Teaching and Teacher Education 27 (2011) 1029e1038

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Teaching and Teacher Education

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Teacher job satisfaction and motivation to leave the teaching profession: Relations
with school context, feeling of belonging, and emotional exhaustion
Einar M. Skaalvik*, Sidsel Skaalvik
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Education, 7491 Trondheim, Norway

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study examines the relations between school context variables and teachers’ feeling of belonging,
Received 13 October 2010 emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and motivation to leave the teaching profession. Six aspects of the
Received in revised form school context were measured: value consonance, supervisory support, relations with colleagues, rela-
30 March 2011
tions with parents, time pressure, and discipline problems. The participants were 2569 Norwegian
Accepted 1 April 2011
teachers in elementary school and middle school. The data were analyzed by means of SEM analyses. All
six school context variables were related to job satisfaction and motivation to leave the teaching
Keywords:
profession. These relations were primarily indirect, mediated through feelings of belonging and
Teacher job satisfaction
Teacher motivation
emotional exhaustion.
Belonging Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Emotional exhaustion
School context
Values

1. Introduction and purposes
The shortage of well-qualified teachers is a significant problem
in many countries (Ingersoll, 2001; Loeb, Darling-Hammond, &
Luczak, 2005). This problem is increasing because of teacher
attrition, i.e. the departure of teachers from their teaching jobs.
For example, 25 percent of beginning teachers in the US leave
teaching before their third year, and almost 40 percent leave the
profession within the first five years (Chang, 2009). Additionally,
the majority of teachers leave the profession before they reach
retirement age (McDonald, 1999). The high rate of teacher attri-
tion is reported not only in the U.S., but also in other countries
around the world regardless of differences in their educational
system, for instance in Australia, China, and England (Hong, 2010).
In Norway, where we have conducted the present study, there are
no official statistics showing either teacher attrition (teachers
leaving the teaching profession) or teacher turnover (teachers
moving between schools). However, a study by Schøne (1999)
revealed that from November 1995 to November 1996 8.8
percent of the teachers left their positions, 4.6 percent left the
teaching profession whereas 4.2 percent moved to another school.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ47 73591954/þ47 73571016/þ47 97169572;
fax: þ47 73591890.
E-mail addresses: einar.skaalvik@svt.ntnu.no (E.M. Skaalvik), sidsel.skaalvik@
svt.ntnu.no (S. Skaalvik).
More alarmingly, Köber, Risberg, and Texmon (2005) found that
84 percent of those with a teacher’s degree who were under 67,
which is the retirement age in Norway, were employed in the
autumn of 2003, though only 57 percent were employed in the
education sector. Moreover, they reported that 49 percent of all
teachers leaving their teaching positions in 2003 went to jobs in
non-educational sectors.
The attrition rate seems to follow a U-shaped curve, with the
highest attrition rate early and late in teachers’ careers (Borman &
Dowling, 2008; Rinke, 2007). Teacher attrition has been studied in
relation to working conditions as well as the personal characteristics
of teachers, teachers’ life situation, and teachers’ roles, responsi-
bilities, and status. Similarly, Day, Sammons, Stobard, Kington, and
Gu (2007) discriminate between “situated factors,” “personal
factors,” and “professional factors.” In this study, we were concerned
with school context variables, which also may be termed working
conditions or situated factors. Recent research reveals that working
conditions are important predictors of teacher attrition (see a meta-
analysis by Borman & Dowling, 2008). A study of 1.066 teachers who
left their teaching positions in England also showed that an exces-
sive work load was the most important factor leading to teacher
attrition (Smithers & Robinson, 2003; see also Buchanan, 2010),
while a study by Weiss (1999) found that supportive environments
were related to teachers’ motivation to stay in the profession.
Although the present study was inspired by the problem of
teacher attrition, this article does not examine teacher attrition
directly. Instead, we examine assumed antecedents of teacher

