A

PROJECT
ON
TOPIC
Submitted for Partial Fulfillment of Award of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
Civil Engineering
(2016)
Submitted by
AJAY KUMAR (1250400003)
IRSHAD AHMAD (1250400011)
JAYDEEP VERMA (1250400013)

Submitted to
Mr. PRAVEEN KUMAR GAUTAM
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Asia School of Engineering & Management

12 Milestone Kursi Road (Main Road) towards Integral University
Lucknow-Barabanki
Affiliated To
Dr. APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
 CERTIFICATE

This is certify that project entitled “Water Supply Distribution System” which is
being submitted by IRSHAD AHMAD, AJAY KUMAR & JAYDEEP VERMA, in
partial fulfillment of the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology (Civil
Engineering) have been carried out by them under our supervision and guidance they
have been show interest in doing the project, and I wish them the best in their future
career.

MR. ADITYA KUMAR MR. PRAVEEN KUMAR GAUTAM

LECTURER HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ASEAM BBK-LKO ASEAM BBK-LKO

 DECLARATION

We Irshad Ahmad, Ajay Kumar, Jaydeep Verma hereby declare that the
dissertation entitled “Water Supply Distribution System” submitted to the APJAKTU in
partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of technology in civil
engineering and that the dissertation has not previously formed the basis for the award of
any other degree, Diploma, Associate ship, Fellowship or other title.

Date.

Place Signature
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We owe a great many thanks to a great many people who helped and supported us during
the preparation of project.

Our deepest to lecturer “Mr. Aditya Kumar” the guide of the project for guiding and
correcting various documents of mine with attention and care. He has taken pain to go
through the project and make necessary correction as and when needed.

I express my deepest thanks also to the professor “Mr. Praveen Kumar” HOD of “Civil
Department” for extending his support.

I would also thank my university and my faculty members without whom this project
would have been a distant reality. I also extent my heart felt thanks to my family and well
wishers.

Ajay Kumar
Irshad Ahmad
Jaydeep Verma
 INTRODUCTION
The industrial revolution(1750-1850) made a big changes in the world economy, because
it almost effect all industries in every person life start from food and agriculture industry
ends with transportation, by innovating a new technologies and machines which
enhancing the performance of productivity in all of these fields, this improvements could
be seen clearly in manufacturing industry, before the revolution, manufacturing was
depending on tools and human labor and it was so slow and costly for both side the
manufacture and the customer, after the revolution and the integration of new technology
and machines the flow of work start to be faster because it start depending on machines,
tools, and human labors in that order and of course the products efficiency was improved.
After 1850 the market demand for products start to increase and add more pusher on the
factories because of the increasing number of population specially in cities after the
immigration of the people from superb to the cities this immigration is conceder as one of
the result of industrial revelation, so they started to adopt a new strategy which called
"mass production" this strategy aim to product a large amounts of standardized products,
including and especially on assembly lines4, this concept had its maximum popularity in
1910 establishing the first moving assembly line by Henry ford which reduced the
production time for model T cars from 728 hours to 1.5 hours5. Some of the
manufactures start to add more value for their products by introducing the custom made
products, this marketing strategy makes the customer to pay more for getting the product
which satisfying his exact needs but in the other hand it will cost more and not all of the
customers will afford it, from this point most of manufactures start to think more about
the customer needs and step by step the customers start to be a part of the production
progress then the mass production market moved toward new strategy which called mass
customization. is fast emerging as a popular business strategy which aims to also cater to
individual expressed needs of end users at prices closely comparable to mass produced
items6 . This strategy covered most of industries in the world economy and had a great
feedback from the customers. One of the newest industries which adopt mass
customization strategy is prefabricated building construction.
This paper studying and analyzing the different types of prefabricated building
construction methods (linear production, 2D production, 3D production )7 which apply
the principle of mass customization production the author presents the degree of
customization for each method, the type of relationship between the factory and the
customer and the rules which control this relation.
PREFABRICATED BUILDING CONSTRUCTION METHODS-
There are three types of prefabricated building construction methods each one of them is
specify for different kind of materials, these types are :
1. linear production ( brickwork ) .
2. D production ( wood and concrete work ) .
3. D production ( steel frame units ) .

LINEAR AND 2D PRODUCTION :

In this type to design, build and market a home requires consideration of both products
and services. A building consists of many components, which can be considered as
‘products’, while design, construction and marketing are usually regarded as ‘services’. To
generate a housing development, these two aspects are again involved with housing materials and
systems as the products and the design and construction of these homes as the services. When
viewed as a ‘system’ for designing, producing and selling a product, "mass customization" is
impossible without customizable products or communication services. In this case the services are
where the customers can be interact with the factory to help them customize an end product. At the
design stage the customer should determines the configuration of their home from choices given by
the factory by using a selection catalogue to enable clients to easily choose from the many options.
basically the customer can choose colors of the walls, materials which are used in the house ,kitchen
,toilets, lighting doors, windows and all other details which provided by the factory with full consulting
service from the architects . After that all of these data transport to construction and civil engineers
who will decide how many prefabricated building components (product) they going to need and what
size of this components. In addition to that they provided a customer relationship management which
aim to strengthen its continuous contact with its long-term customers, and warranty for their houses
which could reach up to 25 years8 .

3D production :
In this kind of building prefabrication production, Japan is taking the lead as the most the
advanced and industrialized fabrication systems in the world . prefabrication companies
like Toyota Home is the
best example to describe mass customization in 3D production9.

