COURSE TITLE: THERMODYNAMICS AND KINETIC THEORY

COURSE CODE: PHY 305

LECTURERS: DR. AWE AND DR. JEGEDE

GROUP 1

FABUNMI TOBILOBA GRACE PHY/2013/017

ADEGBOYEGA OLUWASEGUN J. PHY/2013/002

SHITTU HAMID O. PHY/2013/033

BOLARINWA MICHEAL Y. STE/2014/055

RAHMAN MAHRUF KOLAWOLE PHY/2013/038

OFALEYE MOJISOLA O. SEC/2012/029

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

INTRODUCTION 3

OPERATIONAL TERMINOLOGIES 3–4

HISTORY ` 4-5

COMPONENTS OF DIESEL ENGINE 6-8

WORKING PRINCIPLE 9 – 11

APPLICATION 12

EFFICIENCY 13 – 14

ADVANTAGES 15

DISADVANTAGES 16

CONCLUSION AND REFERENCES 17

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 INTRODUCTION

The diesel engine (correctly known as a compression-ignition or CI engine) is an internal

combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel that has been injected into the combustion chamber is
caused by the high temperature which a gas achieves (i.e. the air) when greatly compressed (adiabatic
compression). Diesel engines by compressing only the air; increase the air temperature inside the cylinder
to such a high degree that it then ignites the diesel fuel in the combustion chamber. In compression-
ignition engines, glow plugs (combustion chamber pre-warmers) may be used to aid starting in cold
weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, or both. The original compression-ignition
engine operates on the "constant pressure" cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock.

The compression-ignition engine has the highest thermal efficiency (engine efficiency) of any
practical internal or external combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio and inherent lean
burn which enables heat dissipation by the excess air. A small efficiency loss is also avoided since
unburnt fuel is not present at valve overlap and therefore no fuel goes directly from the intake/injection to
the exhaust. Low speed compression-ignition engines (as used in ships and other applications where
overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can have a thermal efficiency that exceeds 50%.

SOME OPERATIONAL TERMINOLOGIES

 Compression Ratios

The compression ratio is a comparison of the volume of air in a cylinder before compression with its
volume after compression. A 16:1 compression ratio means that at the top of the compression stroke, the
air in the cylinder takes up 1/16 the volume it did when the piston was at the bottom of the compression
stroke. The higher compression ratios used in diesel engines result in greater thermal expansion of gases
in the cylinder following combustion. The end result is a higher percentage of fuel energy being
converted into useful power

 Compression Ignition
Because compression raises the air temperature above the fuel’s ignition temperature, combustion occurs
instantly as the fuel is injected, eliminating the need for a mechanical ignition system. This process is
called compression ignition. The elimination of spark plugs, coils, ignition, wiring, distributors, and
transistorized ignition controls is a major factor in the diesel’s simplicity and maintenance economy. It
also eliminates systems that are the cause of many performance problems in gasoline engines.

 Diesel Fuel
Diesel fuel contains more heat energy (BTUs or joules) than does gasoline. The diesel engine’s design,
Including its high compression ratio, is intended to extract the maximum amount of power from its fuel.
No gasoline or other internal combustion, reciprocating piston-driven engine can match the diesel

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engine’s ability to get the most power out of its fuel. Fuel efficiency in diesel engines can be as high as
40%. In contrast the gasoline engine, at peak efficiency, converts only about 25% of its fuel energy into
Usable power. The rest is lost as heat.

 Durability
Diesel engine cylinder blocks, heads, crankshafts, camshafts, and other major components are designed
to withstand operation at high compression ratios and high air temperatures. A typical heavy-duty diesel
truck engine will run for 250,000-500,000 miles (400 000-800 000 km) before it must be rebuilt.

 Bore and Stroke

These are terms used to define the size of an engine. Bore refers to the diameter of the engine’s cylinder
and stroke refers to the distance the piston travels from the top of the cylinder to the bottom. The highest
point of travel by the piston is called top dead center (TDC) and the lowest point of travel is called
bottom dead center (BDC). There is 180 0 of travel between TDC and BDC or simply put one stroke.

