Excavation Safety

Government of
Western Australia
Code of Practice
Excavation
December 1996
WorkSafe Western Australia Commission

Authority
This code of practice was approved pursuant to section 57 of the Occupational Safety and
Health Act 1984 by the Hon Minister for Labour Relations on 23 December 1996.
Scope
This code of practice provides practical guidance to employers, contractors, employees,

manufacturers, suppliers and designers to prevent occupational injury and disease in all
workplaces where excavation and associated earthworks are performed.
This code applies to all workplaces where excavation occurs, and to all persons with
the potential for exposure to hazards resulting from excavation in those workplaces,
including:
q all areas where excavating equipment is used; and
q all areas where processes associated with excavation are undertaken.
Excavation work may range from shallow trenching and simple foundation excavation
to large and complex excavations for buildings and structures and deep sewers where
the risk of serious injury is very significant.
Who should use this code of practice?
This code of practice should be used by all persons involved in any aspect related to
excavation, including employers, contractors, self employed persons, employees, safety
and health representatives, suppliers, designers, manufacturers, etc.
For further information on this code of practice, contact the Chamber of Commerce
and Industry of Western Australia (Tel. 365 7577), the Trades and Labor Council of
Western Australia (Tel. 328 7877) or WorkSafe Western Australia (Tel. 327 8777).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The WorkSafe Western Australia Commission is grateful to the Water Corporation,

the Department of Business and Employment - Victoria and the Department of Labour
- New Zealand for the assistance provided in drafting this code of practice.
CONTENTS
1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR MANAGING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

AND HEALTH IN WORKPLACES 1
1.1 LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA 1
1.2 ACCESS TO ACT, REGULATIONS AND OTHER RELEVANT
DOCUMENTS 2
1.3 THE GENERAL DUTIES - AN OVERVIEW 2
1.4 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION, RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK
CONTROL 3
1.5 THE MEANING OF PRACTICABLE 9
2. SITE INSPECTIONS 11
2.1 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 12
2.2 FACTORS TO CONSIDER 13
3. DAILY SITE INSPECTIONS 16

4. SAFE PRACTICES IN AND AROUND EXCAVATIONS 25
5. PUBLIC SAFETY AROUND EXCAVATIONS 26
5.1 DURING WORKING HOURS 26
5.2 OUTSIDE WORKING HOURS 26
5.3 PUBLIC SAFETY GENERALLY 26
6. WORKER SAFETY AROUND EXCAVATIONS 27

7. SAFE SLOPES 32
7.1 PLACING THE EXCAVATED MATERIAL 33
7.2 COHESIVE STRENGTH AND EARTH PRESSURE 33
8. TYPES OF EXCAVATIONS 36
8.1 MECHANICAL EXCAVATION - OPEN CUT 36
8.2 MECHANICAL EXCAVATION IN CLAY, LIMESTONE AND
ROCK 37
8.3 MECHANICAL EXCAVATION - BLASTING 37
8.4 DRAG LINES AND EXCAVATION EQUIPMENT 38
8.5 BULLDOZERS - SCRAPERS 38
8.6 HAND EXCAVATION - SAND 39
8.7 HAND EXCAVATION IN CLAY AND LIMESTONE 39
CONTENTS
9. GROUND SUPPORT SYSTEMS 40

9.1 TRENCH EXCAVATIONS WITHOUT SHORING 40
9.2 CUTTING THE FACE OF AN EXCAVATION TO A SAFE SLOPE
41
9.3 CLOSED SHEETING 42
9.4 TELESCOPIC SETS 42
9.5 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TIMBER SHORING OF TRENCHES 43
9.6 SACRIFICIAL SETS 46
9.7 SOLDIER SETS 46
9.8 ALTERNATIVE SOLDIER SET: HYDRAULIC SUPPORT
SYSTEMS 48
9.9 TUNNELLING 50
9.10 SHAFTS 50
9.11 SIDE LACING 50
9.12 METAL BOXES OR SHIELDS 51
10. REMOVAL OF SHORING 53

11. STEEL SHEET PILING 56
11.1 USES OF STEEL SHEET PILING 56
11.2 FORMING STEEL SHEET PILINGS 56
11.3 DRIVING STEEL SHEET PILING 56
12. INTERNAL PROPPING AND ALLUVIAL ANCHORING 58

12.1 INTERNAL PROPPING 58
12.2 ALLUVIAL ANCHORS 58
13. STEEL TRENCH SHEETING 60

14. HAMMERS AND DRIVING CAPS 61
15. GLOSSARY OF TERMS 61
1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR MANAGING
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH IN
WORKPLACES
1.1 LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA
The Occupational Safety and Health Act sets objectives to promote and improve
occupational safety and health standards. The Act sets out broad duties and is
supported by more detailed requirements in the Occupational Safety and Health
Regulations. The legislation is further supported by guidance material such as
approved codes of practice. This legislative framework is depicted below.
Major provisions:
OCCUPATIONAL • The General Duties

SAFETY AND • Resolution of Issues
ï • Safety and Health Representatives
HEALTH ACT
• Safety and Health Committees
• Enforcement of Act and Regulations
supported by
The Occupational Safety and Health Regulations

OCCUPATIONAL set minimum requirements for specific hazards and
SAFETY AND work practices, including reference to National
ï Standards developed by the National Occupational
HEALTH
Health and Safety Commission and Australian
REGULATIONS Standards developed by Standards Australia.
and
• Codes of Practice approved for Western

Australia in accordance with Section 57 of the
Act.
• Guidance Notes developed by the WorkSafe
GUIDANCE Western Australia Commission.
MATERIAL ï
• National Codes of Practice and National
Standards developed by the National
Occupational Health and Safety Commission.
• Australian Standards developed by Standards
Australia.
PAGE 1 EXCAVATION
GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR MANAGING
WORKPLACES
1.2 ACCESS TO ACT, REGULATIONS AND OTHER RELEVANT

DOCUMENTS
Employers are required to provide information to employees, to alert them to areas

where hazards may exist and to improve their understanding of safe work practices.
Regulations specify documents which must be made available for perusal by employees
at the workplace.
Persons at workplaces to have access to Act etc.

Regulation 3.2 states
A person who, at a workplace, is an employer or the main contractor must ensure that, as soon
as practicable following a request from a person who works at the workplace, there is available
for that person’s perusal an up to date copy of —
(a) the Act;
(b) these regulations;
(c) all Australian Standards, Australian/New Zealand Standards and NOHSC
documents or parts of those Standards or documents referred to in these
regulations that apply to that workplace;
(d) all codes of practice approved under section 57 of the Act that apply to that
workplace; and
(e) guidelines or forms of guidance referred to in section 14 of the Act —
(i) the titles of which have been published in the Government Gazette and
which are set out in Schedule 3.1; and
(ii) which apply to that workplace.
1.3 THE GENERAL DUTIES - AN OVERVIEW
The Act contains general duties which describe the responsibilities of people who
affect safety and health at work. Employers must, so far as is practicable,
q provide a workplace and safe system of work so that, as far as practicable,

employees are not exposed to hazards;
q provide employees with information, instruction, training and supervision to allow
them to work in a safe manner;
q consult and co-operate with safety and health representatives in matters related to
safety and health at work;
q provide adequate protective clothing and equipment where hazards cannot be
eliminated; and
q ensure plant is installed or erected so it can be used safely.
Employees must take reasonable care to ensure their own safety and health at work
and the safety and health of others affected by their work.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 2
WORKPLACES
Self-employed persons also must take reasonable care to ensure their own safety and
health at work and, as far as practicable, ensure the work does not affect the safety and
health of others.
Designers, manufacturers, importers and suppliers of plant must ensure the plant is safe
to install, maintain and use at workplaces. Safety and health information must be
supplied with all plant and substances used at work.
Designers or builders of a building or structure for use as a workplace must ensure, so

far as is practicable, that persons constructing, maintaining, repairing, servicing or
using the building or structure are not exposed to hazards.
The WorkSafe Western Australia Commission guidance note The General Duty of
Care in Western Australian Workplaces provides detailed information on the ‘duty of
care’. The guidance note can be purchased from WorkSafe Western Australia,
Westcentre, 1260 Hay Street, West Perth [Tel. (09) 327 8777] or is available via the
Internet Service on Safetyline [http://www.wt.com.au/safetyline].
1.4 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION, RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK

CONTROL
The Act: Section 19 states (in part)

(1) An employer shall, so far as is practicable, provide and maintain a working
environment in which his employees are not exposed to hazards and in particular, but without
limiting the generality of the foregoing, an employer shall —
(a) provide and maintain workplaces, plant, and systems of work such that, so far
as is practicable, his employees are not exposed to hazards.
Under Section 19(1)(a) of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, employers have a
duty to ensure, as far as practicable, that employees are not exposed to hazards at the
workplace. The Regulations require employers to identify hazards, and assess and
control risks.
Identification of hazards, and assessing and addressing risks, at workplaces

A person who, at a workplace, is an employer, the main contractor, a self-employed person, a
person having control of the workplace or a person having control of access to the workplace
must, as far as practicable —
(a) identify each hazard to which a person at the workplace is likely to be

exposed;
(b) assess the risk of injury or harm to a person resulting from each hazard, if any,
identified under paragraph (a); and
(c) consider the means by which the risk may be reduced.
PAGE 3 EXCAVATION
WORKPLACES
The regulation outlines three basic steps:
q Identification of hazards
This involves recognising things which may cause injury or harm to the
health of a person, for instance flammable material, ignition sources or
unguarded machinery.
q Assessing risk
This involves looking at the possibility of injury or harm occurring to a person if
exposed to a hazard.
q Controlling the risk of injury or harm
This involves introducing measures to eliminate or reduce the risk of a person
being injured or harmed.
It is important to regularly review the steps, especially if there are changes in the work
environment, new technology is introduced, or standards are changed.
Employers should consult with safety and health representatives, if any, and employees
during these steps.
1.4.1 Identifying hazards
There are a number of ways of identifying potential sources of injury or disease.