Toyota’s innovation a new manufacturing process shortly after the Second World War.
Many of Japan’s industrialists were impressed by America’s speed in which they could
build aircraft and vehicles utilizing the Ford mass production model of automation,
assembly line, and economies of scale. In starting a new with these processes, they could
evaluate the short comings of the Ford model, with a new critical eye and develop their
own process known as the “Toyota Production System” or TPS. This system has been
highly praised and received awards around the globe for its focus on people through mass
customization and utilization of economies of scope10 and made an extension of
conventional marital - information flows "Push production'' in to a new concept based on
current demands ''Pull production " this new concept aim to make the factory output to be
pulled by the customers instead of pushing, so it will give the chance for the customers to
have a complete synchronization between production progress, materials suppliers and
the customer demands and needs.

Several industries, other than the automotive sector, have been using this production
model as a basis in which to ground their own practice. Toyota Home saw the housing
industry as no exception to the principles of TPS Toyota has taken 5 of its 14 principles
used in automat factoring and applied them to the prefabricated housing market .
The basic tenants include:
1. Just-In-Time
2. Jidoka
3. Heijunka
4. Standard Work
5. Kaizen
the Heijunka principle is giving costumer the ability to customize facilitates both
customer predictability
and product variety, Toyota Home keeps inventory low and in constant supply. Toyota
accomplishes this by manufacturing directly to customer order. Standard work allows for
Toyota Home to keep a wellstocked supply of raw materials. The future owner of a home
will go to the Toyota home park where they may browse many of the options and select
specifics. The Toyota home website allows patrons to virtually apply a variety claddings,
colors, exterior /interior ornament in a customizable environment to suit their needs and
tastes. All of these options are based on the same raw materials kept in stock so when the
order is issued, they can be pulled off the shelves and go through the process of assembly
to component to module to whole house erection on site. Not all of the elements that are
compiled to make the Toyota Home modules and finally the completed structure are
customized. From the decades of producing automobiles, Toyota understands the
principles of utilizing standard components and systems make the drive towards
efficiency much simpler. Each year a handful of car models are produced, many of which
are modifications of the previous year's production. A basic model with minor
modifications over several years allows Toyota to understand the core structure of the
automobile, and thereby produce the part with greater effectiveness
and reduced cost. Therefore, the modules are standardized with customization built into
the configuration and relationships between modules. The Toyota Home models:
Vietrois, Smart Stage, and Espacio Mezzo are made unique by the modules that make up
the final house. There are 12 modules to a home, depending on the size requested by the
owner. The modules themselves are built with a steel frame that can be easily adapted to
the often-varying lengths of modules. Each of the modules’ steel frames is specifically
designed for Japan’s seismic activity. When the Toyota’s modules are locked together,
the structural frames of the modules in tandem create a rigid structure. The spaces inside
the modules may be delineated by interior partition walls or may be defined as needed.
Standard work allows the manufacturer and consumer to be extremely confident that the
product they produce and receive will be of the utmost practiced quality. Toyota’s
confidence is expressed in offering a guarantee of up to 60 years on the life of the
prefabricated house.
GRIDLINES AND CONCLUSION

Mass customization covered most of industries in the world economy and had a great
feedback from the customers, especially in prefabricated building construction industry,
because of the integration of advanced information and technology in prefabricated
building construction industry (Robotics and advanced equipment ). After studying the
three types of prefabricated building construction methods and the degree of
customization for each method, the type of relationship between the factory and the
customer and the rules which control this relation, the Author come out with some
general guidelines to control this relation. these guidelines are :-

1. Each prefabricated building construction methods have its own elements like main
structure, components and main frame or skeleton all of them related to the main core of
the building these elements are designed, manufacture, examine and testing by architect,
civil engineers, construction engineers and mechanical engineers from factory itself to
provide highest level of quality and comfort for the product ( building ) and maximum
efficiency of load bearing, and climate resistance, these elements are the only things
cannot be customized in the whole production progress in the other hand the costumers
can control only the visual aspects ( color and texture )of this element .
2. At the design stag the architects should have the main role, they will provide for the
customers two options, to choose one of the readymade modules which provided by the
factory then add some changes by the customer to meet his own demands with total
support from the factory architects or ask the architects to make a new design for them
and provide them with some their detailed information which help the architects to come
out with best design which meet the customer specific needs. This design will be
presented to the customer, get there feedback and comments then modify it regarding
these comments. the changes in the design should not have any conflict with architectural
aspect and standard.

3. The factory should provide for the customer all the support which he will need to
select his options by affording a full details catalogs presented in very attractive
way ( computer or physical version), this catalogs should have a variety of options
for each elements and detail of the building which can be customized with the
help of the factory architects. This step will save a lot of time for both sides
(customer and the factory ) .
4. After completing the design stag and starting with production progress the factory
should keep the customer updated in all production steps and keep ready for and
kind of modification from the customer, also they should give him exact date of
handover .
5. With handing over the factory have to give quality certificates and warranty To
prove performance, quality and durability of the house and its sub-systems to the
customers. and providing for the building regular inspection and long term
maintenance.

RESEARCH GOAL
Construction of buildings in downtowns have more issues like logistics problem in the
busy day life, unavailability of storage/lay down area, disturbance to neighbors in a
commercial area etc. These problems are catalyst to adapt a new approach of
construction. With the technological advancement, it is already possible to reduce the
construction time. The induction of automation and robotics in construction is changing
the trend from construction to “production” of buildings. So a target of on-site building
structure erection was limited down to ten days. The idea was to develop a construction
solution for cities to implement the rapid construction on site with a concept of thinking a
building as a high-quality product or a service that needs to be delivered rather than as
construction. It was to be considered that the finished building itself should be highly
independent (in terms of energy, resources, food, work) with life work integration at the
same time.