 Engine displacement
This term is used to compare one engine to another. Displacement refers to the total volume displaced by
all the pistons during one stroke. It is measured in cubic inches or liters. To get the displacement to the
volume of one cylinder is multiplied by the number of cylinders to obtain in the total engine
displacement.

 Degree of crankshaft rotation

All events occurring in an engine are related to the location of the piston because the piston is connected
to the crankshaft. Any location of the piston corresponds directly to a specific number of degrees of
crankshaft rotation.

 Firing Order
This is the order in which each of the cylinders in a multi cylinder engine fires (power stroke). If the
firing order of a cylinder engine is 1-4-3-2, this implies number 1 cylinder fires then the number 4
cylinder fires then the number 3 cylinder fires and so on. Engines are designed so that the power stroke
are as uniform as possible that is as the crankshaft rotates a certain number of degrees one of the
cylinders will go through a power stroke and this reduce vibrations and allows the power generated by
the engine to be applied to the load in a smoother fashion than if they were al to fire at once.

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 HISTORY OF THE DIESEL ENGINE

In the 1890s, Rudolf diesel invented an efficient, compression ignition, internal combustion engine
that bears his name. Early diesel engines were large and operated at low speeds due to the limitations
of their compressed air-assisted fuel injection systems. In its early years, the diesel engine was
competing with another heavy fuel engine concept – the hot- bulb engine invented by Akroyd – Stuart.
High – speed diesel engines were introduced in 1920s for commercial vehicle applications and in the
1930s for the passenger cars.

When it was invented Rudolph had to change it so that piston is filled with fuel. This piston will push up
the chamber then when it hits the top, the air mixes it and it ignites then it will push the piston back
down. Diesel made a mistake by filing his patent before building a working model of his new engine.
This would eventually cause him numerous problems, because the engine he would ultimately produce
differed significantly from the one he proposed. Diesel pursued thermal efficiency and the Carnot cycle at
the expense of mechanical efficiency. It was soon clear that the power needed to compress the air inside
the cylinder could not be generated using the amount of fuel Diesel proposed. Simply put, Diesel’s
engine would not run. Diesel corrected this problem by decreasing compression levels inside the cylinder
dramatically and increasing the amount of fuel used by a factor of eight. Both steps decreased operating
efficiency. Diesel’s engine now had to be liquid cooled to remove excess heat. He also abandoned the
theory of constant temperature operation in favor of constant pressure operation. In other words, enough
fuel would now be introduced into the cylinder so that expanding combustion gases could maintain a
constant pushing pressure on the piston through its entire power stroke. These changes brought Diesel’ s
engine closer to other engine designs of the day, With the exception of compression ignition, Diesel’s
engine now closely resembled an engine proposed by Otto Kohler five years earlier. Diesel steadfastly
insisted that his ideas were not influenced by others. His cold dismissal of such charges was viewed by
many peers as a sign of his guilt. Rather than revile a patent that reflected the changes in his design,
Diesel foolishly attempted to defend his 1892 patent. Much of Diesel’s later life was spent defending his
early ideas rather than formulating new ones. The years between 1892 and 1897 were Diesel’s most
productive. During this period, he supervised the building of the first diesel engines at the Augsburg
Engine Works. However, all did not go smoothly. Leaking valves and gaskets made reaching the high air
pressures needed to start combustion nearly impossible. When these problems were solved, the engine
exploded violently when the first fuel charge was injected into the cylinder. Numerous liquid fuels were
tried, with kerosene producing the best results. Vaporizing the fuel proved especially troublesome. An
air-blast system using an air compressor from a refrigerator was the first workable solution to this
problem. Vaporization was later refined with the development of a sieve-type atomizer. The piston was
also enlarged and the combustion chamber redesigned. A better fuel pump was installed and a crude fuel
distributor was devised. By February of 1897, after almost five years of extensive trial and error testing,
Diesel’s engine was ready for sale to business and industry. Although a far cry from Carnot’s perfect heat
engine, the diesel engine offered a thermal efficiency of over 30%. Fuel consumption was only one-half
that of the gasoline engine.

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 COMPONETS OF DIESEL ENGINE

Figure showing the components of a diesel engine

Cylinder Block: this is generally a single unit made from cast iron. In a liquid cooled diesel, the block
provides the structure and rigid frame for the engine’s cylinders.

