally. Many mistakes are made
because wrong information is very frequently given to the shoemakers and
customers. The basic important sizing systems are mentioned and also relations
among them.
MEASUREMENT GRADING SYSTEMS
These are graded measurement tables that establish the length and/or width
variation of each last dimension and the change percentage of fit and other cross-
sections in the last, when the length of a size changes. It consists in systems such
as:
• ARITHMETIC GRADING:
In this system, the length and/or width increases of certain relevant dimensions are
specified as constants, regardless of the grading method or certain other
dimensions. Continental European, English, American and Mondopoint
measurement system follow this criterion.
• GEOMETRIC GRADING
: In this system, the length and/or width increases of each dimension are specified
as a constant percentage of it (parts such as edges or other areas that do not need
variation are excluded). The increases in the main geometric grading now in use
are specified in geometrical points: each of them is approximately equal to 0.003
times the original dimension
.
• PROPORTIONAL GRADING:
In this system the increases of all the dimensions for each measurement in the
range of sizes correspond to a constant or proportional percentage of the
dimensions. In geometric grading, this means that the number of geometrical
points for a specified measurement, be it length or fitting, must be the same.
The measurement systems most widely adopted worldwide that have been
developed with certain types of differentiation are at present: • The European
continental system: This takes the centimetre as its measurement unit; it starts with
zero centimetres and continues numbering consecutively. Length is expressed in
points of 2/3 centimetres, also called Parisian points; since this value is equal
approximately 1/4”, the footwear is not usually produced in half sizes. The fitting
is shown through conventional numbers such as: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
29
• THE ENGLISH SYSTEM:

This takes the 25.4 inch as its measurement unit and length is indicated in points
with a value of 1/3”, equivalent to 8.46 mm, with half sizes with an increase equal
to 1/6”, equivalent to 4.23 mm. The number zero on the scale corresponds to 4”
(104.60 mm) in length and, when it reaches the number 13, value equal to 8” and
1/3” (211.66 mm), the numbering restarts with 1 corresponding to 8” and 2/3”
(220.13 mm) The fitting is identified with letters of the alphabet as follows; AA, A,
B, C, D, E, F, G, H, with values equal to 1/4”, equivalent to 6.35 mm, between one
another.
• THE AMERICAN SYSTEM:

This takes the inch as its measurement unit; length is shown in points, each with a
value of 1/3”, while the fitting is shown in letter codes as follows: AAAA, AAA,
AA, A, B, C, D, E, EE.
IDENTIFICATION OF FITTING IN THE SYSTEMS
Identification of fitting in the systems
Most commonly used methods worldwide to identify fit. The shoe marking is
printed on the quarter lining.
• THE EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL SYSTEM –

the fit most frequently used is roughly:
for slender thin feet, fit reference: 4 or 5
for strong plump feet, fir reference: 7 and 8

for feet classified as average, fit reference: 6
• AMERICAN SYSTEM –
with reference to the population of the USA, statistics speak of data structured as
follows:
for basic ladies’ shoes: approximately 50% size B and approximately size AA;
for ladies’ fashion shoes: size B covers more than 33% of total demand, followed
by size AA with more than 25% of this value; size AAA also occupies an
important position.
30
for basic men´s shoes: approximately 66% are size D, followed at a distance by
size C;
for men’s fashion shoes: more than 33% are size D, followed at a short distance by
size C and then by size B, which accounts for approximately 20% of this type of
shoes.
• MONDOPOINT –
system developed by the Czech National Standardisation Organisation: here the
marked measurement is the length of the normal foot in millimetres, which
corresponds to the correct shoe measurement for a foot standing and wearing a
sock. The increases from one number to another are equal to 5 or 7.5 mm; the
width of a shoes, in millimetres, is that of the flexing line of the metatarso-
phalangeal area of the normal foot correctly combined with the shoe. In multi-
adaptation series, the width interval between one adapatation and the other is
between 3 and 4 mm.
• CENTIMETRE SYSTEM:
the increases from one size to another are equal to 1 centimetre, accompanied by
half sizes, which increases by 0.5 cm. This system is adopted in some Central
European countries. Table 3.2 compares the grading of the measurements in the
systems and scales described above.
WIDTHS
It is quite common credence that foot width along the metatarso-phalangeal line is
that found on a straight line between the two most exposed points of the sole from
the two internal and external sides of the foot.
However, this width, if obtained from the last, is not straight as, whether viewed
from the sole or from the top that visible, it appears as a more or less accentuated
curve. While the distance between two points measured along a rectilinear segment
does not change dimensionally, any other types of line that connect them are
modularly different from one another.
Also the sections obtained along the foot-flexing axis, although it has the same
edge extension, may adopt different configurations, which then influence the type
of foot-shoe adaptation and comfort.
Figure 3.1 shows that both sections have the same measurement along the edge and
therefore the same fit, but as is well known, they have a different measurement
from side to side of the sole. Despite having the same length and fit, the two
different configurations offer different conditions of adaptations, comfort and feel
on the foot. The broken line represents the curve of the last on the sole.
As already mentioned, when assigning the measurements to detect the fitting, the
last and shoe technicians base their work on the continental European, English and
American reference systems. Starting from the shortest feet, the fitting provides a
progressive increase in the measurement along the circumferences that identify
them, identified with indexes that vary according to the systems of reference, and
the relevant standard values have the following characteristics:
• CONTINENTAL EUROPEAN SYSTEMS: the interval measures 4 mm and this