RELATED WORK
Different automated systems are used for the horizontal infrastructure projects. Kawasaki
Heavy Industries developed an automated tunnel construction system for the sea-bottom
tunneling work. It is composed of shield machine and automated segment handling and
assembly systems.
This system is contributing to increasing productivity and shortening construction period
of time of tunnel construction work. The similar system was successfully applied to the
construction of the Dover Tunnel4. Correct positioning of TBMs is essential to avoid
accidents, driving these machines underground is not possible without proper positioning
system. It may take up to few weeks to determine the exact position and alignment.
Lately, an automation solution is developed to this problem in Canada which integrates
automation control mechanisms, innovative computing algorithms, and wireless network
technologies. A user friendly 3-D platform is provided to describe the TBM's real time
position state, the tunnel design and the construction progress. It aids project managers in
making critical decisions on a near real-time basis8. There is already the concept of
horizontal skyscraper and one realized example is of Vanke Center, a mixed used
building, completed in 2009 at Shenzhen, China. Its elevated structure also provides an
enhanced function of protection from damage in the event of tsunami.

The architectural design, carried out by Steven Holl Architects, uses the concept of a
floating ground line that results in a horizontal skyscraper over a maximized landscape.
An architectural rendering of the building is shown in Fig.3.
In USA, eVolo Magazine Skyscraper Competition 2011, the second place was awarded to
Yoann Mescam, Paul-Eric Schirr-Bonnans, and Xavier Schirr-Bonnans from France for a
dome-like horizontal skyscraper that harvests solar energy, collects rainwater, and
preserves the existing urban fabric at ground level thanks to its large skylights and small
foot print.

STUDY AND LITERATURE REVIEW

The first step towards the research goal was to study and analyze the design parameter
with the real world examples.
Decentralized energy generation
To provide a decentralized energy generation, different practiced energy resources were
studied along with related physical factors, technologies, disadvantages, storage and the
efficiency. Wind, waste, sunlight, heat, kinetics and water are different energy resources
at present in use. Wind power is one of the renewable energy resources to make useful
energy by windmills, wind pumps or sails. It also has less environmental impacts. Many
Countries like USA, Germany, India, UK, Spain, China, Italy, Canada, France and others
are already using it for power generation.
Organic waste is a resource that needs to be tapped and not to be wasted into landfills or
reduced to ashes and dust in incinerators. The renewable energy produced from anaerobic
digestion process can be seen as a good reason for many communities to start
transformation of our valuable resources10. Electricity production and the usage in
internal combustion engine are the common examples of biogas. Sunlight is another
widely recognized renewable source of energy which is free of cost and clean energy
with negligible environmental impacts. It can be utilized for power production using
different technologies like photovoltaic panels (silicon/organic) and artificial
photosynthesis.
Kinetics is another energy resource; human movement can also be used to produce
energy by piezoelectric effect. Commuters on the Tokyo station walk on a piezoelectric
sheet which generates electricity when pedestrian step on it.
Water can also be used for power generation by using water splitting, turbines or pumped
hydro storage technologies. High rise building can produce power from rainwater as it
falls from almost 200m in a 50 floor building.
In-situ farming
In-situ is a Latin phrase which translates literally to 'In position12. This parameter
encourages to make use of on-site available resources and harvesting the one’ own farm
at his location. Vertical farming is a good way to implement in cities. There are different
options for in-situ farming like aeroponics (process of growing plant in air or mist
environment without soil), wall system (mounting panels to the wall with required
quantity of water supply) and hydroponics (growing plants using mineral nutrient
solution). Different technologies had already implemented pertaining to these options like
aerofarm, parabienta, plantlab/nuvege, verticop and omega garden. First high intensity
vertical hydroponic system of its kind is installed at Paignton Zoo in England to feed the
animals.
In-situ resource utilization
As per this parameter, it is preferred to use the on-site available resources. The examples
of in-situ resource utilization can be seen in the past like the people of the mid-coast
region of Perú have used totora (plant) to build their caballitos de totora, small rowed and
straddled fishing vessels, for at least 3,000 years. The Uru people, an indigenous people
predating the Inca civilization, live on Lake Titicaca upon floating islands fashioned from
this plant. The Uru people also use the totora plant to make boats (balsas) of the bundled
dried plant reeds15.
Cherrapunji, a sub-divisional town in the East Khasi Hills district in the Indian state of
Meghalaya is famous for its living bridges. These people know the techniques to grow
the roots of ficus elastica (rubber tree) into large bridges, and they are practicing it from
hundreds of years. According to NASA, in-situ resource utilization will enable the
affordable establishment of extraterrestrial exploration and operations by minimizing the
materials carried from Earth and by developing advanced, autonomous devices to
optimize the benefits of available in-situ resources17. Lunarcrete, also known as
"Mooncrete", an idea first proposed by Larry A. Beyer of the University of Pittsburgh in
1985, is a hypothetical aggregate building material, similar to concrete, formed from
lunar regolith, that would cut the construction costs of building on the Moon18. There is
an idea of lunar pad construction on moon using the lunarcrete.