Selection of the appropriate procedure will depend on the type of work processes and
hazards involved.
Procedures may range from a simple checklist for a specific piece of equipment or
substance to a more open-ended appraisal of a group of related work processes.
A combination of methods may provide the most effective results.
Methods of identifying workplace hazards include:

q developing a hazard checklist;
q conducting walk-through surveys;
q reviewing information from designers or manufacturers;
q analysing unsafe incidents, accident and injury data;
q analysing work processes;
q consulting with employees;
q examining and considering material safety data sheets and product labels; and
q seeking advice from specialist practitioners and representatives.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 4
WORKPLACES
A HAZARD MEANS ANYTHING THAT MAY RESULT IN INJURY OR HARM

TO THE HEALTH OF A PERSON
Some hazards such as mechanical hazards, noise, or the toxic properties of substances
are inherent in the work process. Other hazards result from equipment or machine
failures and misuse, control or power system failures, chemical spills, and structural
failures.
The table below lists some types of hazards together with some specific examples.
HAZARD EXAMPLES OUTCOMES

(examples of injury or harm)
Manual handling overexertion/repetitive sprains, strains, fractures
movement
Falls falling objects, falls, slips and fractures, bruises, lacerations,
trips of people dislocations, concussion,
permanent or fatal injuries
Electricity electrical current, lightning shock, burns, electrocution
Machinery and being hit, hitting objects, being cuts, bruises, dislocations,
equipment caught in or between, over- fractures, amputation,
turning vehicles permanent or fatal injuries
Hazardous chemicals such as acids, toxic effects, dermatitis,
substances hydrocarbons, heavy metals respiratory illnesses, cancers
Extremes of effects of heat or cold burns, frost bite, heat stress,
temperature heat stroke
Noise excessive noise permanent hearing damage
Radiation ultra violet, welding arc burns, cancer, damaged eye
flashes, micro waves, lasers sight, blindness
Biological viruses, bacteria, fungi, toxins Hepatitis, Legionnaire’s
disease, Q Fever, tetanus,
HIV/AIDS, allergies
Vibration hands and whole of body organ, nerve and muscle
damage
Psychological stress intimidation, organisational high blood pressure,
change, violence, conflict, time headaches and migraine,
pressure anxiety, depression,
absenteeism
PAGE 5 EXCAVATION
WORKPLACES
1.4.2 Analysing and assessing risks
RISK, IN RELATION TO ANY INJURY AND HARM, MEANS THE

PROBABILITY OF THAT INJURY OR HARM OCCURRING.
Risk assessment of the hazards identified in the first step should result in a list of
potential injuries or harm and the likelihood of these occurring. The potential for fatal
injury should be considered for each identified hazard. If hazards are listed they should
be in the order of the most to the least serious, eg. from fatal to minor injury.
In assessing risks, consideration should be given to the state of knowledge about the
frequency of injury or disease, the duration of exposure to injury or disease sources
and the likely severity of the outcomes. Knowledge gained from similar workplaces or
similar processes may be relevant to this risk assessment. Items to be considered
include:
q frequency of injury - how often is the hazard likely to result in an injury or

disease?
q duration of exposure - how long is the employee exposed to the hazard?
q outcome - what are the consequences or potential severity of injury?
Assessing these three factors will indicate the probability or likelihood of injury or
harm occurring to workers involved in a particular work process. It also indicates the
likely severity of this harm.
Risk assessment requires good judgement and awareness of the potential risks of a
work process. Any person undertaking the risk assessment must have knowledge and
experience of the work process. Risk assessment will be more complicated or difficult
if the data or information regarding hazards of a work process is incomplete.
In some cases it may be necessary to break down the activity or process into a series of
parts and assess each part separately.
Risk assessment should include:

q assessing the adequacy of training or knowledge required to work safely;
q looking at the way the jobs are performed;
q looking at the way work is organised;
q determining the size and layout of the workplace;
q assessing the number and movement of all people on the site;
q determining the type of operation to be performed;
q determining the type of machinery and plant to be used;
q examining procedures for an emergency (eg. accident, fire and rescue); and
q looking at the storage and handling of all materials and substances.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 6
WORKPLACES
This step should provide information where and which employees are likely to be at
risk of incurring injury or disease, how often this is likely to occur, and the potential
severity of that injury or disease risk.
1.4.3 Identifying control measures
The final step in risk assessment is to determine the control measures that need to be
taken and the ongoing review of those measures. There is a hierarchy or preferred
order of control measures ranging from the most effective to the least effective. The
preferred order is outlined in the table below.
The control of occupational injury and disease risks should preferably be dealt with by
design, substitution, redesign, separation or administration. These controls generally
eliminate, reduce or minimise risk in a more reliable manner than personal protective
equipment.
Controls involve implementing measures which reduce the hazard and risk in the
workplace.
Where regulations require specific methods to control the risk, these must be complied
with.
TABLE 2 - Hierarchy or preferred order of control
elimination - removing the hazard or hazardous work practice from the workplace.
This is the most effective control measure;
substitution - substituting or replacing a hazard or hazardous work practice with a
less hazardous one;
isolation - isolating or separating the hazard or hazardous work practice from people
involved in the work or people in the general work areas from the hazard. This can be
done by installing screens or barriers or marking off hazardous areas;
engineering control - if the hazard cannot be eliminated, substituted or isolated, an
engineering control is the next preferred measure. This may include modifications to
tools or equipment, or providing guarding to machinery or equipment;
administrative control - includes introducing work practices that reduce the risk.
This could include limiting the amount of time a person is exposed to a particular
hazard; and
personal protective equipment - should be considered only when other control
measures are not practicable or to increase protection.
Control measures are not mutually exclusive. That is, there may be
circumstances where more than one control measure should be used to reduce
exposure to hazards.
PAGE 7 EXCAVATION
WORKPLACES
In some instances, a combination of control measures may be appropriate. Control

measures should be designed:
q to eliminate or reduce the risks of a hazardous work process and to minimise the
effects of injury or disease; and
q to reduce the risk of exposure to a hazardous substance.
1.4.4 Control through personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment should be a last resort only, and be used in

circumstances where other methods of control are not practicable. The factors which
determine the appropriateness of using personal protective equipment include:
q the nature of the work or the work process concerned;

q the severity of any potential injury or disease;
q the state of knowledge about the injury or disease related to the work or process;
q information available to employers about methods of preventing injury or disease
associated with a particular hazard or risk;
q the availability and suitability of methods to prevent, remove or mitigate causes of
injuries or diseases associated with a hazard or risk; and
q whether the costs of preventing, removing or mitigating that injury or disease are
prohibitive in the circumstances.
There are some situations where temporary use of personal protective equipment may
be necessary. These include:
q where it is not technically feasible to achieve adequate control of the hazard by

other measures. In these cases, the hazard should be reduced as far as practicable
by other measures and then, in addition, suitable personal protective equipment
should be used to secure adequate control;
q where a new or revised risk assessment indicates that personal protective
equipment is necessary to safeguard safety and health until such time as adequate
control is achieved by other methods, for example, where urgent action is required
because of plant failure; and
q during routine maintenance operations. Although exposure to hazards occurs
regularly during such work, the infrequency and small number of people involved
may make other control measures impracticable.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 8
WORKPLACES
1.4.5 Review of control measures
Constantly reviewing control measures is important to ensure they continue to prevent

or control exposure to hazards or hazardous work practices.
Engineering controls should be regularly tested to ensure their effectiveness.

Performance testing and evaluation standards should be established.
Repair and maintenance programs should specify:
q where servicing is required;

q the extent of servicing required;
q the nature of the servicing required;
q the frequency of servicing;
q who is responsible for maintaining repair and maintenance programs; and
q how defects will be corrected.
In order to keep accurate records, a recording or reporting system should be

developed, implemented and maintained.
1.5 THE MEANING OF PRACTICABLE
Some of the general duty provisions in the Act and some requirements in the
Regulations are qualified by the words “so far as is practicable”.
“Practicability” applies to general duties for employers, self-employed people, people

with control of workplaces, designers, manufacturers, importers, suppliers, erectors
and installers, and to certain requirements in the Regulations.
These people are expected to take practicable and reasonable measures to comply with
the requirements.
If something is practicable, it is capable of being done. Whether it is also reasonable

takes into account:
q the severity of any injury or harm to health that may occur;

q the degree of risk (or likelihood) of that injury or harm occurring;
q how much is known about the hazard and the ways of reducing, eliminating or
controlling it; and
q the availability, suitability and cost of the safeguards.
The risk and severity of injury must be weighed up against the overall cost and
feasibility of the safeguards needed to remove the risk.
PAGE 9 EXCAVATION
WORKPLACES
Common practice and knowledge throughout the relevant industry are taken into
account when judging whether a safeguard is “reasonably practicable”. Individual
employers could not claim that they did not know what to do about certain hazards if
those hazards are widely known by others in the same industry, and safeguards were
available.
The cost of putting safeguards in place is measured against the consequences of failing
to do so. It is not a measure of whether the employer can afford to put the necessary
safeguards in place.
While cost is a factor, it is not an excuse for failing to provide appropriate safeguards,
particularly where there is risk of serious, or frequent but less severe, injury.
Where a regulation exists and is not qualified by the words “as far as is practicable”,
the regulation must be complied with as a minimum requirement.
The WorkSafe Western Australia Commission guidance note The General Duty of
Care in Western Australian Workplaces provides detailed information on the ‘duty of
care’. The guidance note can be purchased from WorkSafe Western Australia,
Westcentre, 1260 Hay Street, West Perth [Tel. (09) 327 8777] or is available via the
Internet Service on Safetyline [http:/www.wt.com.au/safetyline].
EXCAVATION PAGE: 10
2. SITE INSPECTIONS
Assessment in relation to excavations

A person who, at a workplace where excavation work is to be done, is an employer, the main
contractor or a self-employed person must consider, as part of the assessment process referred
to in regulation 3.1, whether any identified risk of injury or harm to persons doing the work or
persons in the vicinity of the work may be reduced by any of the following means —
(a) temporary support systems;
(b) battering;
(c) other forms of retaining structures whether of a temporary or permanent nature;
(d) de-watering systems,
for use or application during and after the work.
Where person at risk due to excavation

(1) If, at a workplace where excavation work is to be done, any person is at risk of injury
because of the excavation work then a person who, at the workplace, is an employer, the main
contractor or a self-employed person must ensure that there are erected, as closely as possible
to any likely cause of the danger, suitable barriers to a height of not less than 900 mm between
the person and the likely cause of the danger.
(2) If, at a workplace, there is an excavated area of dimensions which enable persons to
move across the top of the area then a person who, at the workplace, is an employer, the main
contractor, a self-employed person or a person having control of the workplace must ensure
that persons are able to move safely across the top of the area.
Safety in and around excavations should be considered as part of job planning from the
commencement of a project. Identification of hazards should be part of the planning,
design and estimating process.
Particular hazards should be identified by those people involved in excavation projects

well before excavation commences. Identifying hazards at an early stage should enable
methods of operation to be chosen which will reduce risk as far as practicable
throughout all stages of the project.
A systematic approach to documenting hazards for large and complex excavations

during the planning phase of a project is necessary to enable information to be
effectively utilised during the construction phase.
Many collapses occur in excavation work as a result of one or more of the following
causes:
q inadequate investigation;
q failure to use methods and install safeguards shown to be necessary by an
engineering analysis of the soil structure of the face;
PAGE 11 EXCAVATION
SITE INSPECTIONS
q improper or inadequate timbering;

q defective timbering materials;
q improper maintenance of timbering during operations;
q failure to provide properly for loads imposed by surrounding structures;
q failure to provide sufficiently for temporary loads above the face (excavated
material, equipment or traffic and excessive vibration);
q inadequate sub-soil drainage; and
q not allowing for changing weather altering the ground water level and condition of
the soil.
Collapse of an excavation may endanger life and property.
Before excavation commences, all available information should be collected about the
exact location and details of the excavation, and disposal areas for excavated material,
so that suitable methods of working can be planned and the most appropriate plant for
the job can be obtained.
From a consideration of the nature of the material to be excavated and the method of
its disposal, the type of excavation, the length of haul, and the amount of compaction
needed, it is possible to select the most suitable items for:
q excavating plant (when quantities are large, it may be best to use different types of
plant for the various materials to be excavated);
q transporting the excavated material (the length of haul, the nature of the haul
route, the conditions of tipping, or spreading, and the type of excavator used
should be considered);
q placing the material (the methods and plant used for transporting and compacting
the material should be studied);
q compacting the material (the nature of the material and the compaction specified
must be the main consideration); and
q de-watering equipment and system to be used.
2.1 SOURCES OF INFORMATION
q Natural features such as rock outcrops, water-courses, creeks and swamps should
be inspected. The surface drainage system should also be studied in relation to the
line of the proposed excavation.
q Information on ground conditions may be available from nearby works such as
existing railway cuttings, roadways, and foundation works.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 12
SITE INSPECTIONS
q Results of any test bores are usually available from the appropriate authorities.
When they are not available, unsupported test excavations using a backhoe should
be dug in doubtful areas to observe ground conditions and determine suitable
ground support systems.
2.2 FACTORS TO CONSIDER
The following factors should be considered when deciding upon a system of support
for an excavation:
q Nature of the ground