measurement is distributed as follows:
1.5 mm for the insole (broken line in figure 34)
2.5 mm for the part above the edge-last, that of the upper;
• English system: the interval measures 5.5 mm, distributed as follows:
2.0 mm for the insole;
3.5 mm for the part above the edge-last, that of the upper;
• AMERICAN SYSTEM: the fit interval is shown in table 3.4

Toe-end and instep circumference Denomination
Interval /mm/ AA – A – B – C – D 6.35 AAAA – AAA 4.76 E – EE – EEE 4.76
Table 3.4: American grading system: the interval of the circumferences of the toes,
of the instep and of that intermediate between the two for the different fits in the
arithmetic grading system.
For the fits in the first group, table 6, the interval distribution is as follows:
2.50 mm for the insole;

3.85 mm for the part above the edge-last, that of the upper.
34
The interval of 4.76 mm for the fits of the second and third group is distributed in
the same percentage ratio. At this stage, if no modifications to its structure,
prompted by tests, are required, the parts of the last are standardised; this occurs in
every country that has its own shoe industry with experience that allows it to adjust
the last to the standard foot of its population. It is therefore clear that the last, its
creation and design are quite complex and sometimes difficult to carry out as they
must be appropriately adjusted to the destination footwear. Many things are
required and expected of the last: it must adapt correctly, offer comfort, give the
shoes an attractive appearance, be fashionable, supply the correct impact when
walking and guarantee the expected performances at the moment of use.
The foot, in turn, comprises a number of elements such as: measurement of length,
width, volume, last, proportions and also various functional features. All these
require a range of lasts that, if reproduced, would become impossible to manage
both in footwear manufacturing and also at the point of sale.
Moreover, to satisfy user desires, requirements of primary importance must also be
met, such as how the shoe responds to fashion trends and the expected degree of
comfort. The last and shoe designers-pattern makers who meet frequently and
agree on proposals and solutions before the preparation of the sample collections
take care of all this.
SHOE SIZES COMPARISON TABLE

Metric number in mm (feet size)
Metric number in cm (shoe length)
English inch French stitch English size 8.4 mm (= 1/3 inch)
French size 6.6 mm
*table used in .s.Svit
TYPE OF LAST
The lasts vary not only in different construction methods,but also according to
types shoes produced type of lasting used in production.Important information is
also how to select the lasts for sensitive delasting.
The modern fashionable last must comply with various different criteria as regards
design.
For example:
1.An optimum fit in length and width;
2.An anatomically sound model of the foot;
3.A good plastic design in the sole surface;
4.Amodelling that is aesthetically pleasing;
As can be seen from the above comparision between last and foot,this is not always
easy.
Last type normally fall into the following main categories:

1.women’s last
2.men’s last
3.children’s last
Depending on the type of shoe or method of making the shoe,the last has a typical
design or adaptation.The diversity of design depends partly on the function or area
of application of the shoe.for eg,children’s shoes.luxury women’s or men’s
shoe,hiking shoes,sport shoe,safety shoe or combat boots.The area of application
places demands on the last as regards the fit,shape and functionality
LADIES’ LAST
There is a greater diversity in ladies lasts than those for men and children.They are
available in more types and heel heights and there are more likely to be changes
made to womens’ lasts due to fashion considerations.The primary type of
womens’last are:
1.pump lasts
2.low shoe lasts
3.sandal lasts
4.boot lasts
5.combi last
6.comfort last
PUMP LASTS
Pump lasts are the most difficult in terms of fit.The pump has no laces to enclose
the foot more tightly.The position of the ball section,the shape of the shank curve
and the position of the heel curve should enclose the foot optimally together with
the fastening line.In the heel section the flanks should be as slim as possible,while
the back of the heel section should lie low and should be sufficiently broad to
prevent the shoe from kicking shoe.The heel curve should connect perfectly with
the heel section.The space in the ball section and high instep should be divided
such that when the big toe extends, the fastening line of the pump will not cut into
the tendon of the big toe extensor.
LOW SHOE LASTS
In the low shoe last,the back of the flanks should be positioned a little higher,but in
the posterior part of the heel the flanks should remain narrow.They can then be a
bit fuller towards the instep.The instep sizes of the last thus determine the fastening
of the shoe.The space on the ball can also be divided a little more in height,but not
too much.This also depends on the type of front section of the last. Given that low
shoes have laces ,the width of the shoe can be adapted somewhat and has more
tolerance than in pump lasts.
SANDAL LASTS
The sandal is an open shoe. It is therefore somewhat different from the closed
shoe.The length in the heel section and in the sole section is made 4 mm shorter
.the width in the heel section is made about 3mm wider on the medial side of the
sole.In the front section the last is made approx.4mm shorter compared to that of
the closed shoe. The toe height can be lower. The shape of the hose slopes down
from the big toe to the littlr toe . the sandal last has a slightly plastic sole surface
with a foot bed.
MOCCASIN LASTS
The moccasin last is normally used for a women oe men loafer.A good fastening
ensure a good fit.to keep yhe foot in place in the shoe.the flanks are made narrower
and the back a little wider. The last is made with a platform line in the front
section.
BOOT LASTS
Boot lasts have their own proportions, not only because the back height is approx.
25 mm higher than in low lasts, but also because the heel arch line, instep structure
and flanks are different. The heel arch line is modelled from the fastening point at
the heel further to the back to obtain a connection with the Achilles' tendon. The
instep structure should be higher. The heel size should be 5 to 10% wider to
provide sufficient heel girth so that the boot can be pulled on. The flanks are made
fuller, so that the counter doesn’t ‘pinch’ too much. In addition, when the boot is
pulled on, the counter should not be folded double. The back of the flanks is made
about 1 to 2 mm wider in the boot last, depending on the type of boot. For zip-up
boots the heel size should be 5% wider. In boots without zip or elastic (slip-on
boots) the heel size should be 10% and wider (figure 4.7).
COMBILASTS
The word says it all: combilast. These lasts are made for two types of shoe, regular
low shoes and ankle boots. The instep is made 5 mm higher so that ankle boots can
also be produced. In the heel section only the crest is made higher from the shank
apex, to prevent the low shoes becoming wider in the heel curve. The flanks are
not widened, thus retaining the fastening in the shoe (figure Lasts 4.7).
COMFORTLAST
There are two types of comfort last (figure Lasts 4.8): • shoes with moulded
supportive insole;
• shoes with a loose foot bed.
For a shoe with moulded supportive insole, the space for the support elements
should already be added in the last. This shoe type is not always ideal, because not
all foot types are the same. In this type of footwear, one is restricted to making a
light plastic sole surface. This should certainly not be exaggerated.
Shoes with a flat insole are more frequent. In this type of shoe the insole can be
inserted to an already finished shoe. For this purpose there are two types of last.
One for support soles (half foot beds), in which only the half insole is adapted. The
back of the flanks is made higher and the ball circumference and low instep have to
be more spacious, because the insole takes up room at that point too. In the second
type of last a full insole can be inserted. In this case the thickness of the insole is
added in its entirety to the last structure.
MENS’LASTS
There are a number of men’s lasts that correspond to the above-mentioned

examples, such as low shoes, boot lasts, combilasts and comfort lasts. The
structure of these is similar to that of women’s lasts, except that the width sizes are
bigger, length sizes longer and heel heights are lower.
The boot lasts are not very common, except for typical cowboy boots. The
moccasin last, however, is popular (figure Lasts 4.6). With this type of last, care
must be taken to create a good fastening (tight heel girth), narrow flanks and a
somewhat broader back in the heel section (to prevent kicking open). A platform
line is clearly visible in the front section.
CHILDREN’SLAST
Children’s lasts have to meet certain criteria. The length of the last has an extra
growth length for the child’s foot. The small sizes (17 to 26) are kept extra wide in
the front section, so that the toes have sufficient room widthwise. The small sizes
also need to be made fuller in the upper section, so that the heel girth is
spacious enough. This is necessary because children’s feet are still quite fleshy and
need as much room as possible to develop. The children’s lasts are supplied in six
width sizes. This is necessary so as to cover the great differences in width (figure
Lasts 4.9). Many children’s shoes are fitted with a corrector in the heel section.
Space must be provided for this in the last. The heel height of these lasts ranges
from 1 to 1.5 cm.
ENABLING THE REMOVAL OF THE LAST
A lasted shoe fits tightly over the last, which makes it impossible to remove the
last from the shoe without distorting the latter. For that reason, the last is fitted
with a construction to facilitate ‘the removal of the last' without deforming the
shoe.
We call this ‘enabling the removal of the last’
The most common designs are:
THE LAST WITH SLIDING COVER –
A This system enables the instep part of the last to be removed. The downside of
this system is that the last is not shortened, the heel section of the last isn’t easy to
remove from the mounted shoe, and the heel section of the shoe can still become
distorted.
The last with folding hinge - B In this system the last is sawn through and a wedge
is taken out of the last in the crest area. By means of a spring built into the last, the
front and back piece remain attached to each other. By folding the back piece
upwards, the last is shortened in the rear section and can easily be removed from
the shoe.
THE LAST WITH SLIDING HINGE –