Crankcase and oil pan: usually located on the bottom of the cylinder block. The crankcase is the area
around the crankshaft and a crankshaft bearing which encloses the rotating crankshaft and crankshaft
counter weights and directs returning oil into the oil pan. The oil pan is located at the base of the
crankcase which serves the purpose of collecting and storing the engines supply of lubricating oil.

Cylinder block Cylinder sleeve or bore

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Piston and Piston Rings: they transform the expanding gases into mechanical energy. The piston rides
in the cylinder line and is commonly made of aluminum or cast iron alloys. Each piston has several metal
rings around it to keep friction to a minimum and prevent combustion of gases from bypassing the piston.

Piston and piston rod

Crankshaft and bearings

Connecting Rod: this connects the piston to the crankshaft. The rod is made from drop forged heat
treated steal to provide required strength. Each end of the rod is bored with the smaller top connecting to
the piston and half of the large bore is bolted to allow the rod to be connected to the crankshaft.

Crankshaft: this transforms linear motion of the piston into a rotational motion which is transmitted into
the load. They are made of forged steel .the forged crankshaft is machined to produce the crankshaft
bearing and connecting rod bearing surface. The crankshaft has large weights called counter weight
which is balancing the weight of the rods and this weight often maintain even balanced force during the
rotation of the moving part.

Flywheel: located on one end of the crankshaft. They serve three purposes, namely;
i. reducing vibration by smoothing out the power stroke as each cylinder fires through its inertia
ii. it’s the mounting surface used for bolting the engine up to its load and
iii. The gear teeth around the perimeter of the flywheel contain in some diesel engine which allow the
starting motors to engage and crank the diesel.

Cylinder Head and Valves: the following are the functions performed by the cylinder head; provide the
top seal for the cylinder bore, provide the structure holding exhaust valves, fuel injector and necessary
linkages.

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 Engine valve

Timing gears, Camshaft and Valve Mechanism: the camshaft is used to ensure that all components
performs their functions at very precise intervals relative to the motion of the piston. A camshaft is a long
bar with egg-shaped eccentric lobes, one lobes for each valve and fuel injector and each lobes has a
follower which is forced up and down as its follows the profile of the cam lobe as the camshaft is rotated.
The followers of each lobe are connected to the engines valves and fuel injector through various kinds of
linkages called pushrods and rocker arms. The camshaft is drive by the engines crankshaft through a
series of gears called idler gears and timing gears. The gears allow rotation of the camshaft to correspond
to the rotation of the crankshaft and thereby allow opening and closing of the valve and injection of the
fuel. It thus increases the power or reduces cost. An engine can have one or more than one camshaft
which location varies depending on the type and make of the engine.

Valve Train camshaft and drive gear

Blower: this is the part of the air intake system which compresses the incoming fresh air for delivery to

the cylinder for combustion.

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 WORKING PRINCIPLE
A diesel engine usually operates by repeating a cycle of four stages or strokes.

1. Intake: air (light blue) is drawn into the cylinder through the open green air inlet valve on the
right as the piston moves down.
2. Compression: the inlet valve closes, the piston moves up, and compresses the air mixture, heating
through the central fuel injection valve and spontaneously ignites. Unlike with a gas engine no
sparking plug is needed to make this happen.
3. Power: as the air fuel mixture ignites and burns, it pushes the piston down, driving the crank shaft
(red wheel at bottom) that sends power to the wheels.
4. Exhaust: the outlet valve on the left opens to let out the exhaust gases, pushed out by the returning
piston.

A diesel engine operates by transforming the heat energy of the fuel burning inside its working
cylinder to mechanical energy.
When a piston moves down at the intake stroke through the open inlet valve an air charge comes into the
cylinder. When the inlet valve closes and the piston moves upwards the air compression takes place. At
this point the air temperature goes up sharply. In the end of the compression stroke, fuel is delivered
through an injector into the cylinder under high pressure.
This injection process is divided into two, namely; direct and indirect.
The direct-Injection (DI) or Open Chamber Engine: In this design, the fuel is injected directly into the
cylinder chamber. It majorly has two design philosophies:
1. High-swirl design, which has a deep bowl in the piston, a low number of holes in the injector and
moderate injection pressures.
2. Low-swirl or quiescent (i. e inactive) engines are characterized by having a shallow bowl in the
piston, a large number of holes in the injector and higher injection pressures.
Smaller engines tend to be of the high-swirl type, while bigger engines tend to be of the quiescent type.
All newer diesel engines use direct fuel injection and Injection/Injector Timing is critical.