- soil or rock type;
- presence of any faults or bedding planes in the soil or rock;
- made up ground; and
- moisture content of the soil or rock. Cohesiveness of the soil or rock may
change depending on whether the material is wet or dry.
q Water control
Water control may involve the relatively simple removal of small amounts of
water at the bottom of an excavation by electrically driven sludge pumps or it may
involve the control of large quantities of water in situations where an excavation is
below the level of the ground water table.
In this situation, de-watering systems consisting of pumps and suction points or

“spears” connected to pipelines are located around an excavation or alongside a
trench to pump the water to waste and lower the water table below the bottom of
the trench or excavation.
The spacing of the spear points and capacity of the pump must be designed to
accommodate the volume of water which will depend to a large extent on the
porosity of the soil and the distance the water table is to be lowered.
Water control may also involve the prevention of flooding of the excavation from
surface run off after heavy rain or flooding from overflowing stormwater drains
where the capacity of the drain is insufficient either because of the intensity of the
rainfall or from under-design or lack of maintenance.
Consideration should also be given to the possibility of flooding from swamps,

dams, reservoirs, lakes or rivers where the proximity of the excavation to these
bodies of water and the terrain may allow overflow to enter the excavation.
PAGE 13 EXCAVATION
SITE INSPECTIONS
Excavations in close proximity to bodies of water may also be at risk of collapse

and flooding if the depth of excavation is lower than the water level. Where
excavations are to be made adjacent to ponded water, advice should be sought
from engineers experienced in this work.
q Proximity of underground services such as gas, electricity, sewer, water mains or

telephone cables. Enquiries should be made to the appropriate authority in regard
to the location of services prior to excavation.
Previously dug excavations have a weakening effect on a trench wall if they are in
close proximity. Closed sheeting may therefore be necessary.
q Point sources of instability which may require additional local support. Closed
sheeting should be used in unstable ground, reverting to soldier sets when the
excavation has progressed to more stable ground.
q Hazards, natural or artificial:

- intersecting old service excavations;
- telephone and electricity supply poles;
- manholes and other shafts;
- bends in an excavation;
- leaking services;
- corners created by the joining of pipe systems, ie. "T", "Y", or "square"
junctions;
- trees; and
- the threat to health from the past dumping of chemicals.
q Static loads near an excavation, including:

- the excavated material: an excavation in wet clay, 3.0 metres deep by
1.0 metre wide, will create a heap having a mass of approximately 6 tonnes
per metre of excavation. This must be considered when designing a support
system if the excavated material is located near the trench;
- buildings, including garages and outbuildings;
- water tanks or towers;
- brick or stone walls;
- embankments; and
- dams.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 14
SITE INSPECTIONS
In case of static loads nearby, additional timber supports should be installed.
q Dynamic loads near an excavation, such as:

- traffic (highway and rail); and
- excavation equipment.
q Ground vibration.
Occasionally, the collapse of a trench is caused not by dynamic loads but by the
accompanying ground vibration. Such vibration may come from:
- heavy traffic;
- rail stock passing close to an excavation;
- excavation machinery;
- construction works in the immediate vicinity (eg. pile driving); and
- explosives use.
The hazards of working close to previously disturbed ground are considerably

increased when the ground is either very wet or very dry. Under these conditions
it may be necessary to use sheet piling, or a shield or cage, to ensure safe working
conditions.
PAGE 15 EXCAVATION
3. DAILY SITE INSPECTIONS
No loads near excavation work

A person who, at a workplace where excavation work is done, is an employer, the main
contractor or a self-employed person must ensure that no item of plant, no excavated material
and no other load is placed near the excavated area in a position where there is risk that —
(a) the sides of the excavated area may collapse; or
(b) the plant, material or other load may fall into the excavated area.
In the course of daily routine inspections the employer should watch for certain unsafe
situations which are common during excavating and backfilling. Surveillance of trench
walls and support systems should be carried out frequently.
All employees are encouraged to look for and report hazards. Workers at sites where
excavation takes place, as well as other employees having reason to visit such sites,
should be made aware of hazards likely to cause injury to themselves or others.
q Workers in an unsupported trench more than 1.5 metres deep
Shoring in excavations etc.

(1) If, at a workplace —
(a) any excavation work or earthwork is to be done and there is a risk that the
matter forming, or adjacent to, the excavated area or the earthwork may fall or
dislodge; or
(b) a person is required to work in an excavated area or other opening in the
ground that is at least 1.5 metres deep,
then a person who, at the workplace is an employer, the main contractor or a self-employed
person must ensure that while a person is working in or near the excavation or earthwork, the
excavation or earthwork is shored in a manner which will prevent it from collapsing or moving.
(2) A person does not commit an offence under subregulation (1) if, proof of which is on
the person, the sides of the excavation or earthwork have been assessed by a competent person
to be self-supporting by virtue of the angle of the slope of the sides or the stability of the matter
comprising the sides.
Workers can enter a trench only if the exposed trench face is of good standing
quality under all anticipated weather and working conditions and where there is no
imminent danger from trench collapse to persons within the excavation (Figure 1).
EXCAVATION PAGE: 16
DAILY SITE INSPECTIONS
Excavated material, pipes, tools or timber too close to the edge of the trench are
hazards likely to injure workers in the trench if accidentally knocked or otherwise
fall into the trench.
Excavated material close to the trench adds load to the trench face. The
probability of collapse without warning is increased.
Excavated material should not be closer to the edge of a supported trench than
one-third of the trench depth (Figure 2). For unsupported trenches, this distance
will depend on the depth of excavation, moisture content and cohesive strength of
the material and profile of the excavation. Generally, excavated material should be
placed outside a 45 degree slope line passing through the bottom of the
excavation.
q Cracks near and parallel to the edge of the trench

Cracks indicate that the ground support system has shifted. The support may be
inadequate or incorrectly placed. Collapse may occur suddenly (Figure 3).
FIGURE 1: Workers in supported

trench more than 1.5 metres deep.
PAGE 17 EXCAVATION
FIGURE 2: Excavated material, pipes, tools or

timber too close to edge of the trench.
FIGURE 3: Cracks near and parallel

to the edge of the trench.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 18
q Subsidence alongside the trench

This means there has been soil movement below the surface that increases the
pressure against the supports and the possibility of a collapse. Soil movement may
be caused by seepage behind the support (Figure 4).
q Water swelling or uplift of the trench bottom
This indicates soil movement at the toe of the support system.
The danger is that if support timbers are undermined they may “kick-in” and cause
a sudden collapse. This indicates a wet unstable soil where an adequate trench
support system is vital for safety (Figure 5).
q Surface soil falling into the trench
Support timbers should project a minimum of 200 millimetres above ground
level (Figure 6).
In this situation workers in the trench are in danger from falling material which
may cause eye or body injury.
q Workers climbing on trench support timbers
This is dangerous. The worker may slip or fall. A strut or waling may be moved
causing the support system to be weakened (Figure 7).
Ladders should be provided and used for entry to and exit from the trench.
q Machines moving too close to edge of trench
The machine may damage the support system resulting in collapse of the trench.
Where close working is unavoidable because of space limitation, the support
system must be designed to cope with the extra loading due to the machine (Figure
8).
q Trench in or near previously dug ground
This situation requires special attention. It may not be obvious. Collapse or cave-
in is much more likely. Where another service pipe is parallel to the trench the
previously dug soil may be waterlogged and that side of the new trench is more
likely to collapse.
Where pipes are alongside or crossing a trench there is a danger from a pipe
failure. This situation should be drawn to the attention of the site engineer. Good
trench support is essential. Temporary support for the pipe is worthwhile. A
ladder adjacent to the hazard to allow quick escape must be provided in addition
to the usual entry and exit ladders (Figure 9).
PAGE 19 EXCAVATION
q Made up ground or backfill ground

The situation increases the risk of collapse or cave-in and requires special
attention. It may not be obvious the excavation or trench is in made up ground or
backfill material. This type of ground is usually less compact than virgin ground
and sides of excavations may be very unstable. Sides of excavations can quickly
become waterlogged and collapse. Close attention to trench support is essential
(Figure 10).
FIGURE 4: Subsidence alongside the trench.
FIGURE 5: Water swelling or uplift

of the trench bottom.
FIGURE 6: Surface soil falling into the trench
EXCAVATION PAGE: 20
FIGURE 7: Workers climbing on trench support

timbers.
FIGURE 8: Machines moving too close to edge of

trench.
FIGURE 9: Trench in or near previously dug ground.
PAGE 21 EXCAVATION
q Nearby machines causing vibrations

These may be stationary plant such as a compressor or pile driver. Vibrations may
also be due to adjacent railway traffic, road vehicles or mobile compactors further
along the trench or at adjacent road works.
The support system must be adequate to cope with the extra load the vibrations
may cause.
q Undercut trench sides
Excavating machines sometimes undercut the side of a trench. Trench supports or
wider excavation may be necessary to make the trench safe for workers.
q Surface water entering a trench
Water will cause loss of strength in clay, silt and gravelly soils. This may cause
collapse without warning of an unsupported trench.
All surface drainage must be directed away from the trench during construction.
q Worker in trench outside the support system
Work should be performed from within the safety of the trench support system
both when installing and removing timbers (Figure 11).
q Nails or spikes sticking out of timbers
These can cause injury and infection. Unnecessary or unused nails or spikes must
be removed from all trench timbers. As timber is removed it should be denailed
and checked for any damage. It must be stacked clear of installed supports to
safeguard the workers working below.
Damaged timber must not be reused in timber sets.
q Gas pipes near a trench
Provide temporary support for the pipe if it is in close proximity to the excavation.
Remember some gases are heavier than air and will collect as an unseen hazard in
the bottom of the trench. Report the situation to the relevant supply authority.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 22
FIGURE 10: Made up or backfill ground
FIGURE 11: Worker in trench outside of the support system.
FIGURE 12: Machine operating close to workers in a trench.
PAGE 23 EXCAVATION
q Loads supported by walings