C This hinge system was primarily developed to enable lasts to be inserted into
shoes. For shoes that are made in the California, Strobel and Moccasin way, the
whole of the shank is first stitched and only then is the last inserted into the shoe.
In this system the last is sawn through at a certain curvature, and the front and back
piece of the last are attached to each other by means of a metal plate and a spring.
The rear piece can be pushed upward along the curved saw cut, creating a
shortening of the last, which enables the stitched together
shank to be pushed easily on to the last. The rear piece is pushed downwards and
the shank is in place.
3D FOOT SCAN TO CUSTOM SHOE LAST
The focus of this project is automating the design and manufacturing of custom
shoe lasts. This will both decrease the amount of skilled labor required and
decrease the overall manufacturing time required in an effort to reduce the price of
custom shoe manufacturing. Furthermore, efforts will be made to make orthopedic
improvements over other available systems.
The program created will envelope foot adjustments, foot and last measurements,
automatic last modifications, manual modifications, and tool path planning for
machining.
To ensure that the most efficient method for making a last is used, feet will be
partitioned into two subsets: moderate subset and extreme subset. The moderate
subset is for feet that may have irregular measurements but are without major
deformities. Feet that do not fall under this category belong to the extreme subset.
For the moderate subset, last modification will be complete entirely by automatic
operations. For the extreme subset, the last will first be modified using the
automatic operations and afterwards by manual techniques.
The fact that 3D models of both the foot and the last are available should be made
use of. A virtual fit will be done where the foot is inside the last as if the last were
the shoe. To do this, the shape of the foot must first be adjusted to the shape it
would be inside the shoe.
The foot and last will be oriented and aligned in the design session to get the best
starting point. Before modifying the last, it is necessary to know the dimensions of
both the foot and the last. Techniques for measuring the foot and last will be
developed that most accurately imitate traditional manual foot measuring methods
while taking advantage of the „virtual fit‟ concept. In particular, measurements
will be taken on the last relative to the foot‟s critical points. In the case of the ball
girth for instance, the last ball girth will be measured at the location of the ball
joints on the foot. This will ensure that what is being measured is how well the foot
fits in the last rather than measuring the characteristics of the last.
Next, the last will be automatically modified to fit the foot. The foot measurements
in combination with recommended allowances will provide the goal. The last will
be iteratively transformed using a variety of techniques until the last measurements
are within tolerance of the desired values. Various modifying techniques will be
discussed.
To test the program, three feet and a last will be scanned and run through the
system. The three feet will all be male feet and of approximately size 12. This will
allow use of the same size last as well as the same recommended allowances,
therefore negating the variables introduced by last grading and variable
allowances. In parallel, a custom shoe manufacturer will use traditional manual
techniques to modify lasts to fit the feet. The custom manufacturers resulting lasts
will be scanned and measured in the system. The results will be compared and
analyzed. For one of the three custom lasts, various tool path planning methods
will be tested.
CUSTOM LAST DESIGN PROGRAM DEFICIENCIES
MEASURING DEFICIENCIES
Various papers have been written on algorithms for measuring a 3D model of a