Life-Work integration
It is a tendency and flexibility of having a choice for the employees in an organisation to
have different options available to choose regarding working hours, location and decision
making, considering the needs and liabilities beyond work. This is something like
juggling the five balls at once i.e; work, family, friends, health, spirit (or self)19. One of
these balls (Work) is of rubber, but dropping a glass ball like family or heath can cause an
irrecoverable damage. This parameter can be integrated not only in organizations but
infrastructure as well to provide the facilities for the workers.
Employers like Xerox offers flexible working hours, job sharing and flexible spending
cost for child care. Beddington Zero Energy Development (BedZED) is an
environmentally friendly housing development in Hackbridge, London, designed by the
architect Bill Dunster to support a more sustainable lifestyle20.
One of BedZED’s unique community considerations is its take on transportation. A green
transport plan promotes walking, cycling, and use of public transport. BedZED’s target is
a 50% reduction in fossil-fuel consumption by private car use over the next 10 years
compared with a conventional development. A “pedestrian first” policy with good
lighting, drop curbs for prams (strollers) and wheelchairs, and a road layout that keeps
vehicles to walking speed22. The concept of life-work integration is expressed in the
building project. Work area and residential area are integrated into one building volume.
Residents are encouraged to work within the community. However there are only small
numbers of residents employed within the community.

Rapid construction
Rapid construction is a concept to enhance efficiency of construction process flow by
time reduction to ensure the successes of project delivery in a chronicle time of contract
and meets client satisfactions. Based on the analysis, the rapid construction can be
achieved through the basic principle which focusing on eliminating waste. The builders
of the Broad Group Corporation in china established its next record of building 30-storey
hotel Ark Hotel in just 15 days. They already had the record of 15-storey hotel
construction in the city of Changsha in a little less than six days.
British developed the baily bridge during the World War II for military, and used
extensively by British and US forces. These are portable, prefabricated and no special
tools required for construction. The bridges were strong enough to carry tanks. The
design was modular and the modern baily bridges are still in use. There are other
products like Wenzlau military shelters, modular tentage system (MTS), MECC (mobile
expandable container system), air beam and air frame are available in the market for fast
deployment related to shelters.
U-city design
The aim of U-city is to create a built environment where any citizen can get any services
anywhere and anytime through any ICT devices. Tremendous speeding in ICT
development has brought the conventional city in terms of intelligence, innovation and
evolution to E-city and then to U-city25. Many cities around the world have constructed
the digital infrastructure under “smart city” or “intelligent city” projects like Stockholm
(Sweden), Philadelphia (USA) and Songdo (Korea).

Korea is striving to attain its ultimate vision of creating a “ubiquitous” society. Many of
local governments are interested in becoming U-City, and New Songdo's UCity project,
to be completed by 2014, is the biggest such initiative among those underway at various
locations around the country and the world.

As an IT leader, Japan took a lead and switched from e-Japan to “U-Japan Strategy”.
Since 90’s after the digital city of Kyoto, the U-City approach is adopted in Osaka City
and continues to spread in the country. Currently, “Tokyo Ubiquitous Technology
Project” is in progress, and a feasibility study experiment is being conducted in Ginza
from February 1 to March 31, 2012.
On site & off site logistics
Production home building possesses characteristics similar to manufacturing processes,
such as the construction of more or less similar houses repeatedly and a growing demand
for mass customization of homes. As a result of these similarities, larger homebuilders
often attempt to view their production system as an assembly line process27. Just in time
(JIT) is a production strategy that strives to improve a business return on investment by
reducing inprocess inventory and associated carrying costs. JIT inventory systems expose
hidden cost of keeping inventory, and are therefore not a simple solution for a company
to adopt. The company must follow an array of new methods to manage the
consequences
of the change.

On site & off site logistics play an important role in the JIT philosophy. This philosophy
was subsequently adapted by Toyota and other Japanese manufacturing organizations
after its origination in Japan in 1950s.

Pit stops is a good example to analyze how the many functions are performed to a racing
vehicle in few seconds like refueling, tires change, repairs and mechanical adjustments.
The age of the modern pit stop arrived when changes were made to the sporting
regulations for the 1994 season to allow fuelling during the race. By the time refueling
was banned again at the end of 2009, a driver’s visit to the pits had become breathtaking
in its speed and efficiency. Such is the skill of mechanics that routine tyre stops can be
over in under three seconds.

Cranes are typical to be used for on-site material logistics. Japanese automated
construction systems are utilizing robotized cranes and vertical delivery system by
making use of modularity and pervasive technologies in construction. RFID technologies
are already in use in many industries for logistics and product tracking in a highly
automated environment. Kiva Systems, Inc. uses game-changing automation technology
for distribution centers that helps companies simplify operations and reduce costs while
increasing strategic flexibility. Using hundreds of autonomous mobile robots and
sophisticated control software, the Kiva Mobile-robotic Fulfillment System enables

extremely fast cycle times with reduced labor requirements, from receiving to picking to
shipping. The result is a building that is quick and low-cost to set up, inexpensive to
operate and easy to change anywhere in the world. Fast company magazine has
announced Kiva system as world’s 23rd most innovative company.