Walings are provided in a trench support system to hold back the side or
horizontal pressure exerted by the material in the trench walls.
When walings are also used to support a platform which will carry workmen or
material, extra structural timber is essential to prevent the walings slipping down
the sheeting. The hazard is that the toms may be dislodged leading to collapse of
the support system. Walings and toms and other timber components of trench
support systems shall be hardwood only.
q Wedges in sacrificial sets
Wedges must not be used to force sheeting against the trench face when timber
sets are installed in situations which require them to be left in place after
backfilling.
Wedges can be easily knocked during backfilling and this may cause excessive
movement of the timber supports.
q Machines operating close to workers in a trench
Machinery must not be operated near an excavation in which workers are located.
Machinery must not swing loads over worker's heads (Figure 12).
q Removal of ground support systems
No part of a ground support system shall be removed while workers are still
required to work in a trench or until the trench is ready for final back fill and
compaction.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 24
4. SAFE PRACTICES IN AND AROUND
EXCAVATIONS
Certain excavation work not to be done in isolation

(1) If a person is required to work in an excavated area or in another opening in the
ground, either of which is at least 1.5 metres deep, then a person who, at the workplace, is an
employer, the main contractor or a self-employed person must ensure that the first-mentioned
person does not do any work without at least one other person being present in the immediate
vicinity of the area where the work is being done.
the person, the sides of the excavated area or opening have been assessed by a competent
person to be self-supporting by virtue of the angle of the slope of the sides or the stability of the
matter comprising the sides.
Good housekeeping in and around an excavation area helps it to be a safer place for
workers and the public.
Excavations must be guarded to avoid workers and others, especially children, from
accidentally falling into holes or down a slope. Security must be maintained during
lunch and tea breaks.
Warning devices (signage and lights) and protective barriers must be effective at all
times including outside working hours and at night.
Rain and frost are the more common weather hazards affecting excavations. Wet
conditions on some soils may require cessation of work, but when work recommences,
all drainage channels should be cleared and surfaces should be maintained in a non-skid
manner.
People working in an excavation should not work in isolation and another person
should be present in the immediate vicinity of the excavation at all times.
PAGE 25 EXCAVATION
5. PUBLIC SAFETY AROUND EXCAVATIONS
The safety of the public must be considered where excavation work is carried out.
5.1 DURING WORKING HOURS
q Display warning signs at the work site.

q Set up warning signs on approach roads to the excavation particularly where the
work is not readily visible from a distance.
q Arrange for a traffic controller to warn and control traffic if necessary.
q Provide a temporary by-pass for vehicular traffic.
q Establish access, with direction signs for pedestrians, around or over an
excavation.
q Build temporary barriers such as heaps of sand to prevent accidental vehicle entry
to a hazardous location.
q Erect barriers around the excavation. Refer to the WorkSafe Western Australia
Commission Code of Practice for the Prevention of Falls at Workplaces.
q Do not leave a hazard unguarded during work breaks.
5.2 OUTSIDE WORKING HOURS
q Erect barriers and reflectorised plastic tape or reflectorised plastic tape mesh
around the excavation.
q Provide warning lights.
q Set up reflectorised signs to give advance warning to vehicular traffic.
q Where practicable, arrange construction so that excavation across driveways and
roadways is backfilled before the end of a working day. If this is not practicable
provide access and safety guard rails across the excavation.
5.3 PUBLIC SAFETY GENERALLY
q Where excavation work breaks through security fences around features such as
electricity switchyards, railway protection, swimming pools, etc. temporary
fencing must be provided to maintain security.
q Special precautions will be necessary at excavation work adjacent to schools and
shopping centres. For example: reflectorised plastic tape mesh backed with wire
netting.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 26
6. WORKER SAFETY AROUND EXCAVATIONS
q Access
Proper planning is necessary to give safe access and egress for workers and plant
under normal working conditions. Full provision for the safety and rescue of
workers in the case of an accident must not be overlooked - this includes free
movement of stretchers.
Access to surfaces more than 1 metre above or below ground level should be by
means of:
- ladders;
- stairways; or
- ramps.
In trenches, access ladders should be provided at intervals of not more than
30 metres where people are working and near junctions or angles in the trench
line.
Normal access routes used within an excavation should, whenever practicable,
permit workers to pass along without bumping into obstructions or being hit by
debris. Walking in an excavation should occur on a secure footing without risk of
falling.
In the situation where an excavation or trench is heavily timbered and head room is
limited, access to and from work should be along well defined routes which can be
protected more readily and the use of other routes should not be permitted.
q Separation of traffic
Wherever practicable, the route used to bring out excavated material should be
separated from that used by workers. In a small shaft or drive where it is not
possible to provide separate routes for the two kinds of traffic, the movement of
workers should be forbidden while excavated material or plant is being moved and
vice versa.
In shafts shallow enough for workers on top to see and talk to workers below, no
difficulty should arise, but in shafts of intermediate depth, in which the workers
climb up and down ladders, there is need for an effective signalling system and
there may be a requirement for automatic locking of winding gear while workers
are moving.
Where mechanical haulage is used in small drives, manholes or refuges should be
excavated into the side of the drive to provide shelter from passing traffic. Such
refuges should be of a reasonable size and appropriately spaced on the same side
of the drive.
PAGE 27 EXCAVATION
WORKER SAFETY AROUND EXCAVATIONS
q Secure footing
This is essential for safe access. Loose stones and large rock projections should be
removed and in some cases it may be necessary to provide a timbered walkway to
ensure safe walking. Accumulations of mud should be prevented and sloping
walkways should be cleated or otherwise made slip proof.
q Adequate lighting
Shafts, drives, trenches and open excavation where daylight is insufficient should
be provided with adequate lighting. A suggested minimum is 40 watt lights 12
metres apart or their equivalent. Glare should be guarded against because this,
contrasted with a deficiency of light, increases considerably the risk of falls from
slipping or tripping.
q Protection from falls
(Refer to the WorkSafe Western Australia Commission Code of Practice -
Prevention of Falls at Workplaces).
Where there is a risk of a person falling from an access way, a hand rail, and
sometimes an intermediate rail or a toe board, should be provided to enable
persons to pass more easily and to prevent falls. Ladder runs (take-off to landing)
should be not more than 6 metres and intermediate landings should be provided to
break up any longer runs. At any landing, the ladder below should be offset from
the ladder above so that it is not possible for a person or articles to fall past the
landing. Landing platforms should be fitted with guard rails and toe boards.
Ladders should be placed so that the foot of the ladder is approximately 30
centimetres out for each 90-120 centimetres vertical. A ladder should extend 1
metre above the landing which it serves unless alternative hand holds are provided.
It is particularly important that the rise to the lowest rung is uniform with the rung
spacing. All ladders should be secured against slipping.
q Emergency access and egress
When an emergency occurs, only rescue traffic is to be permitted in the area and
all accessways cleared immediately. Operators must always park their vehicles
clear of access routes (haul roads) to leave adequate clearance for emergency
traffic. Rescue teams will then be able to use routes normally used by plant.
Rescue traffic may well include stretchers and this should be allowed for when
planning details of access throughout the job.
Whenever possible some alternative access should be provided for emergency use.
For example, any open excavation should have a loose ladder handy at the top
which should be left in a place known to all workers and reserved solely for
emergency use. It should be painted red or yellow to emphasise its emergency
role.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 28
Emergency access also implies safe egress from the face of an advancing
excavation. At the face, while supporting timber is being placed, protection
cannot be as good as where the supporting work is completed. This zone of
reduced protection should be kept short by keeping the support as close as
practicable to the face being excavated.
Workers should be provided with a clear run to safety should there be a fall of
earth. This requires the floor of the excavation to be kept as clear as possible of
loose spoil, tools, timber, etc. Full walking headroom should be provided when
practicable in a trench near the working face and constant attention is needed by all
workers and supervisory staff to keep the floor clear of hazards. The provision of
sufficient headroom for safety near the face will often prove difficult and therefore
should receive special attention.
q Ramps and runways
Ramps or runways used for running plant into and out of an excavation must be
constructed of appropriate strength, width and grade for the plant being used.
Ramps intended for use by track vehicles only should be so marked and no other
vehicles should be allowed to use them.
Ramps or runways must normally have a clear width of at least 3.7 metres for non-
passing traffic and at least 6.7 metres when provided for passing traffic and must
be provided with substantial wheel guards where there is any risk of vehicles
slipping sideways into the excavation. (NOTE: A substantial windrow may serve
in some cases). Frequent careful examination and maintenance is needed to keep
ramps in a safe and serviceable condition.
Ramps used for foot traffic within the job should preferably be not steeper than 1
(vertical) in 6 (horizontal) and in no case steeper than 1 in 4 provided cleats are
used. To climb a steeper grade than this, flights of steps alternating with landings
should be used.
q Ladders
Ladders are the best means of access into and exit from an excavation and should
extend at least 1 metre above the top of the excavation.
Properly made access cuts are also acceptable.
Never climb up or down timber or steel supports. Ladders must comply with
Australian Standard AS/NZS 1892.1:1996 Portable ladders - Metal or
AS 1892.2:1992 Portable ladders - Timber.
q Working space
Workers should be kept sufficiently far apart when working to avoid injury from
the use of picks or other tools. (Not closer than 2 metres for picks and shovels.)
This applies particularly to work in trenches and other confined spaces.
PAGE 29 EXCAVATION
q Safety helmets
It is important for persons in and around trenches to wear safety helmets.
(See Regulation 3.36).
q Protection of eyes
Suitable goggles should be worn when there is a risk of eye injury. Flying grit and
chips of rock are two common sources of danger to eyes in excavation work.
q Plant and gear
Work cannot be carried out safely with defective plant or gear. It is the
responsibility of both the employer and the workers to make sure that unsafe or
defective equipment is not used.
q Scaffolding
Scaffolding may be required for any special excavation work. For further
information refer to the WorkSafe Western Australia Commission Code of
Practice for the Prevention of Falls at Workplaces.
q Ventilation
Fumes from petrol or diesel driven machines are a hazard in an excavation.
Portable petrol or diesel engines are not to be permitted to operate within an
enclosed area eg. trench support systems or well liners, etc. For further
information, refer to Australian Standard AS 2865-1995 Safe working in a
confined space for further information.
q Working alone
Persons must not work alone in a trench unless there is another person close by
who can render aid if necessary.
q Dust nuisance
In dry conditions, frequent watering may need to be applied to haul roads and
work areas to reduce the level of nuisance dust. Oiling or sealant may be suitable
for some work areas.
q Drainage
In all excavations the safety of faces depend largely on the effectiveness of steps
taken to control surface and ground water. Where practicable, surface water
should be collected in drains and discharged clear of the working area. All sub-soil
drains found should be effectively cut off and the water led away from the site.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 30
During construction, checks should be made for inflow from seepage and springs.
When found, such inflows should be collected into a sump and pumped clear of the
excavation. Such seepage may cause faces to slump and localised timbering may
be needed. Springs coming through the floor of an excavation may cause
dangerous unstable conditions.
q Additional precautionary measures
Where trenching work is at a remote location, effective means of communication
such as a telephone or two way radio should be available to call for advice in case
of problems or to call for help in emergencies.
In all cases, if there is any uncertainty about the minimum amount of safe trenching
support, it is better to play safe and:
- batter the excavation;
- over-design the support; or
- obtain competent professional advice.
It is desirable to build extra safety features into the support system rather than to
under-design the supports and increase the risk of accidents.
PAGE 31 EXCAVATION
7. SAFE SLOPES
The face of an excavation may be cut back to a safe slope as an alternative to shoring.
Sloping the face may be a safe and cheaper way if there is sufficient space at the site.
A slope is safe when the material is stable. That is, the slope does not flatten when left
for a considerable period, there is no movement of material down the slope and the toe
of the slope remains in the same place.
Different soils, when dumped in heaps, will assume a characteristic shape and settle
naturally at different slopes. The angle which a sloping face of loose earth makes with
the horizontal is known as the angle of repose. However it is poor practice to relate
the safe slope of an excavation to the angle of the repose, even though the slopes may
be similar in some types of soil.
On some excavations, typically those of long term duration, an analysis of soil samples
will enable an engineer experienced in soil mechanics to calculate safe slopes.
However in trenching works of shorter duration this is usually not practicable and
excavated slopes should be sufficiently conservative to avoid the risk of collapse.
The safety of the slope can change if the condition of the soil changes. The presence
of water has a substantial effect on the safe excavated slope of any material. If the
material is wet by rain or seepage water it may slump or flatten out.
The safe slope for a face will depend on the depth of cut, the type, moisture content
and condition of the material in the face and the length of time the face will be
required to stand. The location of any services near the excavation will also affect the
safe slope. In a shallow trench for pipe laying, where the material is uniform and
known to be stable and the trench will be back filled within a short time, vertical faces
may be safe. However the excavation of a vertical sided trench in which workers are
required to work must always be considered as dangerous and engineering advice must
always be obtained.
At depths greater than 3 metres, faces should be benched to stabilise the slopes and to
prevent material from the top of the slopes falling down to the working area. When
benching the sides of a slope, consideration should be given to the width of the bench
where machinery is required to operate.
Support to the face of an excavation can often be effectively provided by the use of
chemical stabilisation techniques which involve injection under pressure of chemical
solutions which bind and solidify soil. This method of stabilisation is only possible in
porous soils and sandy soils and may be expensive. However, under certain
circumstances where space limitations are a major consideration and it is not feasible to
cut the face of an excavation back to a safe slope, chemical injection may be
economical.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 32
SAFE SLOPES
7.1 PLACING THE EXCAVATED MATERIAL
During excavation the toe of the excavated material should never be less than 0.5
metres from the edge of the trench to ensure safe access along both sides of a trench.
If a trench runs across sloping ground, excavated material should normally be placed
on the uphill side of the excavation. This will enable easier backfilling and prevent loss
of stability of excavation machinery which can occur if excavated material is placed on
the downhill side. Care must be taken to ensure material placed on the uphill side does
not increase the risk of flooding by ponding or holding back runoff water.
When a trench is being excavated beside an old service line, excavated material should
be placed on the side opposite the old line, to prevent excessive loading on previously
weakened ground.
When it is necessary to place excavated material close to a trench due to restrictions