The indirect-Injection Engine (IDI) on the other hand, the fuel is injected into a small pre-
chamber attached to the main cylinder chamber. The combination of rapidly swirling air in the pre-
chamber and the jet-like expansion of combustion gases from the pre-chamber into the cylinder enhances
the mixing and combustion of the fuel and air. This design has the advantage of less noise and faster
combustion, but typically suffers from poorer fuel economy.

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 ‘
(a) direct injector (b) indirect injector

While being injected, fuel is finely sprayed, mixed with hot air in the cylinder and evaporated, thus
making a fuel-air mixture.

The air-fuel mixture ignition during the diesel engine operation is achieved as a result of air compression
to the extent of the air-fuel mixture self-ignition. The fuel is injected by injectors with fast operating
electromagnetic valves. The moment of injection beginning and its duration are determined by the
moment of beginning and duration of voltage supply to the electromagnetic valve by the Common Rail
system Electronic Control Unit. The fuel-air mixture burning takes place at the moment when the piston
starts to go down. As soon as the fuel-air mixture is burnt down, the process of cylinder expansion and
cleaning begins through the exhaust valve.

Opening and closing of the intake and exhaust valves is coordinated by the gas distribution
mechanism.

With the diesel engine operation start, the turbocharger is actuated by the exhaust gas energy. the
starting system for the diesel engine is comprise of two 12volt lead-acid storage batteries,a starting
motor, a starter swithc voltage regulator and alternator. In starting the engine, the starter switch is
depressed, battery current energizes the starter motor which causes the armature to turn. The cranking
tourque is transmitted by a sprag clutch from the starting motor armature to the engine fly-wheel gear.
The sprag plug will keep the starter pinion in mesh with the fly-wheel untill starting is assured or the start
circuit is interrupted. When the diesel engine is running, abelt arrangement drives the alternator which
has an electrical output that maintains the battery. The regulator regulates the voltage and current output
of the alternator and maintains the battery in a fully charged condition.The transfer of energy (power)
generated by the diesel engine to the drive of tractor (agricultural machine) in which it is installed is done
from the engine flywheel via the clutch.

THE FUEL SYSTEM

The fuel system comprises of the fuel bank, injectors, pipes, manifolds, pump, strainer, filter and
connecting fuel lines. When the engine is started by the starting motor, fuel is drawn from the fuel tank
through the strainer by a gear driven fuel pump. The fuel enters the fuel pump leaving the pump under
pressure forced through the filter into the inlet manifold in the cylinder head, where it passes through
pipes into the injectors. Fuel is filtered through the elements in the injector and atomized through small
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spray tip, orifices into the combustion chamber. Excess fuel from the injectors returns through the fuel
outlet manifold and connecting fuel lines to the fuel tank. Since the fuel is constantly circulating through
the injectors, it serves to cool the injectors and to carry off any air in the fuel system.

The fuel system

THE PRINCIPLE OF THERMODYNAMICS IN DIESEL ENGINE

The second law states that heat flow spontaneously from a body of higher temperature to a body
of lower temperature but it does not flow in the reverse direction. This concept of the second law of
thermodynamics applied to heat engine is equally applicable on the internal combustion engines used in
our cars, motorcycles, ships, airplanes, etc. In the internal combustion engines the heat is generated by
combustion of fuel inside the engine. The combustion of fuel takes place due to the compression of the
fuel in the diesel engines. Some part of the heat generated inside the engine is used to perform the work
moving piston inside the engine cylinder. The piston is connected to the crankshaft via connecting rod.
The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into the rotary motion of the crankshaft, which is
converted to the rotary motion of the wheels via gear box. The remaining part of the heat generated inside
the engine is released to the atmosphere as the exhaust gases or tailpipe emissions. In this case the engine
where heat is generated is called as source, whereas the atmosphere where heat is released is called as
sink. As per the second law of thermodynamics, higher the temperature of the source and lower the
temperature of the sink, higher is the efficiency of the engine.
Diesel Cycle:

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APPLICATION OF THE DIESEL FUEL AND THE DIESEL ENGINE

The many applications of the modern diesel engine can be grouped into two broad categories:
Mobile applications and Stationary applications.