The different offsite logistics options are rail, road, water and air transportations. The
Boeing Pelican 11 concept of a huge plane would have a cargo capacity of 1400 metric
tons, and a range of 10,000 nautical miles with a main mode to fly 20-50 ft. over water. It
would also fly overland at an altitude as high as 6100 m with a decreased range of about
6500 nautical miles.
CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
The site Munich “Marienhof” (near Marienplatz) was selected in the downtown. It is a
free space since World War II, located directly behind the Munich City Hall. Here the
Marienhof area had been completely destroyed and was not re-built in order to mitigate
Munich’s hi-density.
CONSTRUCTION

Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction

differs from manufacturing in that manufacturing typically involves mass production of
similar items without a designated purchaser, while construction typically takes place on
location for a known client. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of
the gross domestic product of developed countries.[3] Construction starts with planning,
design, and financing and continues until the project is built and ready for use.

Large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect

normally manages the job, and a construction manager, design engineer, construction
engineer or project manager supervises it. For the successful execution of a project,
effective planning is essential. Those involved with the design and execution of the
infrastructure in question must consider zoning requirements, the environmental impact
of the job, the successful scheduling, budgeting, construction-site safety, availability and
transportation of building materials, logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by
construction delays and bidding, etc. The largest construction projects are referred to as
megaprojects.
Etymology

Construction is a general term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems or
organizations, and comes from Latin constructionem (from com- "together" and struere
"to pile up") and Old French construction.[5] Construction is used as a verb: the act of
building, and a noun: how a building was built, the nature of its structure.

Types of construction

In general, there are three sectors of construction: buildings, infrastructure and

industrial.[6] Building construction is usually further divided into residential and non-
residential (commercial/institutional). Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy
civil or heavy engineering. It includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways,
water/wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial includes refineries, process chemical,
power generation, mills and manufacturing plants. There are other ways to break the
industry into sectors or markets.

Engineering News-Record (ENR) is a trade magazine for the construction industry. Each
year, ENR compiles and reports on data about the size of design and construction
companies. They publish a list of the largest companies in the United States (Top-40) and
also a list the largest global firms (Top-250, by amount of work they are doing outside
their home country). In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market segments. It was
divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing,
sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste plus a tenth category for other projects.[8] In their
reporting on the Top 400, they used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste and
water to rank firms as heavy contractors.

The Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry
Classification System have a classification system for companies that perform or
otherwise engage in construction. To recognize the differences of companies in this
sector, it is divided into three subsectors: building construction, heavy and civil
engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors. There are also categories for
construction service firms (e.g., engineering, architecture) and construction managers
(firms engaged in managing construction projects without assuming direct financial
responsibility for completion of the construction project).
Building construction

Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of

buildings. The majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as
addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as
laborer, paymaster, and design team for the entire project. Although building construction
projects typically include various common elements, such as design, financial, estimating
and legal considerations, many projects of varying sizes reach undesirable end results,
such as structural collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation. For this reason, those with
experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the
project to ensure a positive outcome.
Commercial building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various
delivery methodologies, including cost estimating, hard bid, negotiated price, traditional,
management contracting, construction management-at-risk, design & build and design-
build bridging.

Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local

building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the
area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus
timber). Cost of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses
can vary dramatically based on site conditions, local regulations, economies of scale
(custom designed homes are often more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled
tradespeople. As residential construction (as well as all other types of construction) can
generate a lot of waste, careful planning again is needed here.
Residential construction

The most popular method of residential construction in North America is wood-framed

construction. Typical construction steps for a single-family or small multi-family house
are:

 Develop floor plans and obtain a materials list for estimations (more recently
performed with estimating software)
 Obtain government building approval if necessary
 Clear the building site
 Survey to stake out for the foundation
 Excavate the foundation and dig footers.
 Pour a foundation and footers with concrete
 Build the main load-bearing structure out of thick pieces of wood and possibly
metal I-beams for large spans with few supports. See framing (construction)
 Add floor and ceiling joists and install subfloor panels
 Cover outer walls and roof in OSB or plywood and a water-resistive barrier.
 Install roof shingles or other covering for flat roof
 Cover the walls with siding, typically vinyl, wood, or brick veneer but possibly
stone or other materials
 Install windows
 Frame interior walls with wooden 2x4s
 Add internal plumbing, HVAC, electrical, and natural gas utilities
 Building inspector visits if necessary to approve utilities and framing
 Install insulation and interior drywall panels (cementboard for wet areas) and to
complete walls and ceilings
 Install bathroom fixtures
 Spackle, prime, and paint interior walls and ceilings
  Additional tiling on top of cement board for wet areas, such as the bathroom and
kitchen backsplash
 Install final floor covering, such as floor tile, carpet, or wood flooring
 Install major appliances
 Unless the original owners are building the house, at this point it is typically sold
or rented.

New construction techniques and sustainability

As efficiency codes have come into effect in recent years, new construction technologies
and methods have emerged. University Construction Management departments are on the
cutting edge of the newest methods of construction intended to improve efficiency,
performance and reduce construction waste.

ew techniques of building construction are being researched, made possible by advances

in 3D printing technology. In a form of additive building construction, similar to the
additive manufacturing techniques for manufactured parts, building printing is making it
possible to flexibly construct small commercial buildings and private habitations in
around 20 hours, with built-in plumbing and electrical facilities, in one continuous build,
using large 3D printers.[12] Working versions of 3D-printing building technology are
already printing 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) of building material per hour as of January 2013, with
the next-generation printers capable of 3.5 metres (11 ft) per hour, sufficient to complete
a building in a week.[13] Dutch architect Janjaap Ruijssenaars's performative architecture
3D-printed building is scheduled to be built in 2014.