such as fences, buildings, trees, etc., toe boards in the form of close sheeting could be
used. It must be remembered that the weight of excavated material may overload the
sides of a trench; the supporting system should, therefore, be strengthened at these
locations.
If excavated material is very close to a trench, it may roll into the excavation. To
prevent this, toe boards should protrude at least 300 millimetres above the toe of the
excavated material.
7.2 COHESIVE STRENGTH AND EARTH PRESSURE
In their natural condition, soils have varying degrees of cohesive strength and frictional
resistance. Examples of materials with virtually no cohesive strength are dry sand,
saturated sand and gravels with minimum clay content. Ground encountered in trench
excavations can generally be categorised as one of three main kinds:
q hard, compact soil;

q soil liable to crack or crumble; or
q loose or running material.
Of these materials, hard compact soil is the type which can cause the most trouble
because the face "looks good" and this often leads to risks being taken; loose or
running material is in most respects the safest because the need for precautions is
obvious from the start; and soil liable to crack or crumble is doubtful, so should be
given careful consideration before the treatment to be given is determined. Useful
information can often be obtained by inquiring from the safety officer and local
authority officers.
PAGE 33 EXCAVATION
SAFE SLOPES
Where there is any doubt about the cohesiveness of a soil, the following simple field
test will help:
Remove a handful of natural soil and mould into a ball with hands. Leave
standing and observe the shape and separation tendencies of the soil over a
period of time.
Non-cohesive faces may be very treacherous, as with just the right amount of moisture
they look, for a short time, safe and solid. Very little loss of water by evaporation will
make the soil crumble just as would an increase in the water content from rain or other
causes.
The figure overleaf shows a typical example of ground failure where a worker is firmly
pinned and crushed by the soil, probably causing internal organ damage, back injury or
broken bones. These injuries may prove fatal (Figure 13).
A buried worker is likely to die from suffocation before help arrives, and is in a far
more critical situation than a worker suffering only from internal injuries: either the
head is buried, or the chest is so restricted by the weight of ground that the worker can
no longer breathe.
Evaluating pressure on a trench wall is a complex matter requiring consideration of a

number of factors including soil type, moisture content, effect of the weight of the
excavated material and adjacent machinery loadings, and should be undertaken only by
competent persons experienced in such matters.
Other than in the simplest situation of shallow battered trenches, professional advice on
the need and application of ground support systems should be sought.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 34
SAFE SLOPES
FIGURE 13: Trench collapse and associated ground forces.
(a) This is a very dangerous situation, (b) Shear plane failure along the seepage
requiring ground support. It is a prohibited (slippage) plane.
activity. As the excavation is greater than
1.5 metres deep, no worker should be in the
trench unless support has been installed.
1. Area of tension, as wall starts to collapse.
2. Slipping plane.
3. Seepage along the slippage plane further
reduces the stability of the wall. Water
seeping into the excavation, tension cracks
on the surface and bulging side walls are all
sings of imminent collapse.
Seepage in the trench bottom may not be
obvious until the actual collapse.
(c) Worker trapped and crushed against the (d) Worker badly injured and probably
trench wall by the quick collapse. smothered after being crushed against
opposite wall by the collapsing ground. The
weight of a wedge of sand over a one metre
length of trench is about three tonnes; more
than enough to crush a worker’s chest.
PAGE 35 EXCAVATION
8. TYPES OF EXCAVATIONS
The ground support system chosen will depend on the nature of the excavation being
undertaken.
Careful consideration must be given to safety where excavation work is other than
shallow trenching. Excavation for deep sewers will always involve hazards.
The Regulations do not state what support is required for the diversity of excavation
work which may be carried out. In such situations the ground support system should
be approved in writing by a suitably qualified engineer. A variety of excavation
techniques are considered in this code of practice.
8.1 MECHANICAL EXCAVATION - OPEN CUT
Bulldozers, excavators and other types of equipment are commonly used for open cut
excavation.
For all excavations, operators must know:

q the line;
q the final depth of the excavation;
q the approximate width of the excavation at the top; and
q the location of any services or other hazards.
The excavation line and any services or hazards should be marked. In the case of a
trench, it should be marked along the centre of the proposed excavation.
Safe disposal of excavated material involves consideration of:
q where pipes have been temporarily positioned on the ground;
q the placement of manifolds and spears and the location and positioning of
discharge pipes associated with dewatering plant in the case of wet ground;
q unusual obstacles or conditions existing, such as buildings, trees, power lines and
sloping ground;
q distance of excavated material away from the excavation; and
q the need to ensure access and egress are not prevented.
As the excavation increases in depth the sides must be battered to prevent collapse.
The bulk of this work is done by the machine, but in deep excavations, trimming must
be carried out by hand. This is accomplished by shovelling or pushing the dirt with a
long handled tool or shovel to the bottom of the excavation where it is picked up by
the excavation equipment.
Care must be taken to avoid over excavation. Frequent “boning” or levelling is
necessary. Hand trimming of the excavation is often required.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 36
TYPES OF EXCAVATIONS
8.2 MECHANICAL EXCAVATION IN CLAY, LIMESTONE AND ROCK

This excavation requires either backhoes, trench diggers or bulldozers with back
rippers. The latter is used to tear up surfaces and is used extensively where there is
enough room for bulldozers to operate.
Whichever method is used, the operator must be given the exact depth and width of
cut.
Where backhoes are used, special buckets with teeth fitted are available to assist with
the breaking up of the materials to be excavated.
Clay is often difficult to excavate by open cut. In streets or in built up areas the
excavation may have to be fully or partly timbered.
When clay is not fully saturated, or when pile driving occurs at the bottom of the
excavation, the banks should be braced by tomming between lathes placed vertically no
more than 1 metre apart against the banks.
Generally the works program should, if possible, be organised so that excavation is

avoided in clay areas during winter.
8.3 MECHANICAL EXCAVATION - BLASTING

All explosives handled in the course of blasting operations shall be under the direct
supervision of a licensed shot firer, in liaison with the Department of Minerals and
Energy (DOME).
On occasions blasting operations are undertaken as an aid to excavation in rock,

limestone and clay.
Blasting must be on a very limited scale in built up areas and should only take place
after all nearby buildings have been thoroughly inspected, photographed if required and
recorded. Adequate warning signs must be displayed and all precautions against flying
material taken by the use of pegged or weighted blasting mats or similar aids. In open
country it is possible to make maximum use of explosives. With shallow trenches, up
to 2 metres deep, the ground can often be broken up to its full depth in the one
operation. In deeper trenches, benching would have to be undertaken.
It is important that all drilling for blasting be carried out as quickly as possible and
blasting be conducted soon after to avoid the possibility of extraneous matter entering
drill holes. It is good practice to temporarily plug drill holes prior to charging. If
extraneous material is allowed to enter drill holes the amount of charge possible in
each hole will be reduced thereby diminishing the force of the explosion and
fragmentation of the rock.
PAGE 37 EXCAVATION
The possibility of misfires will also be increased as will the amount of secondary
drilling of unbroken rock. It is important to count the number of charged holes prior
to blasting and identify any misfires which occur.
A movable rotary percussion drilling rig is generally used for the above drilling
operations.
If drilling is to be carried out by hand drills it is important that an adequate supply of

compressed air and sufficient air drills be supplied to minimise delays.
Although any drilling activity will involve risks of manual handling injury, the use of
hand drills will create additional manual handling hazards which must be considered
during excavation operations. The use of hand drilling equipment will also involve
risks of vibration injuries occurring which must be assessed and controlled.
8.4 DRAG LINES AND EXCAVATION EQUIPMENT
Selection of the drag line or excavator best suited to the task is made by considering
the following factors:
q depth of excavation;
q amount and disposal of excavated material.
Trench diggers, backhoes or similar, are used mainly in:

q sand to depths of 1.5m; or
q softer clay and limestone to depths of 2.15m.
8.5 BULLDOZERS - SCRAPERS
These are sometimes used in the excavation operations, either for:

q the entire excavation; or
q removing the top of the excavation for subsequent excavation by a drag line.
It is economical to use bulldozers and scrapers to complete the whole excavation

where, for example, large diameter pipes have to be set and the bottom of a trench is
1.8 metres to 2.1 metres wide. They may also be used where hard rock is present.
Most modern bulldozers have hydraulically operated rippers at the back of the machine
which are capable of loosening the hardest of sedimentary rocks. This material may
then be bulldozed away. This method frequently proves more economical than drilling
and blasting the rock.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 38
Another use for bulldozers and scrapers is to remove the top soil layers for deep sandy
excavations.
Bulldozers are generally limited to working in open country where large areas are
available for disposal of soil.
Excavating equipment such as bulldozers should not operate close to an overhang or a

deep excavation as the weight may collapse the sides. Equipment should always
approach embankments or trenches from across the line of trench rather than parallel
to the trench line.
8.6 HAND EXCAVATION - SAND
This is usually a simple operation. In trenching it must not be carried out to a depth
greater than 1.5 metres unless the trench is shored to prevent collapse or the sides
made self supporting by virtue of their slope.
8.7 HAND EXCAVATION IN CLAY AND LIMESTONE
Excavation in this ground is carried out with the aid of powered tools, spade heads
being the most suitable tool head in average clay and a pick or pointed head in
limestone. Hand picks and mattocks are often used in smaller operations.
PAGE 39 EXCAVATION
9. GROUND SUPPORT SYSTEMS
Shoring in excavations etc.

(1) If, at a workplace —
(a) any excavation work or earthwork is to be done and there is a risk that the
matter forming, or adjacent to, the excavated area or the earthwork may fall or
dislodge; or
(b) a person is required to work in an excavated area or other opening in the
ground that is at least 1.5 metres deep,
then a person who, at the workplace is an employer, the main contractor or a self-employed
person must ensure that while a person is working in or near the excavation or earthwork, the
excavation or earthwork is shored in a manner which will prevent it from collapsing or moving.
the person, the sides of the excavation or earthwork have been assessed by a competent person
to be self-supporting by virtue of the angle of the slope of the sides or the stability of the matter
comprising the sides.
A number of techniques may be used to ensure safe excavation practices for different
depths of excavation. The technique employed will be influenced by many factors such
as the depth of the excavation, its location and the nature of the soil.
The most basic excavation technique does not require any ground support system at
all.
9.1 TRENCH EXCAVATIONS WITHOUT SHORING
Shoring is not required by the Regulations in certain circumstances. Where it has been
decided to carry out excavation work without shoring, the employer should be satisfied
that the conditions met during construction suit the method adopted. If conditions
during construction are not as expected, or if conditions change during the course of
the work, action must be taken immediately to safeguard workers, other persons and
property, by changing construction methods or, if necessary, by temporarily
suspending work.
For a trench to be excavated without shoring, the sides must be cut back to a safe
slope such that the material in the sides is able to stand under all anticipated conditions
of work and weather.
The stability of any excavated face depends on the strength of the soil in the face being
greater at all times than the stresses it is made to take.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 40
GROUND SUPPORT SYSTEMS
The following situations all increase soil stresses in a face and may lead to possible
failure under adverse weather conditions or vibration:
q deep cuts and steep slopes, by removal of the natural side support of the excavated
material;
q loads on the ground surface near the top of the face, such as excavated material,
digging equipment or other construction plant and material;
q shock and vibration, which could be caused by pile-driving, blasting, passing loads
or vibration producing plant;
q water pressure from ground water flow, which fills cracks in the soil, increases the
horizontal stresses and the possibility of undermining; and
q saturation of soil, which increases the weight and in some cases the volume of the
soil.
Soil strength may be reduced by the following:
q excess water pressure in sandy soil which may cause boils; it may saturate the soil
and increase its plasticity;
q dryness of the soil, which causes reduction of cohesion in sandy soil and soils high
in organic content. They then crumble readily;
q prolonged stress, which may cause plastic deformity (squeezing or flowing); and
q prolonged inactivity at an excavation site. Where this occurs an evaluation of the
soil should be undertaken before work recommences.
9.2 CUTTING THE FACE OF AN EXCAVATION TO A SAFE SLOPE
The safe slope for faces will depend on the depth of cut, the type and condition of
material in the face and the length of time the face will be required to stand. In a
shallow trench where the material is uniform and known to be stable and the trench
will be back filled within a short time, vertical faces may be safe for depths of up to 1.5
metres.
A safe slope may be judged by the careful examination of the size, shape, nature and
bedding of the material in the face. However, it also requires experience, judgement
and knowledge of the local area.
All loose or hanging rock should be removed and frequent examinations are necessary
for this purpose as climatic action can quickly loosen such faces.
PAGE 41 EXCAVATION
Where the excavation exceeds 3 metres in depth it should be benched. Faces over
3 metres high should be benched to stabilise the slopes and to prevent material from
the top of the slopes falling down to the working area. Benches should be at about
3 metres vertical intervals and should not be less than 1.2 metres wide and should be
sloped to reduce the possibility of water scouring.
For large excavations, face slopes and widths of benches should be determined by the
size and type of excavating machinery used. On large works, detailed construction
planning should be carried out and be approved by a suitably qualified engineer before
work commences.
Where faces cannot be cut to a safe slope for reasons of economy or otherwise, a
number of alternative measures exist.
9.3 CLOSED SHEETING
This is the primary method of ground support when unstable ground conditions, such
as in soft ground or ground liable to be wet during excavation such as sand, silt or soft
moist clay, are encountered and there is danger of the ground running or collapsing.
Walers and toms are installed as soon as practicable during the excavation process.
Vertical closed sheeting is then inserted. When using this method of excavation,
capping over the toms should extend to the full width of the trench, as these support
the timber toms.
Bearers are used to support the set of toms and walers. To ensure that walers are
correctly located, toms are secured to the walers (Figure 14).
9.4 TELESCOPIC SETS
When unstable ground, such as wet sand, is being excavated, and the excavation
exceeds 5 metres in depth, it may be necessary to excavate the trench in two stages,
upper and lower. A section of the upper stage should be excavated and supported
first. The lower section should then be sheet piled, excavated and supported through
the interior of the upper support system without damaging the upper system or
creating a dangerous situation in the lower level. Considerable expertise is needed to
do this properly; a person inexperienced in this double support system should obtain
expert assistance.
This method of trench support is slow and costly, requiring great care to ensure the
correct degree of support and safety. If a deep excavation collapses on a person, the
result could be fatal. The method should only be used after consultation with
contractors and authorities who have experience in close timber sheeted
excavations (Figure 15).
EXCAVATION PAGE: 42
9.5 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TIMBER SHORING OF TRENCHES
MAXIMUM
DEPTH OF WALINGS WALINGS STRUTS STRUTS
TRENCH
Max
Min Member Max Vertical Min Member
Horizontal
(Metres) Size Spacing Size
Spacing
(Millimetres) (Metres) (Millimetres)
(Metres)
3.0 125 x 125 1.5 125 x 125 1.8
125 x 125 0.9 125 x 125 2.4
100 x 100 0.8 100 x 100 1.8
100 x 100 0.5 100 x 100 2.4
4.5 125 x 125 1.0 125 x 125 1.8
125 x 125 0.6 125 x 125 2.4
100 x 100 0.5 100 x 100 1.8
6.0 125 x 125 0.80 125 x 125 1.8
125 x 125 0.45 125 x 125 2.4
NOTE:
1. For dry and moist sandy soil conditions only.

2. Use karri with F14 minimum stress grade or hardwood timber of equal strength.
3. Minimum sheeting board size - 235 millimetres x 38 millimetres.
4. Strut sizes detailed assume a maximum trench width of 3 metres.
5. Strut sizes detailed assume only compression forces applied, no direct bending
forces.
6. Only waling and strut details on the same line relate.
7. The waling spacing nominated for a particular depth trench is to apply for the
entire depth.
8. If the above specifications can not be achieved, a structural engineer will need to
approve the amended specifications.
PAGE 43 EXCAVATION
FIGURE 14: Closed sheeting; vertical timber trench support in loose or

running ground, for trenches with a maximum depth of 5.0 metres.
1. Maximum distance between bearers, 13. Timber walkway with joints over bearers.
3.5m. 14. Minimum height.
2. Maximum distance between tom, 2.4m. 15. Waling joints over bearers.
3. Waling minimum size, 100mm x 100mm. 16. Pressure boards below bearers.
4. Maximum spacing between walers, 0.8m.
5. Cap. 17. Bearers from which all sets are
6. Tom. suspended, or on which top set of
7. Bearer. walings and struts are placed; minimum
8. Lacing to support timber waling, size 100mm x 100mm. Where bearers
minimum size 75mm x 25mm. are used to provide access over trench,
9. Vertical sheeting driven securely into minimum access width is 450mm
trench bottom. requiring 5 bearers. Access should not
10. Twin toms, minimum size 100mm x occur at tom points. Guard rails must be
100mm. provided to both sides of access.
11. Central capped tom. 18. Capping over toms and bearers, 100mm
12. Vertical timber sheeting, minimum size, x 25mm.
235mm x 38mm. 19. Two bearers accompanied by two capped
toms should be used to ensure full
support of waling joints
EXCAVATION PAGE: 44
FIGURE 15: Telescopic set

Note: All measurements in millimetres
PAGE 45 EXCAVATION
Stability of affected buildings etc.