foot. Two papers in particular have given detailed step by step explanations of their
algorithms used [7][8]. In both cases, before beginning, the landmarks of the foot
must be provided. This can either be done by marking them on the foot prior to
scanning or can be indicated on the model in software. An alternative would be to
design an algorithm that uses knowledge of the geometry of the common human
foot and determine the landmarks automatically as in [9]. This would decrease the
overall time required and in some cases may perhaps reduce operator error.
However, for customers with foot irregularities, there is a high probability that the
algorithms are incapable of locating the true landmarks. With the modern
scanning equipment that is available, it is possible to have both an accurate model
of a foot and a 3D model of the starting last design. With both of these at our
disposal, it would seem common sense to overlap them and essentially „try on‟ the
shoe (virtual fit). However, common foot scans are taken of a flat foot. A last will
ordinarily have heel height and toe spring built into it. Without this consideration,
the foot model will be too long as well as the wrong height and thus a virtual fit
would be flawed. By performing bending operations on the foot, it can be
manipulated to emulate how it would fit in the shoe.
For the algorithms mentioned outlined in [7] and [8], the foot has been measured in
a flat position. This seems appropriate when one aims to replicate traditional
measuring techniques. However, if the aim is to quantify how well the last fits the
foot, then the foot should be adjusted for heel height and toe spring prior to
measuring. Various modifications will have to be made to the algorithms in [7] and
[8] to adapt them to working with an adjusted foot.
LAST MODIFICATION DEFICIENCY
Many computer programs have been designed to reduce the amount of time it takes
to modify a last. A large variety of techniques are harnessed to provide the user
with tools for last modification. Users are able to move individual control points,
add and remove material from specific areas, match the last surface to locations on
the foot, edit cross sections, perform scaling operations along specified axes, etc.
All available solutions are flawed in that they still require excessive amounts of
time to modify the last and/or provide insufficient orthopedic functionality.
Part of the problem with all currently available software is that they try to provide
a single solution for all subsets of feet. However, designing a custom last for a
client with major deformities and a client who simply has slightly irregular
measurements are two entirely separate tasks. To account for the more challenging
clients, a highly manual and detailed procedure is required. Using the same
procedure for a foot that simply needs a longer arch length for instance, is
inefficient. Similarly, not incorporating powerful manual shape modification tools
will not allow for the customization required for more serious foot conditions.
Thus, clients should be partitioned into at least two subsets and an appropriate last
modification procedure used accordingly. For now two subsets will be assumed
and referred to as the moderate subset and the extreme subset.
For the extreme subset of last modification, such abnormalities as Hammer Toe,
Halux Valgus, and ulcers must be accommodated. It would be near impossible to
deal with these conditions automatically. A skilled operator with knowledge of
possible foot conditions must be provided with powerful tools to modify as
necessary. One particular software package, Ideas Orthopedia, provides the best
tools for freeform last modification. However, the tools are still clumsy, require
excessive amounts of time to work with, and often result in unsmooth last surfaces.
With respect to providing a solution for the moderate subset, all commercially
available software is deficient in that their processes require a significant amount
of manual input. An academic group published a paper entitled “A CAD approach
for Designing Customized Shoe Last” describing their attempt at automating last
modification [10]. In their algorithm, last surface control points are moved on an
individual basis. The control points are moved an amount dependent on the
distance to the foot surface as well as the distance to the foot surface of nearby last
control points and predetermined allowances. After several iterations, the last will
began to fit the foot. Unfortunately however, the last also began to look like the
foot, which would make the shoe construction procedure both awkward and
produce aesthetically unpleasing results. A local deformation technique also gave
the user control of where deformation took place rather than iterating over the
entire body of the last. Maintaining a smooth last that resembles the original design
was a considerable problem with the techniques outlined.
Another problem that is present with all available last modification solutions is the
fact that they do not have a means of accurately predicting shoe comfort. Near the
end of “A CAD Approach for Designing Customized Shoe Last” the author states,
“How to quantify the comfort of a shoe remains an unsolved problem” [10]. This
statement is not entirely true and is likely the primary reason for the somewhat
unsatisfactory results of their attempt at automatic last modification. Assuming that
a foot does not exhibit significant deformations and the correct style of last is
chosen, comfort of the shoe can be quantified by how closely the last
measurements match the foot measurements plus allowances. By minimizing the
error, comfort can be optimized.
To be able to quantify comfort in such a manner, it is required that the foot be
manipulated into the position in which it will be inside the shoe. By doing this, it is
as if the foot is trying on the shoe in a virtual fitting. Commercial software does not
fully take advantage of the virtual fit concept; a means for properly adjusting the
foot is not provided.
COMMERCIAL SOLUTIONS
SHOEMASTER
Shoemaster is owned by CSM3D, originally a division of Clarks shoes and is

located in the UK [11]. They claim to be the largest footwear CAD/CAM provider
in the world. They provide a wide range of
shoe building technology for both the mass production and custom markets. Their
solutions cover the entire process from last design right down to automated leather
cutting.
For custom shoe manufacturing they sell a laser scanner (Figure 1-2), last
modification software, tool path planning software, last milling machine, and
various upper design and fabrication technologies. The last modification software,
Shoemaster Orthopedie, allows for simple manual last modifications. The user is
able to specify the location of a measurement and then adjust the value of that
measurement. Some primary disadvantages are lack of automation, insufficient
orthopedic capability, lack of foot adjustments for proper virtual fitting and very
limited shape manipulation (only adding and removing of material and no cross
section changing).
Figure 1-2 from left to right: Shoemaster Laser Scanner [11], Precision 3D Pattern
Projection System [12], Ideas Pattern Projection System With Foam Impression
Scanner [13]
IDEAS FOOT CAD
Ideas is a Belgium based company that focuses on custom last and orthotic
manufacturing [12]. They provide scanning equipment, custom last and orthotic
software, as well as milling machines. Their scanning system uses pattern
projection to capture all but the bottom of the foot. The system then scans a foam
impression box to get the plantar surface (Figure 1-2). The scanner is subject to the
deficiencies of both the foam box and pattern projection technologies. The scan
does not capture the entire foot and therefore surface extrapolation must be done.
In general, the system produces a very poor result.
A more orthopedic solution than Shoemaster Orthopedie, Ideas FootCAD provides

a greater variety of shape manipulation tools. However, the foot‟s position cannot
be properly adjusted and this is likely the cause for the large percentage of
resulting lasts that require rework. An operator estimated that it takes two to three
hours to modify a pair of shoe lasts.
PRECISION 3D
A UK based company; Precision 3D provides strictly scanning solutions [13].