Mobile Applications: In mobile applications, the engine propels the vehicle or machine upon which it is
mounted from one location to another. In most cases, the diesel engine pushes or pulls a load while also
driving external accessories. For example, the engine may propel its machine via the powertrain to the
wheels, while another train of gears from the engine drives a power takeoff. A power takeoff (PTO) is
essentially a supplemental drive. The PTO may drive another machine that is pulled behind the first one.
A good example of this is a farm tractor pulling and powering a hay baler. All mobile applications
require a power train to convert engine speed to the desired machine speed. Examples of mobile diesel
engine applications include:
Cars, trucks, and buses, Ships and boats, Locomotives, Railcars, Construction equipment, Forestry
equipment, Harvesting and farm equipment, Wheel and crawler tractors.

Stationary Applications: Diesel engines used in stationary applications produce power from a fixed
location for industrial use. They are often called power units and are mounted on a stand, transmitting
their power to the load through a coupler or driveline. Because no mechanism is needed to propel the
engine and machinery, the distribution of power is simplified. Modern stationary applications for diesel
engines include: Electric power generators (gen-sets), Industrial PTO units, Motorized pumps, Cranes
and power shovels and Diesel starting units.

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 EFFICIENCY

Since the compression and power strokes of this idealized cycle are adiabatic, the efficiency can be
calculated from the constant pressure and constant volume processes. The input and output energies and
the efficiency can be calculated from the
Temperatures and specific heats:

It is convenient to express this efficiency in terms of the compression ratio rC =V1/V2 and the expansion
ratio rE = V1/V3.

The efficiency can be expressed in terms of the specific heats and temperatures:

Since the ideal gas law PV=nRT and g= CP/CV, this can be written:

Using the fact that Va=Vd=V1 and Pc=Pb from the diagram:

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Dividing the numerator and denominator by V1Pc:

Using of the adiabatic condition PVg = constant:

Hence the efficiency can be written as:

For many years, the basic design and operation of diesel engines remained unchanged. Manufacturers
concentrated on increasing engine power output and overall reliability. However, concerns over exhaust
emissions and the need to conform to strict emission standards have led diesel manufacturers to design
electronically controlled fuel injection systems and emission controls. The electronic controls are
similar to those that have been adopted by the automotive industry for gasoline engines. They use sensors
to monitor operating conditions, a computer to calculate the ideal fuel and engine settings for these
conditions, and electromagnetic actuators to make the necessary adjustments. Diesel engine technicians
must understand how these electronic controls operate in order to service them properly. Mastering new
troubleshooting techniques and test equipment is essential for success.
Other significant technological developments include:
Use of turbochargers and superchargers to increase power output and engine responsiveness under
load. Changes in combustion chamber, piston, and valve designs to increase fuel burning efficiency and
power output.
Advanced materials used to construct pistons, connecting rods, and other engine components.
Use of high-efficiency air-to-air after coolers resulting in a 3%-5% improvement in fuel mileage and
reduced exhaust emissions.
Increased use of unit fuel injectors and common rail injection systems, which are both, capable of
attaining higher injection pressures than inline pump fuel injection systems. Matched intake and exhaust
flow systems. Low-flow cooling systems and extended life coolants. Computerized fuel management
systems and variable injection timing. Introduction of ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel, exhaust gas
recirculation systems, catalytic converters, oxidation catalysts, and particulate trap filters (all designed to
lower emissions and improve engine performance).
The new generation of diesel engines operates on the basic principles set forth by Rudolf Diesel
over a century ago, but they offer today’s diesel service technician many challenges and opportunities to
learn new skills.