If any excavation work or earthwork to be done at a workplace is likely to adversely affect the
stability of any building or structure or any road then a person who, at the workplace, is an
employer, the main contractor or a self-employed person must ensure that the work is not
commenced or continued unless the stability of the building or structure or the road is protected
by sheet piling, shoring, bracing, guying or other appropriate means.
9.6 SACRIFICIAL SETS
Sacrificial sets are designed to prevent the undermining of existing foundations such as
where a trench is positioned next to a building. As they stay in the ground indefinitely,
they are made from jarrah.
These are used in the case of protection of buildings and are placed and sunk in a
similar manner to standard karri sets.
9.7 SOLDIER SETS
The soldier set is a common form of trench support set which can be formed with
timber or steel. This system is mostly used in rock, stiff clays and in other soil types
having similar properties. Unlike closed sheeting sets, soldier sets retain the earth
where there may be a fault in the embankment (Figure 16).
EXCAVATION PAGE: 46
1. Spoil heap at least 500mm clear of 9. Soldier resting securely on trench bottom.
excavation allows access along both sides of 10. Maximum spacing between soldier sets
the trench top and prevents material from the 1.5m.
heap rolling into the trench. 11. Soldier, minimum size 150mm x 38mm.
2. Toms placed from surface with special 12. Tom, minimum size 150mm x 38mm.
timbering tongs. 13. Tom should be long enough to force
3. Soldiers must protrude 500mm above the top soldiers firmly against trench sides. To
of the trench. prevent excessive bowing of soldiers
4. Spoil heap or pile. against irregular trench sides, wood
5. Top tom no longer lower than 300mm from packing, between the trench wall and the
the trench top. soldier, may be used.
6. For added side support, steel jacks may 14. Space between the bottom tom and
replace timber tom. Maximum spacing of trench floor should be sufficient to allow
steel jacks to be no more than 1.0m if timber installation of a pipe-nominally, no more
soldiers used. than 1000mm.
7. Maximum spacing of toms no more than
750mm.
8. Cleats securely nailed to soldiers before
placing soldiers in trench.
FIGURE 16: Typical use of timber soldier sets in a trench no more than 3.5m
deep.
PAGE 47 EXCAVATION
9.8 ALTERNATIVE SOLDIER SET: HYDRAULIC SUPPORT SYSTEMS
Due to their relatively high cost, hydraulic support systems are mainly used to provide
mobile ground support while soldier sets are being installed.
It should be noted that these travelling support systems may become unreliable if not
properly maintained and properly used. Frequent inspections of pressure hoses and
rams are necessary to detect abrasion, fatigue or damage such as bent or notched rams.
Ground pressures should be considered prior to installation of these supports; it is
dangerous to rely on a hydraulic support system which is under-designed in relation to
the ground pressure. If this situation is likely, ground supports should be doubled.
When two hydraulic ground support sets (A and B) are installed no more than 1.5
metres apart, the area between these sets can be considered to be supported; workers
can enter this area to erect a timber soldier set (C) midway between sets A and B.
One of the travelling sets (A) may then be removed and placed on the other side of set
B, no further than 1.5 metres away. Three ground support sets are then operational in
the trench in this order: timber soldier set C, travelling support set B, travelling support
set A. The ground between travelling sets B and A is supported and workers may
enter this area of excavation to erect another timber soldier set (D) ensuring that the
distance between timber sets C and D is no more than 1.5 metres. There are now four
ground support sets, in this order: timber soldier set C, travelling support set B, timber
soldier set D, and travelling support set A. Travelling support set B may then be lifted
out and placed on the other side of travelling support set A, whereupon another timber
soldier set may be erected between A and B. This leap-frogging of the two travelling
support sets is continued down the length of the trench, leaving behind a timber soldier
set each time a travelling support set moves.
When a trench has been fully supported by timber soldier sets, the travelling support
sets should be dismantled to prevent costly damage. After they have been inspected,
the hydraulic supports should be repaired, if necessary, and carefully stored away
(Figure 17).
EXCAVATION PAGE: 48
A, B = Timber
hydraulic set
C, D = Timber
solder set
FIGURE 17: How

the hydraulic
support system
works.
PAGE 49 EXCAVATION
9.9 TUNNELLING
Generally tunnelling is effective when excavations are required at great depth.

Tunnelling is usually done using steel shields, however all excavation for tunnelling
must be supported. It is a specialised aspect of excavation work.
As a general rule the use of steel shields becomes economical at depths greater than 6
metres for a timbered trench and 7 metres for an open cut trench. This is only a
general rule and a final decision is only made after careful consideration. Tunnelling of
a complex nature requires engineering design and engineering supervision.
Standard steel shields and cylinders telescoped inside each other are frequently used to
give a cover section greater than 2.4 metres under roads.
Usually recoverable steel shields are used to hold back the soil whilst excavation is
taking place. If it is important that no settlement takes place over the cover section at
future dates, steel cylinders which are left in the ground are used.
9.10 SHAFTS
A vertical opening or inclined development opening into a mine for the purposes of
raising or lowering people and equipment or for the provision of ventilation is covered
by regulations under the Mines Safety and Inspection Act.
Comparatively shallow shafts sunk for investigating or constructing foundations for

bridges, dewatering or providing openings to underground facilities should be guarded
by a suitable rail and toe-board with gate rail for access. The sides of the shaft must be
supported by sets of timber or steel frames. In special cases support can be provided
by installing pre-cast concrete or steel caissons.
Shafts usually have special features and expert advice must be obtained before
installation. In some cases ventilation may have to be provided.
9.11 SIDE LACING
Side lacing is designed primarily to ensure worker safety by preventing banks from
slipping by the placement of fill behind timber boards or steel plates. Side lacing is
used in all types of ground and is particularly useful where long or large diameter pipes
are to be installed and in variable ground conditions where timber supports are difficult
to install.
Side lacing must be firmly wedged into the ground to prevent it from moving when fill
is placed against it.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 50
When side lacings are used as the only means of ensuring safety in the trench, workers
should not:
q enter the excavation prior to the installation of side lacing;

q work inside a trench, outside the protection of side lacing;
q enter the excavation after side lacing has been removed; and
q enter an area where there is side lacing other than by a ladder.
The design of side lacing should be carried out by an engineer experienced in the work.
The installation and removal of side lacing should be carried out by an experienced and
certificated crane operator or by an experienced backhoe operator (Figure 18).
9.12 METAL BOXES OR SHIELDS
Other types of ground support systems involves the use of metal boxes or shields for
trenching. Metal boxes or shields may be used as an alternative to timber and are
mainly used where runs are long and relatively uninterrupted, and where access is
available for cranage to lower and raise the boxes or shields into and out of a trench.
They are generally not suitable where access is difficult and ground conditions prevent
the use of cranage.
Metal boxes or shields must be designed by an engineer and constructed to withstand

the earth pressures of particular trench depths, and incorporate lifting points or lugs for
installation and removal. They usually incorporate flexible struts or joints to facilitate
removal from the trench.
Many different system configurations presently in use are available for hire or
purchase.
Different configurations will involve different installation and removal techniques.
Unlike the use of timber for trench support where timber sizes and configurations have
become standard over time, the many variations possible from unique and innovative
design of metal boxes provide considerable scope for increased productivity. Use of
metal boxes and shields should be supervised by a competent person.
The Act requires that suppliers of plant and equipment ensure that the design and
construction is such that persons who properly install, maintain or use the plant or
equipment are not exposed to hazards.
PAGE 51 EXCAVATION
FIGURE 18: Trench support in sand.

Steel soldier sets. Horizontal timber sheeting boards (side
lacing).
Maximum trench depth 2 metres.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 52
10. REMOVAL OF SHORING
Removal of sets should be done from the surface or from a supported area of trench.
There are two recommended methods of removal, both of which require workers in the
trench during dismantling.
For both methods, consideration should be given to compaction of backfill material as

the work progresses.
Under no circumstances should shoring be partly removed unless it is for the purpose
of complete removal and backfilling.
METHOD 1
Without entering the excavation, workers push the excavated material back into the
trench along the entire length so that it is level with the bottom set of toms. They then
enter the trench and remove all bottom toms. When they leave the trench, it is
backfilled to the next level of toms. The lowest toms are again removed in the same
way. This is repeated until all the toms have been recovered, after which it is safe to
remove the soldiers by means of a back-hoe and chains or lifting lug. Backfilling is
then completed. This is the preferred method (Figure 19).
METHOD 2
With this method, backfilling progresses from one end of the trench to the other: a
useful practice when a trench has restricted access.
Backfill is placed in the trench until it begins to run over the bottom tom. A worker
then approaches and removes this bottom tom. After the worker has left the trench or
has gone behind a complete soldier set, more backfill is added until it reaches the next
tom in the set being dismantled; this tom is then removed. The procedure is repeated
until all the toms of the set have been recovered. The two soldiers are then removed
and the excavation is backfilled until the fill reaches the bottom tom of the next set.
The process is repeated along the whole length of the trench.
Method 2 is less satisfactory than Method 1 because the area in front of the set being
dismantled has uncompacted soil to stabilise its walls, and these walls must frequently
withstand the additional weight of the excavator which backfills the trench.
The second method is also less efficient because backfill does not extend along the
whole length of the trench, from bottom tom to bottom tom. This means that the area
of partially unsupported ground around a worker in the trench is increased after the
bottom tom has been removed (Figure 20).
PAGE 53 EXCAVATION
REMOVAL OF SHORING
SHORING FOR SAFETY

THE WHOLE PURPOSE OF SHORING EXCAVATION IS DEFEATED IF
WORKERS EXPOSE THEMSELVES TO HAZARDS WHILE EITHER
INSTALLING OR REMOVING TIMBERING.
Trench must be filled

to the level of the
bottom toms before
workers can be
allowed into
excavation to remove
the bottom row of
toms.
1. Backfill must
reach the level of the
bottom tom.
For added side

support during the
removal process,
while workers are still
in the trench, the
soldiers should be left
in place until all the
toms have been
removed, and then
extracted with a
backhoe.
2. Soldiers are pulled out last, after the removal of the top tom.
3. The top tom is removed from the surface or from the trench after backfill has been
placed to the level of the top tom.
FIGURE 19: Removing soldier set ground supports. METHOD 1.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 54
REMOVAL OF SHORING
The trench must be backfilled to the

level of the bottom tom before the
tom is removed.
1. A small mobile front end
loader should be used for
backfilling. Heavy
excavators should be
avoided as they place an
enormous load on the
trench walls and cause
excessive vibration.
2. Partially unsupported ground.
Since the soldier provides side-

support near the set being
dismantled, the set should be
removed by the excavator only
after the trench has been
completely backfilled.
3. The worker is in a
dangerous situation.
Workers should not be in
front of Set A while an
excavator is backfilling.
FIGURE 20: Removing soldier set ground supports. METHOD 2.
PAGE 55 EXCAVATION
11. STEEL SHEET PILING
11.1 USES OF STEEL SHEET PILING
Steel sheet piling is generally used on major excavations such as large building
foundations or where large embankments must be held back. It is also used where an
excavation is in close proximity to adjoining buildings.
The use of steel sheet piling is a similar method of trench support to closed sheeting,
but does not need as much expertise and time. However, skill is necessary to safely
install walers and toms which support the steel sheet piling (Figure 21).
There are several types on the market, usually having similar applications.
11.2 FORMING STEEL SHEET PILINGS
Steel sheet piling is formed from plates which are pickled and oiled before rolling. The
surface of the sheets is therefore made perfectly clean and free from rust or mill scale.
It is considered necessary to add to the effective life of the sheeting by providing a
protective coating. The sheets can be coated with a tar base paint after the oil has been
removed.
11.3 DRIVING STEEL SHEET PILING
Correct driving procedure and the provision of simple temporary timber falsework will
ensure that the sheeting is driven as rapidly and economically as possible. This is
particularly important if interlocking types are driven to form a permanent retaining
wall, occupying a conspicuous place in the finished work.
The interlocking sections may show a tendency to lean over in the direction of driving.
This tendency is common to all types of sheet piling. It can usually be overcome by
interlocking the sheets in panels before driving them.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 56
STEEL SHEET PILING
1. Centre capped single tom.