In the current trend of sustainable construction, the recent movements of New Urbanism
and New Classical Architecture promote a sustainable approach towards construction,
that appreciates and develops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical
design.[15][16] This is in contrast to modernist and short-lived globally uniform
architecture, as well as opposing solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl.[17] Both
trends started in the 1980s.

The construction site may be shut down due to bad weather. Erecting scaffolded tents
over the site may reduce the number of lost work days, increasing productivity.

Construction processes

Design team

In the modern industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of

designs into reality. A formal design team may be assembled to plan the physical
proceedings, and to integrate those proceedings with the other parts. The design usually
consists of drawings and specifications, usually prepared by a design team including
Architect, civil engineers, mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, structural
engineers, fire protection engineers, planning consultants, architectural consultants, and
archaeological consultants. The design team is most commonly employed by (i.e. in
contract with) the property owner. Under this system, once the design is completed by the
design team, a number of construction companies or construction management
companies may then be asked to make a bid for the work, either based directly on the
design, or on the basis of drawings and a bill of quantities provided by a quantity
surveyor. Following evaluation of bids, the owner typically awards a contract to the most
cost efficient bidder.

The modern trend in design is toward integration of previously separated specialties,

especially among large firms. In the past, architects, interior designers, engineers,
developers, construction managers, and general contractors were more likely to be
entirely separate companies, even in the larger firms. Presently, a firm that is nominally
an "architecture" or "construction management" firm may have experts from all related
fields as employees, or to have an associated company that provides each necessary skill.
Thus, each such firm may offer itself as "one-stop shopping" for a construction project,
from beginning to end. This is designated as a "design build" contract where the
contractor is given a performance specification and must undertake the project from
design to construction, while adhering to the performance specifications.

Several project structures can assist the owner in this integration, including design-build,
partnering and construction management. In general, each of these project structures
allows the owner to integrate the services of architects, interior designers, engineers and
constructors throughout design and construction. In response, many companies are
growing beyond traditional offerings of design or construction services alone and are
placing more emphasis on establishing relationships with other necessary participants
through the design-build process.

The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design
professionals trained in all phases of the project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation
of the building as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many
sub-systems and their individual components, including sustainability. Building
engineering is an emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge.

Financial advisors

Construction projects can suffer from preventable financial problems. Underbids happen
when builders ask for too little money to complete the project. Cash flow problems exist
when the present amount of funding cannot cover the current costs for labour and
materials, and because they are a matter of having sufficient funds at a specific time, can
arise even when the overall total is enough. Fraud is a problem in many fields, but is
notoriously prevalent in the construction field.[21] Financial planning for the project is
intended to ensure that a solid plan with adequate safeguards and contingency plans are in
place before the project is started and is required to ensure that the plan is properly
executed over the life of the project.

Mortgage bankers, accountants, and cost engineers are likely participants in creating an
overall plan for the financial management of the building construction project. The
presence of the mortgage banker is highly likely, even in relatively small projects since
the owner's equity in the property is the most obvious source of funding for a building
project. Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of the project
and to monitor the payouts throughout the process. Cost engineers and estimators apply
expertise to relate the work and materials involved to a proper valuation. Cost overruns
with government projects have occurred when the contractor identified change orders or
project changes that increased costs, which are not subject to competition from other
firms as they have already been eliminated from consideration after the initial bid.[22]

Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans and often start with a
conceptual estimate performed by a building estimator. As portions of a project are
completed, they may be sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the
logistical requirements of having the right trades and materials available for each stage of
the building construction project carries forward. In many English-speaking countries,
but not the United States, projects typically use quantity surveyors.
Legal aspects

A construction project must fit into the legal framework governing the property. These
include governmental regulations on the use of property,and obligations that are created
in the process of construction.

The project must adhere to zoning and building code requirements. Constructing a project
that fails to adhere to codes does not benefit the owner. Some legal requirements come
from malum in se considerations, or the desire to prevent things that are indisputably
bad – bridge collapses or explosions. Other legal requirements come from malum
prohibitum considerations, or things that are a matter of custom or expectation, such as
isolating businesses to a business district and residences to a residential district. An
attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law that governs the land where the
building will be built, either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the bridge design will
not cause a collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed (acceptance of live-work
spaces has grown in the community).

A construction project is a complex net of contracts and other legal obligations, each of
which all parties must carefully consider. A contract is the exchange of a set of
obligations between two or more parties, but it is not so simple a matter as trying to get
the other side to agree to as much as possible in exchange for as little as possible. The
time element in construction means that a delay costs money, and in cases of bottlenecks,
the delay can be extremely expensive. Thus, the contracts must be designed to ensure that
each side is capable of performing the obligations set out. Contracts that set out clear
expectations and clear paths to accomplishing those expectations are far more likely to
result in the project flowing smoothly, whereas poorly drafted contracts lead to confusion
and collapse.

Legal advisors in the beginning of a construction project seek to identify ambiguities and
other potential sources of trouble in the contract structure, and to present options for
preventing problems. Throughout the process of the project, they work to avoid and
resolve conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations
that matches the reality of the project.
Interaction of expertise

Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only
structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially
possible to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must accommodate the need for
building the design provided, and must pay amounts that are legally owed. The legal
structure must integrate the design into the surrounding legal framework, and enforce the
financial consequences of the construction process.

Procurement

Procurement describes the merging of activities undertaken by the client to obtain a

building. There are many different methods of construction procurement; however the
three most common types of procurement are traditional (design-bid-build), design-build
and management contracting.