0742-051X/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tate.2011.04.001
1030 E.M. Skaalvik, S. Skaalvik / Teaching and Teacher Education 27 (2011) 1029e1038
attrition, namely teacher job satisfaction and motivation to leave
the teaching profession. One purpose of the study was to examine
relations between school context variables and teacher job satis-
faction, as well as the motivation among Norwegian teachers to
leave the teaching profession. Understanding the relations between
school context variables and teacher job satisfaction is important
because the school context or working conditions may be changed
and improved. Another purpose was to analyze whether the rela-
tions between school context variables on the one hand, and
teacher job satisfaction and motivation to leave the teaching
profession on the other, were, at least partly mediated through
teachers’ feeling of belonging and physical and emotional
exhaustion.
2. Theoretical framework
2.1. Teacher job satisfaction and motivation to leave the profession
In the research literature, job satisfaction is regarded as the
positive or negative evaluative judgments people make about their
jobs (Weiss, 2002). For instance, Locke (1976) defined job satis-
faction as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from
the appraisal of one’s job. In accordance with these definitions, we
conceptualize teacher job satisfaction as teachers’ affective reac-
tions to their work or to their teaching role (see Skaalvik & Skaalvik,
2010a; Zembylas & Papanastasiou, 2004).
A problem with the research on teacher job satisfaction is that
there is no agreement about how to measure the construct
(Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2009, 2010a), which has been studied as both:
(a) a facet-specific job satisfaction measuring the extent to which
teachers are satisfied with specific aspects of their job, and (b) an
overall sense of satisfaction with the job (Moe, Pazzaglia, & Ronconi,
2010; Sargent & Hannum, 2005). Skaalvik & Skaalvik (2010a) point
out that a problem with the facet-specific approach is that different
circumstances may be important to different teachers. As a result,
such measures overlook the fact that the impact of different
circumstances on overall job satisfaction is dependent on how
important each of the circumstances is to the individual teacher. In
this study, we therefore measured teachers’ overall sense of job
satisfaction and analyzed the degree to which teachers’ perception
of school context variables predicted overall job satisfaction.
Teacher job satisfaction is closely associated with teacher absen-
teeism and attrition (e.g., Huberman, 1993; Sargent & Hannum,
2005; Wriqi, 2008; Zembylas & Papanastasiou, 2004). Hence, we
also expect that teacher job satisfaction predicts teachers’ motiva-
tion to leave the teaching profession.
Teacher job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by
a number of variables. Dinham and Scott (1998) suggested that the
sources of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction may be classified into
three domains: (a) intrinsic rewards of teaching, (b) factors
extrinsic to the school, and (c) school-based factors. The intrinsic
rewards of teaching concern the actual work of teaching, working
with the students, and seeing students learn and develop, all of
which are primary motives for becoming a teacher and a main
source of satisfaction among teachers (Scott, Stone, & Dinham,
2001). Factors extrinsic to the school include imposed educational
change, external evaluation of schools, negative portrayal of
teachers in the media, and a decrease in the status of teaching.
School-based factors or contextual variables at school may include
relations with colleagues, parents, and the school leadership, as
well as time pressure, disruptive student behavior, and the values
emphasized at the local school. The present study focuses on
relations between these school-based factors, which we term
contextual variables, and how they relate, both directly and indi-
rectly, to teacher job satisfaction. The indirect relations that we
hypothesize are that the impact of school context variables on job
satisfaction are mediated through teachers’ feeling of belonging at
school and emotional exhaustion.
2.2. Feeling of belonging
According to Baumeister and Leary (1995), the need to belong is
a fundamental human motivation (see also Deci & Ryan, 2000). To
our knowledge, teachers’ feeling of belonging to the school where
they are teaching has not been systematically studied in research
on teachers, whereas students’ sense of belonging to the school has
been shown to be positively related to both motivation (Furrer &
Skinner, 2003; Goodenow & Grady, 1993), satisfaction, and posi-
tive affect (McMahon, Parnes, Keys, & Viola, 2008; Shochet, Dadds,
Ham, & Mantague, 2006).
Although we lack systematic research on teachers’ sense of
belonging to their school, we expect that similarly to findings in
student research, the teachers’ feeling of belonging is positively
related to satisfaction and positive affect. Hence, we expect that
belonging is positively related to job satisfaction and negatively
related to the motivation to leave the profession. An important
question for this study was whether teachers’ feeling of belonging
mediated the relation between social relations and value percep-
tion on the one hand and job satisfaction and motivation to leave
the teaching profession on the other hand (see discussion of
“Teachers’ perception of the school context”).
2.3. Emotional exhaustion
Research in different cultures indicates that school teachers are
among those professionals with the highest level of job stress
(Stoeber & Rennert, 2008). Most teachers cope successfully with
such stress, for instance through active problem solving, social and
emotional support from colleagues, reorganizing their teaching
situation, cooperating with parents, or changing their teaching
strategy. However, burnout may be the endpoint of coping unsuc-
cessfully with chronic stress (Jennett, Harris, & Mesibov, 2003).
Emotional exhaustion is the core element of burnout (Maslach,
Jackson, & Leiter, 1996) and results from long-term occupational
stress, particularly among human service workers, including
teachers (Jennett et al., 2003). Emotional exhaustion is character-
ized by low energy and chronic fatigue (Pines & Aronson, 1988;
Schwarzer, Schimtz, & Tang, 2000).
Studies in different cultures have found that measures of teacher
burnout, including emotional exhaustion, predict both subjective
and objective health as well as teachers’ motivation and job satis-
faction. For instance, Hakanen, Bakker, and Schaufeli (2006)
demonstrated that emotional exhaustion correlated negatively
with self-rated health as well as work ability among Finnish
teachers. Also, in a study of teachers in Hong Kong, Leung and Lee
(2006) found that the exhaustion dimension of burnout predicted
teachers’ intentions of leaving the profession (see also Jacobsen,
Schwab, & Schuler, 1986), and Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2010a)
concluded that emotional exhaustion predicted the level of job
satisfaction among Norwegian teachers. An important question for
the present study was whether emotional exhaustion mediates the
relations between work-related stressors and job satisfaction as
well as the motivation to leave the teaching profession (see
discussion of “Time pressure” and “Discipline problems”).
2.4. Teachers’ perception of the school context
We included teachers’ perception of six school context variables
in this study: value consonance, supervisory support, relations with
 E.M. Skaalvik, S. Skaalvik / Teaching and Teacher Education 27 (2011) 1029e1038
colleagues, relations with parents, time pressure, and discipline
problems.
2.4.1. Value consonance
According to Sahlberg (2010), teaching is a profession which is
typically driven by values, ethical motives or intrinsic motivations.
Explicitly or implicitly, teachers set goals for their teaching (Chang,
2009). Moreover, in their daily teaching and classroom manage-
ment, teachers communicate and represent values. Thus, we may
expect teachers to be most comfortable when they can teach in
congruence with their own educational beliefs and values, which
we refer to as value consonance, whereas teachers may be less
comfortable if they have to represent values that are not congruent
or consonant with their personal values.
Teachers may have different goals, values, and beliefs. They may
differ in their beliefs about what goals should be pursued, what
content should be emphasized, and what educational means and
methods should be used. Even so, the focus in this study is not on
which goals the individual teacher sets, what content the teacher
thinks should be emphasized, or which educational means and
methods the teacher believes are the best or most proper. Our
concern is whether the individual teacher feels that his or her goals
and values, whatever these goals and values may be, are in
congruence with the goals and values emphasized in the school
where he or she is teaching. Consequently, in this study we defined
value consonance as the degree to which teachers feel that they
share the prevailing norms and values at the school where they are
teaching, for instance what goals should be pursued, what content
should be emphasized, and what educational means and methods
should be used.
A teacher who feels that the prevailing norms and values of the
school are incompatible with her or his own values may experience
what Rosenberg (1977, 1979) referred to as contextual dissonance,
whereas a teacher who shares the prevailing norms and values of
the school may experience contextual consonance. In accordance
with Rosenberg (1979) we conceptualize value consonance as
a particular type of contextual consonance.
Contextual dissonance or consonance may have serious impli-
cations for the relationship of the individual to his or her envi-
ronment. A contextual dissonance may result in a feeling of not
belonging, a feeling that one does not fit, that one is out of it,
somehow wrong (Rosenberg, 1977, 1979). Hence, we expected
value consonance to be positively related to job satisfaction. Based
on Rosenberg’s analysis, we also expected that value consonance
would be positively related to teachers’ feeling of belonging.
Consequently, we expected that the relation between value
consonance and job satisfaction would, at least partly, be mediated
through teachers’ feeling of belonging.
These relations may be caused by various processes. As pointed out
by Rosenberg (1977, p. 209), the context is a communications envi-
ronment which he describes as a pool - a fund of messages e some
communicated directly, and others informally and unintentionally. In
accordance with Rosenberg’s general analysis, we therefore expect
that teachers who do not share the prevailing norms and values of
their school are likely to hear more deprecatory and fewer laudatory
comments about themselves and their practices.
Although we have defined value consonance in terms of
Rosenberg’s conceptualization of contextual consonance and
dissonance, it may also be conceptualized as a dimension of per-
soneorganization fit (PeO fit) or personeenvironment fit. Kristof
(1996) defined a PeO fit as the compatibility between people and
organizations that occurs when at least one entity provides what
the other needs, or that they share similar characteristics. If
teachers’ goals and values are not compatible with the prevailing
norms and values in the school where he or she is teaching, those
1031
norms and values may be perceived as a barrier against acting
according to one’s values and achieving one’s goals.
2.4.2. Social climate and relations with colleagues, parents and
school leadership
Research also indicates that a positive social climate and social
support are positively related to teacher satisfaction and motivation
(Day et al., 2007; Scheopner, 2010; US Department of Education,
1997) and negatively related to burnout (Hakanen et al., 2006;
Leung & Lee, 2006; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). However, this
research evidence is not consistent, and in a study of Chinese
teachers, Wriqi (2008) found that collegial relations were weakly
related to job satisfaction. Emotional support and positive relations
with supervisors, colleagues, and parents may also promote a feeling
of belonging. Hence, we expect that the relation between positive
social relations (with principals, colleagues, and parents) and job
satisfaction at least in part, is mediated through a feeling of belonging.
Today, teachers are increasingly dependent on cooperating with
parents and need positive relations with them. Therefore, experi-
encing that one is not trusted by the parents, that they are critical,
or that cooperating with parents is difficult may be a serious strain
on teachers with negative impact on their feeling of belonging. It
may increase anxiety, create a feeling that one is not doing a good
job, and promote a need for self-protection.
2.4.3. Time pressure
Recent research has found that teachers experience an
increasing number of work assignments and a more hectic
workday, thereby resulting in less time for rest and recovery
(Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010b; Hargreaves, 2003; Lindqvist &
Nordänger, 2006). The increasing work load and the hectic
workday cannot be easily separated because increasing work
assignments result in less time for rest and recovery. We refer to the
combined work load and hectic workday as time pressure, which is
due to multiple causes such as an increasing demand for docu-
mentation and paperwork, more frequent meetings, more frequent
communication with parents, the administration and scoring of
achievement tests, frequent changes of the curriculum, and
participation in a number of school development projects (Skaalvik
& Skaalvik, 2010b). According to Scott et al. (2001), this is an
international tendency that has resulted in a major decline in
teachers’ overall job satisfaction. Furthermore, time pressure has
been found to correlate positively with teacher burnout (Skaalvik &
Skaalvik, 2008; Hakanen et al., 2006; Kokkinos, 2007; Peeters &
Rutte, 2005; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Skaalvik and Skaalvik
(2010a) found that time pressure was particularly strongly related
to the emotional exhaustion dimension of burnout. We therefore
expected time pressure to be positively related to both job satis-
faction and emotional exhaustion. Moreover, we expected that the
relation between time pressure and job satisfaction would be partly
mediated through emotional exhaustion. We also expected that
time pressure, through emotional exhaustion, would be negatively
related to motivation to leave the teaching profession.
2.4.4. Discipline problems
The annual Norwegian national student survey reveals that 30
percent of students from fifth to tenth grade in the compulsory
school are often disturbed by other students during lessons at
school (Skaalvik, Danielsen, & Skaar, 2007). Interviews with 36
teachers from 14 elementary and middle schools in Norway also
show that a majority of the teachers experience disruptive student
behavior as a problem (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010b).
Discipline problems or disruptive student behavior is recognized
as a serious work-related stressor (e.g., Buchanan, 2010), and signif-
icant correlations have been found between discipline problems and
1032 E.M. Skaalvik, S. Skaalvik / Teaching and Teacher Education 27 (2011) 1029e1038