2. Hanging bar; minimum diametre, 15mm mild steel
bar.
3. Sheet piling.
4. Minimum height of sheet piling above surface,
300mm.
5. Waling; minimum size, 3500mm x 100mm x
100mm.
6. Twin toms; minimum size 100mm x 100mm.
7. Twin capping; minimum size 100mm x 25mm
8. Maximum distance between twin toms, 3500mm.
9. Maximum distance between toms, 1750mm.
10. Twin steel jacks should be used where extra
strength is required due to heavy loading.
Note: All measurements in millimetres
FIGURE 21: Sheet piling in unstable ground.

Sheet piling may be used when ground is so unstable that side wall
collapse would be likely immediately after excavation, i.e. in loose and
running sand.
In such cases, sheet piling must be carried out before excavating.
PAGE 57 EXCAVATION
12. INTERNAL PROPPING AND ALLUVIAL
ANCHORING
The two methods of supporting steel sheet piling are:
12.1 INTERNAL PROPPING
Generally the work area is restricted and when the total area is to be used, special
provisions have to be made to enable props to be removed. This can be difficult and a
problem if the excavation is wet.
12.2 ALLUVIAL ANCHORS
An alluvial anchor is a tie back to the soil behind the structure requiring support. It
can be said an alluvial anchor is a cast in situ pile resisting tension forces only.
Alluvial anchors may be installed in either granular or clay soils. The design of alluvial
anchors should be carried out by an engineer experienced in the work.
One or more horizontal rows of alluvial anchors at various spacings may be used. The
spacings and sizes depend on the type of soil, the loads to be resisted or the physical
limitations of the method used to install the anchors. These factors also determine the
dip angle of the anchor.
Alluvial anchors can be installed using patented alluvial anchor rigs, modified drilling
rigs or patented and modified pile driving rigs.
In granular soil the anchorage zone is a plug of grout located behind the active soil
limit line. This plug resists the tension force induced in the stressing cables, due to the
shear and cohesion forces developed along its length.
These forces are due to the overburden. Removal of soil above installed alluvial
anchors should only be carried out after approval has been received from an engineer.
It is possible that removal of the soil between the retaining wall and the active soil limit
line may cause the retaining wall to bend. This bending will release the load in the
stressing cable and hence render the alluvial anchor useless and dangerous to workers
within the excavation. On replacement of the soil, the alluvial anchor may not develop
its original load carrying capacity; also the anchorage of the stressing cable at the face
of the retaining wall may be dislodged or loosened - this depends on the type of
stressing cable and the respective anchoring systems. While the alluvial anchoring
system is operative, periodic checks with hydraulic jacks and pressure gauges are used
to assess anchor behaviour over extra long periods.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 58
INTERNAL PROPPING AND ALLUVIAL
ANCHORING
FIGURE 22: Alluvial Anchors - for supporting steel sheet piling
PAGE 59 EXCAVATION
13. STEEL TRENCH SHEETING
Other methods of excavation may require the use of steel trench sheeting. Trench
sheeting is simply a lighter section of sheet piling. It is positioned and pneumatically
driven in to final depth. Toms and walings are placed into position as the soil is
excavated. Timber can be used but generally it has been found more efficient to use
adjustable props (Figure 23).
FIGURE 23: Steel Trench sheeting
EXCAVATION PAGE: 60
14. HAMMERS AND DRIVING CAPS
Steel sheeting may be driven by any type of compressed air-operated jack hammer. In
some cases a sledge hammer or heavy maul may be used. The potential for manual
handling injuries to occur in this operation is very high and must be addressed prior to
commencement of driving of steel sheet piling. Any projections on the underside of
the anvil of jack hammers must be removed, to prevent damage to the driving cap and
potential injury to the operator.
Whatever type of hammer is used, it is essential to protect the heads of the sheets with
a special alloy cast steel cap which is provided for that purpose. If the cap is omitted
the sheets will become damaged and the tops will need trimming before the sheets can
be re-driven. The cap can be handled and placed on top of the sheets without difficulty
(Figure 24).
FIGURE 24: Showing trench sheeting, diving cap and trench struts.
PAGE 61 EXCAVATION
15. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Backfill Material used for refilling trenches and excavations.
Batter The stable, formed slope of an excavation or earth bank, cut to

an angle usually less than the natural angle of repose to prevent
earth slippage.
Bearer A structural hardwood timber member, supported on foundation

walls, piers or piles.
Bench A foundation on an inclined bearing stratum cut in steps to

provide horizontal bearing and sliding resistance.
Boning The operation of setting out levels by sighting over boning rods
whereby, from two given points, other points at the same level,
or on the same gradient, may be established.
Capping Hardwood timber nailed to toms to help position the tom

between the walers.
Cleat Hardwood block nailed to soldiers to locate and support toms.
Close sheeting Vertical hardwood timbers used to fully cover and support trench
wall.
Drive An excavation made below the surface of the ground, its longer
axis being horizontal or less than 45 degrees from horizontal.
Face A sloping exposed surface (usually steep) resulting from the

excavation of material.
Filling Any ground (usually compacted to some degree) made from

excavated material
Lacing Hardwood timber used to position and suspend walers.
Lagging Lengths of sawn hardwood timber planks used to support the

sides, walls or roof as necessary of shafts and drives and to
prevent material from those faces falling into the excavation. The
term is also sometimes used when referring to the layer of poling
boards doing the same duty in trenches. The lagging is supported
in turn by walkings, legs, caps, sets or frames, as applicable. (See
also "lathes" below).
EXCAVATION PAGE: 62
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Lathes Short lengths of hardwood timber usually split and about 1.25 to
1.5 metres long used to support the side walls (and roof in
drives) and supported in turn by walings, legs or caps as
applicable.
Safe Slope The steepest slope to which an excavated face is stable against
slips and slides, having regard to the qualities of the material in
the face, the height of the face, the load above the face and the
moisture conditions for the time being existing.
Sets Usually of timber (hardwood). A complete assembly of legs and

cap (or arch ring) erected at a cross section of a drive (vertical)
or a shaft (horizontal) to support soldiers or walls and/or roof.
Sometimes used in trenching to define an assembly of struts and
soldiers at a cross section supporting the sides of a trench.
Shaft An excavation made below the surface of the ground, its longer
axis being vertical or less than 45 degrees from vertical.
Sheet Piling Vertical, close-spaced, or interlocking planks of hardwood

timber, steel, reinforced concrete or other structural material
driven to form a continuous wall ahead of the excavation and
supported either by tie-backs into solid ground, or by progressive
strutting (with walings as needed) from within the excavation as
the work proceeds.
Shore A substantial prop of hardwood timber or other material used in

direct compression to give temporary support. It may be
horizontal (as a flying shore, ie, between 2 walls without direct
support from the ground) or inclined as a raking shore, ie, the top
end supporting a wall or similar and the bottom end supported by
the ground in the floor of the excavation usually with the addition
of a foot block.
Shoring Providing support by means of a shore or a system of shores.
Soil All materials encountered from the ground surface down to

bedrock.
Soldier Vertical upright hardwood timber used for supporting a trench

wall, taking the thrust from horizontal walings and supported by
struts.
PAGE 63 EXCAVATION
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Spoil pile Excavated material.
Strut Hardwood timber (usually horizontal) in compression resisting

thrust or pressure from the face or faces of an excavation.
Tom (strut) Horizontal hardwood timber used to hold soldiers against a

trench wall or to press walers apart in a close sheeted trench.
Trench A long, narrow, open excavation made below the surface of the
ground and in which the horizontal width across the top is less
than twice the vertical depth of the deeper side.
Virgin ground Ground which is undisturbed and in situ, as distinct from

transported, made-up or backfill material.
Waler Horizontal timber used to hold close sheeting in position.
Wall Plate A horizontal timber along each side of the top heading of a drive,
supporting the arch rings and in turn supported by the legs as the
bench is excavated. Used in "top heading and bench" method of
driving.
EXCAVATION PAGE: 64

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Government of

WorkSafe Western Australia Commission

This code of practice provides practical guidance to employers, contractors, employees,

Who should use this code of practice?

The WorkSafe Western Australia Commission is grateful to the Water Corporation,

1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR MANAGING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

3. DAILY SITE INSPECTIONS 16

6. WORKER SAFETY AROUND EXCAVATIONS 27

9. GROUND SUPPORT SYSTEMS 40

10. REMOVAL OF SHORING 53

12. INTERNAL PROPPING AND ALLUVIAL ANCHORING 58

13. STEEL TRENCH SHEETING 60

1.1 LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA

OCCUPATIONAL • The General Duties

The Occupational Safety and Health Regulations

• Codes of Practice approved for Western

1.2 ACCESS TO ACT, REGULATIONS AND OTHER RELEVANT

Employers are required to provide information to employees, to alert them to areas

Persons at workplaces to have access to Act etc.

1.3 THE GENERAL DUTIES - AN OVERVIEW

q provide a workplace and safe system of work so that, as far as practicable,

Designers or builders of a building or structure for use as a workplace must ensure, so

1.4 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION, RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK

The Act: Section 19 states (in part)

Identification of hazards, and assessing and addressing risks, at workplaces

(a) identify each hazard to which a person at the workplace is likely to be

The regulation outlines three basic steps:

1.4.1 Identifying hazards

There are a number of ways of identifying potential sources of injury or disease.

Methods of identifying workplace hazards include:

A HAZARD MEANS ANYTHING THAT MAY RESULT IN INJURY OR HARM

HAZARD EXAMPLES OUTCOMES

1.4.2 Analysing and assessing risks

RISK, IN RELATION TO ANY INJURY AND HARM, MEANS THE

q frequency of injury - how often is the hazard likely to result in an injury or

Risk assessment should include:

1.4.3 Identifying control measures

TABLE 2 - Hierarchy or preferred order of control

In some instances, a combination of control measures may be appropriate. Control

1.4.4 Control through personal protective equipment

Personal protective equipment should be a last resort only, and be used in

q the nature of the work or the work process concerned;

q where it is not technically feasible to achieve adequate control of the hazard by

1.4.5 Review of control measures

Constantly reviewing control measures is important to ensure they continue to prevent

Engineering controls should be regularly tested to ensure their effectiveness.

q where servicing is required;

In order to keep accurate records, a recording or reporting system should be

1.5 THE MEANING OF PRACTICABLE

“Practicability” applies to general duties for employers, self-employed people, people

If something is practicable, it is capable of being done. Whether it is also reasonable

q the severity of any injury or harm to health that may occur;

Assessment in relation to excavations

Where person at risk due to excavation

Particular hazards should be identified by those people involved in excavation projects

A systematic approach to documenting hazards for large and complex excavations

q improper or inadequate timbering;

Collapse of an excavation may endanger life and property.

q de-watering equipment and system to be used.

2.1 SOURCES OF INFORMATION

2.2 FACTORS TO CONSIDER

q Nature of the ground

In this situation, de-watering systems consisting of pumps and suction points or

Consideration should also be given to the possibility of flooding from swamps,