There is also a growing number of new forms of procurement that involve relationship
contracting where the emphasis is on a co-operative relationship between the principal
and contractor and other stakeholders within a construction project. New forms include
partnering such as Public-Private Partnering (PPPs) aka private finance initiatives (PFIs)
and alliances such as "pure" or "project" alliances and "impure" or "strategic" alliances.
The focus on co-operation is to ameliorate the many problems that arise from the often
highly competitive and adversarial practices within the construction industry.

Traditional

his is the most common method of construction procurement and is well established and
recognized. In this arrangement, the architect or engineer acts as the project coordinator.
His or her role is to design the works, prepare the specifications and produce construction
drawings, administer the contract, tender the works, and manage the works from
inception to completion. There are direct contractual links between the architect's client
and the main contractor. Any subcontractor has a direct contractual relationship with the
main contractor. The procedure continues until the building is ready to occupy.

Design-build

This approach has become more common in recent years, and involves the client
contracting a single entity to both provide a design and to build that design. In some
cases, the design-build package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and
applying for all necessary statutory consents.
The owner produces a list of requirements for a project, giving an overall view of the
project's goals. Several D&B contractors present different ideas about how to accomplish
these goals. The owner selects the ideas he or she likes best and hires the appropriate
contractor. Often, it is not just one contractor, but a consortium of several contractors
working together. Once these have been hired, they begin building the first phase of the
project. As they build phase 1, they design phase 2. This is in contrast to a design-bid-
build contract, where the project is completely designed by the owner, then bid on, then
completed.

Kent Hansen pointed out that state departments of transportation usually use design build
contracts as a way of progressing projects when states lack the skills-resources. In such
departments, design build contracts are usually employed for very large projects.

Management procurement systems

In this arrangement the client plays an active role in the procurement system by entering
into separate contracts with the designer (architect or engineer), the construction
manager, and individual trade contractors. The client takes on the contractual role, while
the construction or project manager provides the active role of managing the separate
trade contracts, and ensuring that they complete all work smoothly and effectively
together.

Management procurement systems are often used to speed up the procurement processes,
allow the client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, give the
ability to appoint individual work contractors, separate contractual responsibility on each
individual throughout the contract, and to provide greater client control.
Authority having jurisdiction

In construction, the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) is the governmental agency or

sub-agency that regulates the construction process. In most cases, this is the municipality
where the building is located. However, construction performed for supra-municipal
authorities are usually regulated directly by the owning authority, which becomes the
AHJ.

Before the foundation can be dug, contractors are typically required to verify and have
existing utility lines marked, either by the utilities themselves or through a company
specializing in such services. This lessens the likelihood of damage to the existing
electrical, water, sewage, phone, and cable facilities, which could cause outages and
potentially hazardous situations. During the construction of a building, the municipal
building inspector inspects the building periodically to ensure that the construction
adheres to the approved plans and the local building code. Once construction is complete
and a final inspection has been passed, an occupancy permit may be issued.

An operating building must remain in compliance with the fire code. The fire code is
enforced by the local fire department or a municipal code enforcement office.

Changes made to a building that affect safety, including its use, expansion, structural
integrity, and fire protection items, usually require approval of the AHJ for review
concerning the building code.
Industry characteristics

In the United States, the industry in 2014 has around $960 billion in annual revenue
according to statistics tracked by the Census Bureau, of which $680 billion is private
(split evenly between residential and nonresidential) and the remainder is government.[24]
As of 2005, there were about 667,000 firms employing 1 million contractors (200,000
general contractors, 38,000 heavy, and 432,000 specialty); the average contractor
employed fewer than 10 employees.[25] As a whole, the industry employed an estimated
5.8 million as of April 2013, with a 13.2% unemployment rate.[26] In the United States,
approximately 828,000 women were employed in the construction industry as of 2011.[27]

Careers

There are many routes to the different careers within the construction industry. These
three main tiers are based on educational background and training, which vary by
country:
  Unskilled and semi-skilled – General site labor with little or no construction
qualifications.
 Skilled – Tradesmen who've served apprenticeships, typically in labor unions, and
on-site managers who possess extensive knowledge and experience in their craft
or profession.
 Technical and management – Personnel with the greatest educational
qualifications, usually graduate degrees, trained to design, manage and instruct
the construction process.

Skilled occupations include carpenters, electricians, plumbers, ironworkers, masons, and

many other manual crafts, as well as those involved in project management. In the UK
these require further education qualifications, often in vocational subject areas. These
qualifications are either obtained directly after the completion of compulsory education
or through "on the job" apprenticeship training.[28] In the UK, 8500 construction-related
apprenticeships were commenced in 2007.[29]

Technical and specialized occupations require more training as a greater technical

knowledge is required. These professions also hold more legal responsibility. A short list
of the main careers with an outline of the educational requirements are given below:
 Architect – Typically holds 1, undergraduate 3 year degree in architecture + 1,
post-graduate 2 year degree (DipArch or BArch) in architecture plus 24 months
experience within the industry. To use the title "architect" the individual must be
registered on the Architects Registration Board register of Architects.
 Civil engineer – Typically holds a degree in a related subject. The Chartered
Engineer qualification is controlled by the Engineering Council, and is often
achieved through membership of the Institution of Civil Engineers. A new
university graduate must hold a master's degree to become chartered; persons with
bachelor's degrees may become an Incorporated Engineer.
 Building services engineer – Often referred to as an "M&E Engineer" typically
holds a degree in mechanical or electrical engineering. Chartered Engineer status
is governed by the Engineering Council, mainly through the Chartered Institution
of Building Services Engineers.
 Project manager – Typically holds a 4-year or greater higher education
qualification, but are often also qualified in another field such as architecture,
civil engineering or quantity surveying.
 Structural engineer – Typically holds a bachelor's or master's degree in structural
engineering. A P.ENG is required from the Professional Engineers Ontario
(Canada). New university graduates must hold a master's degree to gain chartered
status from the Engineering Council, mainly through the Institution of Structural
Engineers (UK).
 Quantity surveyor – Typically holds a bachelor's degree in quantity surveying.
Chartered status is gained from the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors.
 Civil estimators are professionals who typically have a background in civil
engineering, construction project management, or construction supervision.
Safety

Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more
occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States and in the European
Union.[33][34] In 2009, the fatal occupational injury rate among construction workers in the
United States was nearly three times that for all workers.[33] Falls are one of the most
common causes of fatal and non-fatal injuries among construction workers.[33] Proper
safety equipment such as harnesses and guardrails and procedures such as securing
ladders and inspecting scaffolding can curtail the risk of occupational injuries in the
construction industry.[35] Other major causes of fatalities in the construction industry
include electrocution, transportation accidents, and trench cave-ins.
Other safety risks for workers in construction include hearing loss due to high noise
exposure, musculoskeletal injury, chemical exposure, and high levels of stress.
The first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew
during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen, like bricklayers and carpenters,
appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. In the Middle Ages,
these were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery
appeared, and later diesel- and electric powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and
bulldozers.

Fast-track construction has been increasingly popular in the 21st century. Some estimates
suggest that 40% of construction projects are now fast-track construction.

Construction phases

 Vision/fantasy/idea - a concept never intended to be built, may be an aesthetic or

structural design exercise
 Proposed - a building concept that is under review by the building owner and by
government
 Approved - a building concept that will be constructed in the near future. If the
proposed building is not approved then the proposal may be amended and
resubmitted, or it may be deferred or cancelled.
 Design - the specification of what is to be built in sufficient detail to be used as
the basis as a contract between the owner and a contractor
 Procurement - the selection of the contractor or contractors to carry out the
construction. This may be by competitive tendering.
 Diversions - before construction can start any services on the site which must be
kept operational to serve other adjacent sites must be diverted so they run outside
the footprint of the new building. This can include drainage, water and gas piped
services and power and communication cables.
 Under-construction - a fully designed building currently being built
 Ground works - construction work below ground level including the construction
of basements and foundations
 Topped-out - a fully designed building where construction has reached the highest
point of the building
 Fitting out - installation of the decorative, non-structural elements once the
building main structure is complete. This includes painting, ceilings, light fittings
etc.
 Commissioning or setting to work - Once the building Mechanical, electrical,
plumbing, communications, and building control systems are installed they then
need to be tested and adjusted so they deliver the required performance.In modern
buildings this can take some time during which little seems to be going on but if
this is not done properly then these systems will not deliver their design
performance leading to hot and cold spots, spurious alarms, higher energy bills,
and systems failing during emergencies
 Substantial Completion / Beneficial Occupancy - a point when the work is
sufficiently complete so that the Owner can occupy (Items noted during
inspection 'punch list' or 'snag list' may still be corrected)
 Complete/built - a fully designed building that has been fully built, excluding
future expansions (punch list items all completed)
 Building Operation - All those day-to-day activities need to ensure the building
can be used. In simple buildings this means little more than cleaning but in more
complicated buildings this is a large scale operation employing a large team of
staff. If they do their job right then you hardly notice them.
 Maintenance - works to ensure the building continues to operate in accordance
with its design, including replacing elements which are approaching the end of
their useful life
 Repair - replacing building elements which have been damaged or which have
failed to restore the building to its as-built state
 Renovation - modification to the building. This can be minor modifications that
are carried out while the building is occupied or major works where only the
structural elements are kept and the building is out of use for years
 Demolition - destruction of the building which may include the salvage of some
elements for reuse elsewhere.
**************
Purpose In the start of 20th century, most economies in the world were industrialized
economies. This industrialization introduces the mass production concept along with
other strategies like mass distribution, mass marketing and mass media1. Mass
production covered most industries in our life and one of the newsiest industries which
adopt mass production strategy is building construction industry. However, a
combination of advances in information and technology (Robotics and advanced
equipment ) is making the production increasingly possible to mass customize - to rapidly
respond to consumers with customized products at mass-production prices2. Mass
customization in prefabricated building construction industry is a new strong tool based
on integrating organizational structure over the whole value chain corresponding
with information flows between enterprises product, machinery, robots, customer and all
complementary subprocesses 3 but in the other hand this mass customization should be
controlled by some guidelines depending on some aspects like the type of building
(wood, brick or concrete ), architectural aspect, location and climate where the products
are targeted. Method By studying and analyzing the different types of prefabricated
building construction methods (linear production, 2D production, 3D production ) which
apply the principle of mass customization production the author presents the degree of
customization for each method, the type of relationship between the factory and the
customer and the rules which control this relation. Results & Discussion After studying
and analyzing those methods of prefabricated construction and the relationship between
the customer and the factory, the author considers a set of general guidelines for building
design should be adopted as standards in building mass production industry according to
all the data and information acquired in this research and with the respect of architectural
and civil engineering standards in construction along with the costumer needs, moreover
the guideline will redraw the role of the architects in building production industry.