measures of burnout or emotional exhaustion (Skaalvik & Skaalvik,
2007, 2008, 2010a; Hakanen et al., 2006; Kokkinos, 2007;
Tsouloupasa, Carson, Matthews, Grawitch, & Barber, 2010). The
experiencing of discipline problems may lead to expectations of
future problems, which in turn may result in stress, worry, and
anxiety. Chang (2009) discusses the association between discipline
problems and burnout in terms of the concept of goal congruence.
Chang explains that a teacher may set different goals for his or
her teaching such as maintaining order, managing students’
behavior, following lesson plans, and helping students reach
learning goals (p. 205). Thus, as suggested by Chang, students’
disruptive behavior may be a threat to teachers’ goal achievement.
We therefore expect disruptive student behavior or discipline
problems to be positively related to emotional exhaustion and
negatively related to job satisfaction.
lasts for seven years, from the 1st through 7th grades, and middle
school lasts for three years, from the 8th through 10th grades. Both
elementary and middle school are compulsory and follow
a national curriculum which states the goals and content of the
education, whereas the choice of instructional methods is left to the
school district, the local school, or the individual teacher. Students
in elementary school are given verbal and informal evaluation,
while students in the middle school are graded. Elementary school
teachers are normally educated through a professional teacher-
training program that lasts for four years, in which they study
education along with elementary school disciplines. In comparison,
the majority of middle school teachers are first educated through
a three-year program not specifically oriented towards teaching. If
they decide to go into teaching, they then follow a one-year teacher
education program.