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 ADVANTAGES

1. Diesels are more efficient: Most gasoline engines convert about 30 percent of their fuel energy into
actual power. A traditional diesel converts about 45 percent and an advanced diesel can hit up to about 50
percent.
2. Diesels are more reliable: Because they don’t need high-voltage ignition systems, diesel engines
never fail for lack of a spark. They also don’t emit radio frequency emissions that can interfere with a
vehicle’s other electronic systems.
3. Diesels run cooler: Because they are more efficient, diesel engines release less waste heat while in
operation.
4. Diesels last longer: Diesel engine parts are generally stronger than gas engine components, and diesel
fuel has superior lubricating properties. As a result, diesel engines tend to last twice as long as gas-
powered ones.
5. Diesel fuel is safer: Diesel fuel doesn’t release fumes like gasoline does. It’s more difficult to burn
and won’t explode like its lighter counterpart.
6. Diesels are more easily turbo-charged: Put under sufficient pressure, gasoline engines will
spontaneously detonate. By contrast, the amount of super- or turbo-charging pressures diesel engines can
endure are limited only by the strength of the engines themselves.
7. Diesels produce minimal carbon monoxide: This makes diesel generators useful in mines and
submarines, environments in which gasoline engine exhaust would prove deadly.
8. Diesel engines can easily accept synthetic fuels: Non-petroleum-based biofuels will run easily in
diesel engines, whereas gas engines need to be significantly modified to accept such alternative fuels.
9.Engine Longevity: Diesel engines are generally built stronger than gasoline engines and tend to last
longer.
10. Excellent for towing: Diesels produce lots of torque (pulling power) at low engine speeds. For
example, a four-cylinder diesel can produce as much torque as a six-cylinder gas engine. Horsepower
ratings for diesels tend to be lower, however, because horsepower is a function of engine speed and
diesels have lower maximum speeds than gasoline engines. In other words, they aren’t a good choice for
sports cars.
11. Great fuel economy: Diesel cars can deliver fantastic gas mileage often approaching that of hybrid
cars. This may be one reason that the Europeans like diesels so much as fuel costs in Europe can be
extremely high.
12. Can use alternative fuels: Unlike gasoline engines, diesels can run on renewable fuels such as
biodiesel with no major modifications.
13. Mechanical simplicity: Gasoline engines require sophisticated computer-controlled fuel and spark
systems to control engine functions. Diesels use a single master fuel pump, and there is no spark system.

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DISADVANTAGES
1. Operating noise: Unlike gasoline engines, which produce most of their noise from their easily
muffled exhausts, a good deal of the diesel engine’s noise comes directly from the engine itself. 2.
2. Initial expense: Diesel engines employ much higher compression ratios than gasoline engines.
Therefore, they must be built stronger than standard gasoline engines. This makes them heavier
and a bit more expensive to build.
3. Engine emissions and maintenance: Though the diesel engine was invented well over a century
ago, little attention was paid to emissions until recently.
4. Poor cold-weather starting: Older diesels were difficult to start in cold weather. These diesels
used old-fashioned glow plugs, which had to heat for 10 to 20 seconds before the engine could be
started. Newer diesels feature significantly faster pre-heating systems and will start almost
immediately, even in very cold weather.
5. Smoke: Diesel vehicles have a reputation of being smoky and smelly, a throwback to the low-
tech diesels found in older vehicles. Today’s diesels are far more refined and are almost entirely
smoke- and odor-free. If you are still on the fence as to whether a diesel powered car is in your
future, your next step might be to talk to a diesel owner. Get his or her take on the “diesel
lifestyle” and see if it seems worth trying out. 50% of European car owners must be on to
something!

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CONCLUSION

Have you ever gazed in amazement as a giant truck crawls slowly up a hill? Probably not! Such things
happen every day. But thinking about what happen for a moment, how a huge, heavy load is being
systematically lifted against the power of gravity using nothing more than fuel. You might agree that
what you see is remarkable. Diesel engines are the power behind our biggest machines e.g. trucks, trains,
ships and submarines. On the face of it, they are similar to ordinary gasoline (petrol) engines but they
generate more power, more efficiently by working in a different way.

REFERENCES

Wikipedia: www.wikipedia.org

www.explainthatstuff.com

Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu

Wyotech

Mechanical science Module 1: Diesel Engine Fundamentals

The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.

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