Similar to the Ideas scanner, the Precision 3D scanners also use a structured white
light system. The primary difference is that the plantar surface is scanned from the
bottom, as opposed to using a foam box, and multiple cameras are used in a
stereoscopic manner to provide a more accurate scan (Figure 1-2).
MODERN IMPROVEMENTS TO TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES
The development of computerized systems in the last half century has allowed for
the development of new techniques for manufacturing custom shoes. Figure 1-1
provides flow charts for manufacturing custom shoes using traditional manual
techniques, common modern techniques, and ideal modern techniques. For modern
techniques, the „Measure Foot‟ step has been divided into 2 steps; „Scan Foot‟,
and „Measure Foot‟ [5][6]. These steps should theoretically take less time, require
less skilled labor, and yield more consistent and accurate results than the traditional
„Measure Foot‟ step. Similarly, the „Modify Physical Last‟ step has been divided
into three steps: „Modify Last Model‟, ‟Tool Path Planning‟, and „Machining‟.
This change requires more steps on the flow chart; however, theoretically this
should involve drastically less skilled labor because all three steps except for
„Modify Last Model‟ are completed automatically. It should also be noted that the
„Build Shoe‟ step has also been impacted by modern technology and as a result, a
shoe can be built with far less manual labor.
The third flow chart in Figure 1-1 shows the ideal modern algorithm. The „Modify
Last Model„ step for the ideal modern algorithm should occur as automatically as
possible, therefore greatly reducing the amount of skilled labor required. Also, by
removing the rework and trial fitting steps, the entire process is greatly simplified;
customers need only visit the scanning location once and far less skilled labor is
required. To make this possible, however, the „Modify Last Model‟ step must be
greatly improved for quality and automation
Last modification is the area most in need of improvements and is the focus of this
project. However, it is also important to understand how modern technology has
had an impact on other steps in the custom shoe manufacturing process. The
following sections provide information on modern improvements as well as
explanations on respective deficiencies
DIGITIZING THE FOOT
There are many different techniques for obtaining the geometry of a foot. The most
basic method uses a tape measure to obtain the girths, a ruler to measure lengths,
calipers to measure widths, and a trace to obtain the shape. A variation on this
method is to make a casting of the foot, thus allowing the last maker to keep a copy
of the foot for reference during last making. Traces, carbon prints, and foam
impressions of feet are also used to memorize the geometry.
With advances in scanning technology, it has become possible to make a
computerized model of the foot. Measurements can then be taken from the model,
greatly simplifying the customers experience as well as minimizing operator error.
Though designing scanning equipment is not a goal for this project, the 3D model
quality and manner in which the model is created will have a large impact on the
results. For example, if the foot is scanned in a loaded position rather than
unloaded, then this must be taken into account when designing the last. For this
reason, it is important to review the different methods of obtaining a model of the
foot. There is a great variety of methods for obtaining 3D models of physical
objects; however, only those commonly used for digitizing feet will be covered.
Casting and foam impressions are relatively old techniques, however, they are used
in conjunction with new technologies and thus will be discussed.
CASTING
There are generally 2 types of casting methods; plaster casting, and fiberglass
casting. Both have medical origins being used for casting parts of the body to
maintain specific orientation while healing. The fiberglass cast has a thin
consistent shell and thus with a small offset of the surface can provide a 3D model
of the foot. A plaster cast on the other hand is fairly thick with varying thickness
and therefore a material must be poured inside the cast to get an accurate and
accessible representation of the foot. Both methods involve obtaining geometry of
the foot in unloaded positions. A deficiency in the process is that the casting will
be distorted when removed from the foot because it must be cut open and flexed to
allow the foot to exit. Casting may also distort the shape of the foot as it will apply
some pressure on the foot, perhaps reducing the length and causing other
distortions. For the fiberglass cast, concave regions of the foot like the arch area
may not be accurately modeled as the cast will tend to sag. Despite the drawbacks
of casting, it is widely used because the operator does not require any expensive
equipment; further
processing can be done at separate specialized locations by using the physical

casting as a mold or scanning it to create a computer model of the foot. An
important advantage of casting is that the podiatrist can manipulate the shape of the
foot while casting so as to place it in an anatomically correct position.
FOAM IMPRESSION
The foot is pressed into a foam tablet that „memorizes‟ the geometry of the bottom
of the foot. This technology is limited to only representing the bottom of the foot.
Once the foam impression is made, the foam tablets can be sent to another location
to be scanned or used directly in the manufacture of orthotics. Similar to casting,
the shape of the foot can be manipulated while taking the impression. Opposite to
casting however, is that the material underneath the arch will tend to be too high
rather than sag. This is because the foam provides resistance as the foot is pushed
into it, therefore forcing the more flexible regions of the foot (in particular the
arch) away from normal position. For this reason, operators are compelled to
manually modify the resulting impression by making an educated guess at the
correct shape. This may result in error.
PATTERN PROJECTION
Lines of high intensity focused light are projected onto the foot. A camera
photographs the model at a known angle. Triangulation is used to determine the
geometry. By doing this on all sides of the foot, a 3D model can be generated.
Pattern projection is best suited for rooms with minimal other light source. The
foot cannot be manipulated during scanning. Pattern projection systems generally
take a second set of images without the pattern projection and thus pick up the
texture of the model. The texture is combined with the 3D model to create a fully
textured 3D model. This added texture information can provide crucial information
such as location of ulcers and calluses.
LASER SCANNING
The laser scanner operates similar to a standard document or photograph flatbed