2.4.5. Theoretical predictions 3.2. Participants and procedure

Based on our analysis (see above), we specified a theoretical
model (Fig. 1) in which value consonance, supervisory support, and
relations with colleagues and parents were predictive of both
teachers’ feeling of belonging and job satisfaction. Furthermore, we
expected belonging to be positively related to job satisfaction.
Hence, value consonance and social relations were predicted to be
both directly and indirectly related to job satisfaction. The indirect
relation was expected to be mediated through a feeling of
belonging. The theoretical model also specified that time pressure
and discipline problems are predictive of job satisfaction, both
directly and indirectly. The indirect relation is predicted to be
mediated through emotional exhaustion. Moreover, we expected
that belonging, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction would
be predictive of a motivation to leave the teaching profession.
3. Method
3.1. Norwegian public school
In Norway, children are enrolled in elementary school in the
calendar year when they become six years old. Elementary school
A total of 2569 teachers from 127 Norwegian elementary and
middle schools (1ste10th grades) participated in this study.
Norway was divided into five geographical regions. From each
region about 25 schools were drawn from one city, two towns and
two rural areas by a stratified random procedure. The first contact
with each school was made with the school principal, and the only
question put to the principal was whether he or she would agree to
let data be collected at the school. Only two schools had to be
replaced by other schools from the same region because of the
principals not agreeing to the data collection. The next step was to
contact the teachers’ representative at each school. The teachers’
representative informed the teachers about the data collection, that
the purpose of the study was to explore working conditions for the
teachers, and that the participation was anonymous and voluntary
for the individual teachers. At that point, the decision to participate
was made by the teaching staff at each school. The teachers’
representative also arranged for a specific period of time (60 min)
to be set aside for teachers to simultaneously respond to the
questionnaire. The data collection was administered in Februar-
yeMarch of 2010 by two trained research assistants visiting the

Value +
consonance + Belonging
+

- -
+
Supervisory
support +
Job
+ satisfaction

Relations with +
colleagues -
+

Relations with +
parents

- Motivation
-
Time to leave
+ +
pressure
- Emotional
exhaustion

Disciplin +
problems

Fig. 1. Theoretical model of relations between the study variables.

 E.M. Skaalvik, S. Skaalvik / Teaching and Teacher Education 27 (2011) 1029e1038
schools and bringing the questionnaires back. Eighty-four percent
of the teachers at the selected schools participated in the study.
The sample consisted of 72 percent females, and the age of the
teachers varied from 23 to 69. The mean age was 45, and
the average number of years in the teaching profession was 16. The
schools varied with respect to size from schools with five teachers
to schools with 82 teachers, with the average being 38. The average
number of students in the schools was 370. Sixty-three percent of
the teachers taught at the elementary level (grades 1e7); whereas
37 percent taught at the middle school level (grades 8e10).
3.3. Instruments
3.3.1. Value consonance
Value consonance was measured by use of a three-item scale. It
is important to note that the items referred to values, opinions, and
good teaching in general, and that they did not refer to any specific
values or opinions. The items referred to the school or the organi-
zation, in addition to the entire teaching staff, which is in accor-
dance with Kristof’s (1996) definition of personeorganization fit.
The items were: “My educational values are in accordance with the
values which are emphasized at this school,” “My colleagues and I
have the same opinion about what is important in education,” and
“I feel that this school shares my view of what constitutes good
teaching.” Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was .84. Cronbach’s alpha
is a test conducted to reveal internal consistency, and values greater
than .70 are traditionally considered adequate (Cortina, 1993).
3.3.2. Supervisory support
Supervisory support was measured by a three-item scale that
measured teachers’ experiences of receiving cognitive and
emotional support from the school leadership. The items were: “In
educational matters, I can always seek help and advice from the
school leadership,” “My relationship with the principal is one of
mutual trust and respect”, and “The school leadership is supportive
and praises good work.” Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was .88.
3.3.3. Relations with colleagues
Teachers’ relations with their colleagues were measured by the
following three items: “In educational matters, I can always get
good help from my colleagues,” “The relations among the
colleagues at this school are characterized by friendliness and
a concern for each other”, and “Teachers at this school help and
support each other.” Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was .86.
3.3.4. Relations with parents
Teachers’ relations with parents were measured by means of
a three-item scale measuring the teachers’ feeling of being trusted
by the parents. The items were: “I feel that the parents have faith in
my teaching,” “The parents are easy to work with,” and “The
parents trust and accept my decisions.” Cronbach’s alpha for the
scale was .89.
3.3.5. Time pressure
Time pressure was measured by a three-item scale. The items
were: “Preparation for teaching must often be done after working
hours,” “Life at school is hectic and there is no time for rest and
recovery”, and “Meetings, administrative work, and documentation
take much of the time that should be used for teaching prepara-
tion.” Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was .81.
3.3.6. Discipline problems and disruptive student behavior
Discipline problems were measured by the following three
items: “My teaching is often disrupted by students who lack
discipline,” “Some students with behavioral problems make it
1033
difficult to carry out lessons as planned,” and “Controlling students’
behavior takes a lot of time and effort”. Cronbach’s alpha for the
scale was .87.
3.3.7. Feeling of belonging
The teachers’ feeling of belonging was measured by a three-item
scale measuring their general feeling of belonging to the school,
their feeling of being accepted by their school’s leadership, and
their feeling of being trusted by their colleagues. Translated into
English, the items were: “I feel that I belong to this school,” “I feel
that I am accepted by my school’s leadership”, and “I feel that my
colleagues have faith in me.” Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was .79.
3.3.8. Emotional exhaustion
Emotional exhaustion was measured by a short six-item
modified version of the emotional exhaustion dimension of the
Maslach Burnout Inventory e Educators Survey (MBI: Maslach
et al., 1996). The items were drawn from a Norwegian version of
the MBI. The participants rated statements indicating that their
work made them feel emotionally drained or exhausted. The short
six-item version has previously been shown to have a Cronbach’s
alpha of .88 (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010a). Cronbach’s alpha in this
study was .90.
3.3.9. Job satisfaction
The teachers’ overall job satisfaction was measured by means of
a four-item scale. The items were: “I enjoy working as a teacher,” “I
look forward to going to school every day,” “Working as a teacher is
extremely rewarding,” and “When I get up in the morning, I look
forward to going to work.” Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was .91.
3.3.10. Motivation to leave the teaching profession
The teachers’ motivation for leaving the teaching profession was
measured by a three-item scale. The items were: “I wish I had
a different job to being a teacher,” “If I could choose over again I
would not be a teacher”, and “I often think of leaving the teaching
profession.” Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was .92.
Responses on all scales were given on a six-point scale from
“Completely disagree” (1) to “Completely agree” (6). In the ques-
tionnaire, the items measuring school context variables were
mixed and placed as the first block of items followed by scales
measuring value consonance, belonging, exhaustion, job satisfac-
tion, and motivation to leave the profession.
3.4. Data analysis
We tested the theoretical model (see Fig. 1) by means of SEM
analyses (structural equation modeling) using the AMOS 7 program
to explore relations between the variables. SEM is a statistical
methodology that takes a confirmatory approach to the analysis
(Byrne, 2001). In this approach, a hypothesized model of relations
between the variables is statistically tested to determine the extent
to which it is consistent with the data, which is referred to as the
goodness of fit. If the goodness of fit is adequate, it supports the
plausibility of the relations between the variables. In order to assess
the model fit, we used well-established indices such as CFI, IFI, TLI,
and RMSEA, as well as the chi-square test statistics. For the CFI, IFI,
and TLI indices, values greater than .90 are typically considered
acceptable and values greater than .95 indicate a good fit to the data
(Bollen, 1989; Byrne, 2001; Hu & Bentler, 1999). For well-specified
models, an RMSEA of .06 or less reflects a good fit (Hu & Bentler,
1999).
We first tested two measurement models by means of confir-
matory factor analysis using the AMOS 7 program. The purpose of
the measurement models is to test that the factors specified are
1034 E.M. Skaalvik, S. Skaalvik / Teaching and Teacher Education 27 (2011) 1029e1038