scanner where cameras take pictures as they are moved incrementally by stepper
motors. The primary difference is that a laser line is also projected onto the foot at
a known angle to the cameras. Triangulation is used to obtain the geometry at each
step. Several of these setups are oriented around the foot so as to create a full 3D
model of the foot. The foot rests partially or fully loaded on a glass plate, beneath
which is one of the scanning apparatuses. Lasers provide the advantage of being
able to be identified by cameras in all common lighting environments and provide
excellent accuracy. Once again the foot cannot be manipulated during scanning.
Scan time is longer than pattern projection scanning and during this time the
patient must remain still. Similar to pattern projection systems, laser scanners are
able to create a fully textured model.
MEASURING THE FOOT
Traditional tools for measuring the foot include calipers, measuring tapes and
measuring sticks. With a computer model of the foot however, the foot can be
measured in software. Some of the tools needed to measure a complex 3D object
are commonplace in computer aided design (CAD) programs. However, more
complex measurements such as girth measurements may require more specific
CAD programs. Many CAD programs are specifically designed for the application
of measuring feet. Details on the deficiencies of available systems can be found in
section 1.2.
MODIFYING THE LAST
Traditionally, lasts would be made and modified by hand with tools such as
chisels. With a CAD program however, a model of the last can be modified as
necessary before actually manufacturing. Last models are created by modifying the
geometry of existing lasts. Thus the use of CAD packages for last modification did
not take hold until digitizing solutions such as the laser scanner became available.
Most modern CAD programs are able to manipulate lasts by scaling and
transformation. However, the tools required to adjust a last to closely fit a foot are
less common. For this reason, specialized CAD systems have been developed to
provide modern last makers with powerful last modification tools.
To create the physical last, computer aided manufacturing (CAM) packages are
used to convert the CAD model into numerically controlled (NC) code that will
operate computer numerically controlled (CNC) milling machines. The specialized
CAD systems mentioned above often incorporate a CAM system to provide a more
streamlined solution.
Though these specialized CAD/CAM packages have been used to manufacture

custom shoe lasts with some degree of success, there are many critical flaws that
leave custom shoe manufacturing an excessively expensive endeavor.
FABRICATING THE SHOE
The shoe last provides a mold around which the shoe is built. Traditional shoe
building requires an enormous amount of manual labor; however, continued
growth in the use of automation for procedures such as pattern cutting has reduced
the requirements for manual labor.
Mass produced footwear is inadequate for a signification percentage of people, yet
they do not obtain custom footwear due to the expense. The primary source of
skilled labor for custom footwear manufacturing is shoe last production. Improving
shoe last production was the focus of this thesis.
A script was written within a commercial CAD program to automate the last
production process from foot measuring to last modification to tool path planning.
The algorithms were also designed to provide orthopedic advantages over existing
programs in an attempt to minimize the possibility of requiring rework.
Feet were divided into two subsets, the first being those that may possess irregular
measurements but do not have significant deformities. This subset could be dealt
with purely with the automatic algorithms designed. For the remainder of feet that
do not fit into this subset, manual tools for modification were provided. These tools
are also useful for making stylistic changes such as adjustments to toe character.
The goal of creating a virtual fit was achieved by using available tools to adjust the
foot to the intended position inside the shoe. The last measurements were taken
relative to the foot‟s critical points. The comfort of the shoe that would result from
the last could then be quantified by how closely the last measurements matched the
foot measurements while taking into account recommended allowances. For the
automatic modification, the designed algorithms were able to adjust three different
lasts with a reasonable degree of success. A custom last manufacturer manually
modified three lasts in parallel. Average last measurement error from the
recommended last measurement was 1.8mm for the automatically modified last
and 4.4mm for the manually modified last. The manually made last appeared at
first to be of inadequate fit. However, it was realized that the reason for this was
because the hand made last was made for the actual foot rather than the digitized
foot which likely was created with significant error.
As an alternative quantification of error for the manually made last, the

manufacturer provided an estimated error of approximately 2mm. However,
because of the error produced in scanning, it was inappropriate to compare the
geometric similarity between the automatically modified last and the custom
manufacturer‟s last.
By combining the automatic algorithm with the manual tools outlined, an
appropriate last can be created. Much work must still go into perfecting the
algorithm and making the system user friendly. Using the system created in this
project a custom last can be designed in drastically less time than that allowed by
current technologies.
A method for creating a tool path by offsetting the drive surface was successfully
implemented
The goal of automatically modifying last measurements to match recommended