independent constructs as well as the correlation between the
factors. The first measurement model specified the six school
context variables as separate constructs whereas the second
measurement model specified belonging, emotional exhaustion,
job satisfaction, and motivation to leave the teaching profession as
four separate constructs. We then tested the theoretical model of
relations between the constructs (Fig. 1).
4. Results
Table 1 shows the zero order correlations between the study
variables as well as statistical means and standard deviations. Job
satisfaction was positively related to value consonance, supervisory
support, relations with colleagues, relations with parents, and
belonging, whereas it was negatively related to time pressure,
discipline problems, emotional exhaustion, and motivation to leave
the teaching profession. Teachers’ feeling of belonging was posi-
tively and moderately to strongly related to value consonance,
supervisory support, and positive relations with colleagues.
Belonging was also positively but weakly related to teachers’ rela-
tions with parents. With the exception of moderate to strong
relations between value consonance, supervisory support, and
positive relations with colleagues (r ¼ .49, .50, and .50, respectively)
we found only weak correlations between the six school context
variables.
We first tested a measurement model with six latent school
context variables: value consonance, supervisory support, relations
with colleagues, relations with parents, time pressure, and disci-
pline problems. Each of these latent variables was indicated by
three to five items as described in the Methods section. The model
had good fit to the data (c2 (155, N ¼ 2569) ¼ 1344.010, CFI ¼ .957,
IFI ¼ .957, TLI ¼ .942 and RMSEA ¼ .055). We then tested a second
measurement model with four latent variables: feeling of
belonging, emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and motivation
to leave the teaching profession. Each of these latent variables was
indicated by three to six items as described in the Methods section.
The model had acceptable fit to the data (c2 (98,
N ¼ 2569) ¼ 1714.357, CFI ¼ .943, IFI ¼ .943, TLI ¼ .921 and
RMSEA ¼ .080).
The relations between the study variables were further analyzed
by means of SEM analysis using the AMOS 7 program. In the initial
analysis, we tested the theoretical model described in the Methods
section. We then deleted non-significant paths one by one, starting
with the path with the lowest regression weight. The final empir-
ical model, showing standardized regression weights, is displayed
in Fig. 2. The model had acceptable fit to the data (c2 (566,
N ¼ 2569) ¼ 4500,601, CFI ¼ .934, IFI ¼ .934, TLI ¼ .922 and
RMSEA ¼ .052). The c2/df ratio was equal to 7.952, which is high
compared to Kline’s (1998) rule of values of less than 3 being
considered adequate. However, the c2/df ratio is sensitive to the
number of observations. Testing the model on a smaller subsample
from the southeast region of the country (N ¼ 265) revealed the
same pattern of results, but with an c2/df ratio equal to 1.801.
In accordance with our expectations, value consonance, super-
visory support, relations with colleagues, and relations with
parents were all significant and independent predictors of teachers’
feeling of belonging. Discipline problems and time pressure were
significant predictors of emotional exhaustion. Both feeling of
belonging and emotional exhaustion were significantly related to
job satisfaction. Motivation to leave the teaching profession was
negatively related to job satisfaction and positively related to
emotional exhaustion. We also explored additional direct paths
to the final model from value consonance and social relations to
emotional exhaustion, and from time pressure and discipline
problems to belonging. None of these paths were statistically
significant at the .05 level.
Contrary to expectations, only two school context variables,
relations with parents and time pressure, were directly, but weakly
related to job satisfaction. However, as perceived by the teachers,
all school context variables were indirectly related to job satisfac-
tion. Value consonance, supervisory support, relations with
colleagues, and relations with parents were positively related to job
satisfaction through feeling of belonging. Moreover, time pressure
and discipline problems were negatively related to job satisfaction
through emotional exhaustion. Also, contrary to expectations,
teachers’ feeling of belonging was not directly related to motivation
to leave the profession. The relation between belonging and
motivation to leave the profession was mediated through job
satisfaction and emotional exhaustion.
As described above, the empirical model reveals several indirect
relations. If interpreted in causal terms, an indirect effect implies
a hypothesis that an independent variable causes a mediating
variable which in turn causes a dependent variable (MacKinnon,
Lockwood, & Williams, 2004; Sobel, 1990). For example, teachers’
feeling of belonging mediates the relations between value conso-
nance, supervisory support, relations with colleagues, and relations
with parents, on the one hand, and job satisfaction on the other. In
comparison, the relations between discipline problems and time
pressure, on the one hand, and job satisfaction and motivation to
leave the profession, on the other, were mediated through
emotional exhaustion. Both belonging and emotional exhaustion
were also indirectly related to motivation to leave the teaching
profession, mediated through job satisfaction.
We also tested the model for eight different subgroups: older
teachers, younger teachers, males, females, elementary school
teachers, middle school teachers, teachers at city schools
and teachers at rural schools. All these models demonstrated the
same pattern of results and had the similar significant regression

Table 1
Zero order correlations and descriptive statistics.

Study variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Value consonance e .49 .50 .31 .04 .10 .51 .16 .31 .20
2. Supervisory support e .50 .31 .14 .06 .51 .21 .27 .21
3. Relations with colleagues e .37 .03 .07 .51 .17 .30 .19
4. Relations with parents e .04 .22 .32 .19 .33 .22
5. Time pressure e .16 .04 .45 .13 .23
6. Discipline problems e .12 .31 .21 .18
7. Belonging e .25 .42 .32
8. Emotional exhaustion e .51 .52
9. Job satisfaction e .65
10. Motivation to leave e

M 13.63 13.62 15.17 14.77 21.31 10.84 15.28 18.41 18.59 7.61
SD 2.43 3.35 2.42 2.22 3.05 3.92 2.51 7.04 3.92 4.12
 E.M. Skaalvik, S. Skaalvik / Teaching and Teacher Education 27 (2011) 1029e1038 1035

Value
consonance .30

R2 = .53 R2 = .45

Supervisory .23
support .28 Job
Belonging
.26 satisfaction
.14
Relations with
colleagues .14
.13
-.53 -.53
Relations with
parents -.23

Time .48 Emotional .27 Motivation

pressure exhaustion to leave

.21
Disciplin R2 = .39 R2 = .52
problems

Fig. 2. Structural model of relations between teachers’ perception of six school context variables, teachers’ feeling of belonging, emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and
motivation to leave the teaching profession. Standardized regression weights reported. Only significant regression weights are included in the figure.

weights as the model shown in Fig. 2. Additionally, all models had
similar fit to the data; for instance RMSEAs for the eight models
were .053, .050, .054, .051, .051, .052, .053, and .051, respectively.
Thus, the pattern of relations between the study variables was very
similar for different subgroups of teachers.
Table 2 shows the statistical means and standard deviations for
different subgroups of teachers according to age, gender, location,
and school level. We used Cohen’s d to estimate effect size (Cohen,
1988). Cohen’s d is a measure of the difference in statistical means
between two groups in terms of standard deviation. According to
Cohen (1988) a difference that is lower than .2 standard deviation is
considered not to be significant. A difference between .2 and .5
standard deviations is considered significant, but small whereas
a difference larger than .8 standard deviation is considered large.
Table 2 also shows that there were few and only minor differ-
ences between the subgroups. Still, we found small tendencies
toward older teachers reporting more positive relations with
parents, less discipline problems, and higher job satisfaction than
did younger teachers, whereas younger teachers reported more
positive relations with their colleagues. Regarding Table 2, we
should note that younger teachers are defined as those aged 35
years or younger and older teachers are defined as being over the
age of 50. No significant differences were found between either of
these two groups and teachers between 35 and 50 years.
Table 2 also shows some small differences between male and
female teachers. Compared to males, females reported higher value
consonance, better relations with colleagues, higher job satisfac-
tion, and lower motivation to leave the teaching profession.
Nonetheless, they also reported higher time pressure.
We found no significant differences between teachers at urban
and rural schools, though compared to teachers in middle school,
teachers in elementary school reported higher value consonance

Table 2
Means and standard deviations for different subgrops of teachers.

Variables Younger Older d Female Male d Urban Rural d Elem Middle d

<35 >50
Value Consonance 13.46 13.78 .13 13.79 13.23 .23* 13.62 13.64 .01 13.87 13.22 .27*
(2.46) (2.44) (2.42) (2.37) (2.41) (2.47) (2.39) (2.39)
Supervisory support 13.80 13.57 .07 13.73 13.38 .10 13.44 13.96 .16 14.07 12.93 .34*
(3.32) (3.33) (3.36) (3.28) (3.33 (3.36) (3.17) (3.41)
Relations colleagues 15.48 14.98 .21* 15.30 14.81 .20* 15.17 15.16 .00 15.28 14.95 .14
(2.28) (2.45) (2.46) (2.26) (2.42 (2.42) (2.46) (2.33)
*
Relations parents 14.37 15.04 .30 14.88 14.46 .19 14.77 14.75 .00 14.92 14.49 .19
(2.30) (2.15) (2.22) (2.18) (2.19) (2.28) (2.22) (2.21)
Time pressure 21.33 21.30 .01 21.49 20.85 .21* 21.39 21.32 .01 21.25 21.45 .06
(3.14) (3.11) (3.98) (3.75) (3.94) (3.86) (3.98) (3.79)
Discipline problems 11.75 10.41 .34* 10.80 10.94 .04 10.75 11.02 .07 11.01 10.59 .11
(3.78) (3.79) (3.98) (3.75) (3.94) (3.86) (3.98) (3.79)
Belonging 15.08 15.47 .16 15.40 14.99 .16 15.26 15.31 .02 15.42 15.09 .13
(2.48) (2.53) (2.48) (2.53) (2.55) (2.43) (2.51) (2.47)
Exhaustion 18.53 18.21 .05 18.65 17.75 .13 18.41 18.42 .00 14.47 18.28 .03
(7.03) (6.96) (7.06) (7.03) (6.97) (7.18) (7.02) (7.09)
Job satisfaction 18.05 19.05 .26* 18.91 17.75 .30* 18.61 18.53 .02 18.80 18.22 .15
(4.25) (3.69) (4.06) (3.82) (3.93 (3.91) (3.86) (4.01)
Motivation to leave 7.63 6.98 .16 7.36 8.23 .21* 7.59 7.65 .01 7.49 7.78 .07
(4.18) (3.89) (4.13) (4.00) (4.15 (4.06) (4.12) (4.02)