measurements was achieved. Whether or not this measurement adaptation ensures
that the last would closely match the custom manufacturers last could not be
determined. This was due to significant error in the methods used for digitizing the
feet. An improved digitizing method should be used and the tests should be redone.
The position of the foot during scanning should also be addressed; by positioning
the foot in the correct position prior to scanning, any error produced by
manipulating the foot in 3D could be removed. This would provide the operator
with more control on foot position.
The recommended measurements consisted of the foot measurements plus
recommended allowances. The recommended allowances used were constants
provided by the custom manufacturer and were specifically for a male foot of
around size 12. By limiting the feet for the 3 test to approximately size 12 male
feet, the variables introduced by varying recommended allowances and graded
lasts were negated. To expand the program to work with all clients, a large variety
of lasts must be scanned into the system and a grading system must be created.
More functionality must be designed to deal with a greater variety of footwear
types such as boots and high heels. The manual modification system must be
further developed to give the operator an easy to understand and simplified
interface.
The method used for automating the controls in Rhinoceros 3D for this project is a
plugin called Rhinoscript. Rhinoscript has a set of its own unique commands and
as well it can access all of the standard commands in Rhinoceros 3D. To use the
scripts, the code must be manually placed in buttons or run from a file. There is no
convenient way to provide the functionality to another party easily and securely,
thus minimizing its potential for commercialization.
An alternative is to write a plugin for Rhinoceros 3D. Plugins can be written in
VB.net or C++. There are many 3rd party plugins written for Rhinoceros 3D
including MacNeels own rendering and animation plugins. In fact, several
specialized plugins for the footwear industry already exist. A plugin is a secure
convenient method for distributing the program commercially. Also, the access to
Rhinoceros 3D‟s functionality is at a much lower level and therefore is more
robust and results in faster computations.
Despite these advantages, distributing a plugin commercially is still not ideal

because the user is required to own Rhinoceros 3D and its customizability is still
quite limited when compared to the freedom of building a program from scratch
with C++ for example. However, the time required to develop the tools provided
by Rhinoceros 3D that were used in this project may prove impractical.
FLOW CHART OF 3D SCANNING
FLOW CHART FOR PROPOSED SYSTEM
MACHINERY FOR MANUFACTURING OF LAST
LADIES HIGH HEEL LAST
CHAPPAL LAST
LAST DESIGNS
BROGUE SHOE LAST
CREATIVE LAST
FASHION LAST
MODIFIED SHOE LAST

Introduction To Shoe Last

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Introduction To Shoe Last

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING D.E.I.

INTRODUCTION OF SHOE LAST

DAYALBAGH EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE

Submitted by:- Submitted to:-

PRAGYA BALI Mr. G.P.SHARMA

What is a Shoe Last ?

Each "shoe last " is designed for a particular

Many styles of shoes can be made on the

If you want to have shoes with different toe

Notice how each Shoe

Traditionally, shoe lasts

Modern days shoe lasts

The last is a wooden or metal form or mould on which a leather or rubber

SCINENTIFIC METHOD REQUIRED

What is normal foot?

.The foot has no feather edge or outline and no heel pitch.

Foot is a composition of flesh bones.As such it is softer and more flexible.

THE RELATION BETWEEN THE LAST AND THE FOOT

* The last is always longer than the foot

LAST SHAPES AND FOOT TYPES

THE VARIOUS PARTS OF LAST:

9. Back maximum end point of the edge-last in the heel zone.

10. Heel elevation:

13. Back cone height:

23. Toe profile:

REQUIRMENT OF THE LAST’S SHAPE:

TOP SPRING AND HEELPITCH:

Practically every shoe has a built in toe-spring as it is essential part

Although no definite formula is available regarding the amount of the

Toe –spring is introduced because it helps the person in walking.

INSTEP MEASUREMENT: The ball measurement i.e. the circumference of the

HEEL MEASUREMENT: The heel measurement (sometimes called heel girth) is

The last measurements can be classified in three categories, namely

This system of sizing is also known as 'orthodox size scale' and as

Size 0 to size 6 1/8 of an inch size to size.

Size 0 to size 6 .. 1/24" size to size

size 0 to size 6 .. 1/32" size to size

As stated above, there are different girth measurements for different

Fitting Length (in) Girth (in)

American Size Scale:

This system is the same as that of the English system. Known as

Conversion of English sizes into Paris Points

1. Size 5 has a length of 10"

2. Convert 42 Paris Points to English size :

The following is the extract of ISI specification No. IS 1638-1960 on

The circumference of the foot measured at the length of the foot,

Categories Standard Size

1. A clean cutting wood.

2. A wood free from knots.

3. A wood not liable to split.

4. A wood, which has hardness of texture.

5. A wood, which is close, grained.

NO WOOD SATISFIES ALL THESE IDEALS, BUT A CAREFUL SELECTION

My previous work as a fashion wedding gown designer gave me an understanding

Treating each foot in a pair individually is key to a custom fit.

LAST wooden or plastic model over which shoe upper

Table 1: Last shapes

Last type Rationale

Last type Rationale

Table 2: Footwear and last terminology

Table 3: Comparison of UK, US and continental adult shoe sizes

LASTS FOR DIFFERENT DESIGN AND KINDS OF FOOTWEAR:

The 'material' of the article with which the article is to be made is