Note. d ¼ effect size (Cohen, 1988). * = Cohen’s d between 0.2 and 0.5 indicating small but significant differences.
1036 E.M. Skaalvik, S. Skaalvik / Teaching and Teacher Education 27 (2011) 1029e1038
and more positive relations with their school leadership (supervi-
sory support).
5. Discussion
In this study, we examined the relations between teachers’
perception of six school context variables and their feeling of
belonging, emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and motivation to
leave the teaching profession. As expected, teachers’ feeling of value
consonance as well as supervisory support and positive relations
with colleagues and parents were predictive of belonging, whereas
time pressure and discipline problems were predictive of emotional
exhaustion. Also, in accordance with expectations, both teachers’
feeling of belonging and emotional exhaustion were predictive of
job satisfaction, while emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction
were predictive of motivation to leave the teaching profession.
The positive relation between value consonance and teachers’
feeling of belonging supports the theoretical analysis of contextual
consonance and dissonance, and raises important questions which
should be addressed in future research. To the best of our knowl-
edge, the construct of value consonance and its relation to teachers’
feeling of belonging has not been previously studied in teacher
research. Value consonance in this study was based on Rosenberg’s
(1977, 1979) theory of contextual consonance and dissonance.
According to Rosenberg, contextual dissonance may result in
a feeling of not belonging or a feeling that one does not fit in. This
notion was supported in the present study, in which we focused on
value context; the degree to which teachers feel that they share the
prevailing norms and values of the school where they teach. Future
research should analyze the processes through which value
consonance relates to teachers’ feeling of belonging. One possibility
is that the sheer feeling of sharing goals and values with colleagues
and the school administration increases a feeling of belonging in
itself. Such sharing of goals and values may increase teachers’
beliefs in what they do and make them feel as part of a team.
Another possible explanation may be that not sharing the
predominant goals and values at the school is perceived as a barrier
against teaching in accordance with one’s own goals and values,
which may also result in a reduced feeling of belonging. This
explanation may be of particular importance in Norwegian schools
because teachers often work in teams and may therefore have to
compromise their personal ideas about teaching. An important task
for future research is also to explore means to establish shared goals
and values among the teaching staff. We particularly call for anal-
ysis of the impact of the school leadership or management on the
school climate and such variables as teachers’ engagement, feeling
of value consonance, and identification with school-based norms
and values. This task calls for a variety of approaches, including
qualitative case studies and experimental studies.
The finding that supervisory support and relations with
colleagues and parents were predictive of belonging supports the
notion that relatedness is a fundamental human need (Deci & Ryan,
2000). Although this result was expected, it is interesting to note
that the teachers’ relations to principals, colleagues, and parents
were independent predictors of the teachers’ feeling of belonging.
This indicates the importance of creating an atmosphere of mutual
trust and respect among all groups and interested parties in
a school. The finding that time pressure and discipline problems
were predictive of emotional exhaustion is also in accordance with
theoretical expectations. Emotional exhaustion, which is the core
element of burnout (Maslach et al., 1996), results from long-term
occupational stress (Jennett et al., 2003). Such stress may be
caused by both time pressure and discipline problems.
Previous research has found that the school context or working
conditions are predictive of teachers’ job satisfaction. In particular,
job satisfaction has been shown to be positively related to social
support and social climate (US Department of Education, 1997).
However, contrary to expectations, we found no strong and direct
relation between teachers’ perception of the school context and job
satisfaction. Although the zero order correlations (see Table 1)
demonstrated that all school context variables were significantly
related to job satisfaction, the SEM analysis revealed that only two
of these constructs, relations with parents and time pressure, were
directly though only weakly related to job satisfaction. However,
the analysis revealed that all school context variables were indi-
rectly related to job satisfaction, mediated through belonging or
emotional exhaustion. It is important to note that two groups of
school context variables were related to job satisfaction through
different processes. Social relations with colleagues, parents and
the school leadership were related to job satisfaction through the
feeling of belonging. Value consonance, the degree to which
teachers feel that they share the prevailing norms and values at the
school where they are teaching, were also related to job satisfaction
through belonging. None of these school context variables was
directly related to emotional exhaustion. In comparison, time
pressure and discipline problems were related to job satisfaction
through emotional exhaustion. These variables were not signifi-
cantly related to belonging.
As explained above, an indirect effect implies a hypothesis that
an independent variable causes a mediating variable which in turn
causes a dependent variable (MacKinnon et al., 2004; Sobel, 1990).
For example, based on the analysis of this study, we may assume
that value consonance and positive social relations result in
a stronger feeling of belonging and that this stronger feeling of
belonging in turn results in higher job satisfaction. Following the
same reasoning, we assume that time pressure and discipline
problems increase emotional exhaustion, which in turn reduces
teachers’ job satisfaction.
We had expected that belonging and emotional exhaustion
would partially mediate the relation between teachers’ perception
of the school context and their job satisfaction (see Fig. 1). Even so,
an important finding in this study is that these relations were
almost entirely mediated through belonging and emotional
exhaustion. Thus, our analysis suggests that belonging and
emotional exhaustion are key variables in mediating the impact of
school context variables on job satisfaction and motivation to leave
the teaching profession.
Teachers’ feeling of belonging was also negatively related to
their motivation to leave the teaching profession. The zero order
correlation between these variables was .32. Hence, an interesting
result of the SEM analysis was that there was no significant direct
relation between belonging and motivation to leave the profession.
The relation between these constructs was mediated through job
satisfaction and emotional exhaustion. It is especially important to
note the negative relation between belonging and emotional
exhaustion. Though the present study does not prove causal
directions, a possible interpretation is that belonging works as
a barrier against exhaustion. Such an interpretation is consistent
with the notion of belonging is a fundamental psychological need.
A lack of belonging may therefore be perceived as a psychological
strain that may cause emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion
was both directly and indirectly related to motivation to leave the
profession. The indirect relation was mediated through job satis-
faction. These results indicate that job satisfaction is a key variable
for mediating the effect of belonging and exhaustion on the moti-
vation to leave the profession.
One implication of this study is that school administrators
should pay more attention to teachers’ feeling of belonging,
emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction. In the SEM model, the
constructs of exhaustion and job satisfaction are related to
 E.M. Skaalvik, S. Skaalvik / Teaching and Teacher Education 27 (2011) 1029e1038
belonging and explain 52 percent of the variance in teachers’
motivation to leave the teaching profession. Moreover, belonging
and exhaustion are together strongly related to various aspects of
the school context. In order to increase the feeling of belonging and
job satisfaction and decrease emotional exhaustion, it seems
important to create a supportive school environment, to clarify and
develop mutual goals and values, to reduce time pressure on
teachers, and to establish school-based directions for student
behavior.
Even though the six school context variables that were analyzed
in this study explained 53 percent of the variances in teachers’
feeling of belonging and 39 percent of the variance in emotional
exhaustion, much of the variance in these variables is not explained
in this study. Future research should therefore include other school
context variables as well as the personal characteristics of teachers,
teachers’ life situation, and teachers’ status within society.
This study demonstrates the association between teachers’
perception of selected variables in the school context and their job
satisfaction as well as their motivation to leave the teaching
profession. Though firm conclusions about causality cannot be
drawn from this study, it indicates that the impact of teachers’
perception of the school context on their job satisfaction is an
indirect one, mediated through teachers’ feeling of belonging and
emotional exhaustion. Yet, the study has several limitations. Firstly,
in this study we did not examine the reasons for actually leaving
the teaching profession. We merely asked about the motivation for
leaving the profession among teacher who had not yet left the
profession. Still, the results are important for two main reasons: (a)
for a number of teachers, the lack of satisfaction and a growing
motivation to leave the profession may result in actually leaving the
teaching profession, and (b) a lack of satisfaction and a growing
motivation to leave the profession is likely to affect teachers’ work
engagement, how they relate to students and colleagues and hence
the quality of their teaching. Secondly, we should also note that
although this study indicates that belonging and exhaustion are
important variables mediating the impact of school context vari-
ables on job satisfaction and motivation to leave the teaching
profession, these variables may not be the only mediating variables.
Future research should also explore other possible mediating
variables. Thirdly, we examined six school context variables and the
analysis showed that all six variables were independent predictors
of either belonging or exhaustion. Other school context variables
should be examined in future research, both variables which are
directly related to job satisfaction and motivation to leave the
teaching profession and variables which are indirectly related to
job satisfaction, for instance through belonging and exhaustion.
Fourthly, it should be noted that several variables in this study were
measured with short three-item scales. Though these scales had
a satisfactory reliability, it is important to test our results with more
extensive and wide-ranging scales. More specifically, our measure
of belonging includes items that capture teachers’ feeling of being
accepted by the school leadership and trusted by their colleagues.
Because the content of these items are close to our conceptualiza-
tion of belonging, more research is needed using scales which
discriminate more clearly between these constructs.
This research was supported by a grant from the Research
Council of Norway.
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