Accepted Manuscript

Experimental study on the heat transfer of MWCNT/water nanofluid flowing in

a car radiator

Guilherme Azevedo Oliveira, Edwin Martin Cardenas Contreras, Enio Pedone

Bandarra Filho

PII: S1359-4311(16)30744-X
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.05.086
Reference: ATE 8301

To appear in: Applied Thermal Engineering

Received Date: 14 November 2015

Revised Date: 19 March 2016
Accepted Date: 15 May 2016

Please cite this article as: G.A. Oliveira, E.M. Cardenas Contreras, E.P. Bandarra Filho, Experimental study on the
heat transfer of MWCNT/water nanofluid flowing in a car radiator, Applied Thermal Engineering (2016), doi: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.05.086

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EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE HEAT TRANSFER OF MWCNT/WATER

NANOFLUID FLOWING IN A CAR RADIATOR

GUILHERME AZEVEDO OLIVEIRA

Federal University of Uberlandia
School of Mechanical Engineering
Av. Joao Naves de Avila, 2121 - Santa Monica
Uberlandia - MG –Brazil - 38400-902
Phone: +553432394148 ; Fax: +55 34 32394206
Email: guilherme_esd@mec.ufu.br

EDWIN MARTIN CARDENAS CONTRERAS

Federal University of Uberlandia
School of Mechanical Engineering
Av. Joao Naves de Avila, 2121 - Santa Monica
Uberlandia - MG –Brazil - 38400-902
Phone: +553432394148 ; Fax: +55 34 32394206
Email: emcardenas.1989@gmail.com

ENIO PEDONE BANDARRA FILHO*

Federal University of Uberlandia
School of Mechanical Engineering
Av. Joao Naves de Avila, 2121 - Santa Monica
Uberlandia - MG –Brazil -38400-902
Phone: +553432394148 ; Fax: +55 34 32394206
Email: bandarra@mecanica.ufu.br

*corresponding author
Abstract

This study is concerned with an experimental evaluation of the thermal performance of

multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) dispersed in distilled water flowing inside an

automotive radiator. A two-step method called high-pressure homogenization was used

to disperse the MWCNT nanoparticles in water, in concentrations varying between 0.05

and 0.16%wt. Experiments have been carried out in an experimental set up composed

by a wind tunnel that simulates the air flow through a car radiator, and a hot fluid

circuit, that circulates the nanofluid inside the radiator. The air flow rate was maintained

constant at 0.175 kg/s. The mass flow rate of the hot fluid varied from 30 up to 70 g/s

and the inlet temperature was maintained constant at 50, 60, 70 and 80ºC, respectively.

The temperature drop and heat transfer rate have been investigated. A slight- decrease

on the heat transfer rate, up to 5%, was found for all test conditions. On the other hand

as the nanoparticle concentration increased, the heat transfer rate decreased.

1. Introduction

Nowadays the great challenge to thermal engineers is how to improve the thermal

efficiency in heat transfer processes. In this direction, the optimization of the devices is

a common practice, which seeks to improve performance focusing on miniaturization,

reducing size, and consequently costs. The advent of the nanotechnology in the last

decades resulted in a possibility of a wide range of applications, including thermal

systems. In this conditions, the concept of nanofluids emerged as a new class of fluids

composed by nanoparticles (metals, oxides, carbon nanotubes, etc.) sized, usually,

between 1 and 100nm dispersed in a base fluid (water, ethylene glycol, oil) (Choi,

1995). These fluids are alternative to replace the common fluids used in heat transfer

processes. As solids have higher thermal conductivity compared to liquids, nanofluids

tend to have higher thermal conductivity compared to base fluid. A large number of

studies concerning on thermal properties of nanofluids are found in literature. The

classical physical models sucha as Maxwel (1873), Hamilton and Crosser (1962), Xie et

al. (2005), Leong et al. (2006), analyzed by Oliveira et al. (2014), failed to predict

accurately the experimental results. The same behavior is observed to predict the

viscosity. Many experimental studies have been reported in the literature and most of

them showed an anomalous increase in the thermal conductivity and viscosity of

nanofluids. Eastman et. al. (1997), Lee et. al. (1999), Wang et al. (1999) and Das et. al.

(2003) conducted experimental studies on thermal conductivity of nanofluids (metals

and oxides) of different materials and achieved great improvement compared to the base

fluids. Cárdenas Gómez et al. (2014) conducted an experimental study of MWCNT of

different geometric characteristics and concentrations. In terms of thermal conductivity,

they found that the nanofluid sample with the largest aspect ratio (length by diameter)

presented the highest increase, of 17%, related to the base fluid, distilled water. On the

other hand, the viscosity of the same nanofluid sample was increased by 11.3%. Elias et

al. (2014) evaluated the thermal properties of alumina/coolant nanofluid. The

concentration tested varied between 0 and 1 %vol and the tests were performed in the

temperature range from 10 to 50ºC. The thermal conductivity was 8% higher than the

base fluid. The viscosity also increased and this effect was more pronounced at higher

temperatures. The density was also measured showing a slightly increase of 2% for the

higher concentration.

Concerning the application of nanofluids in cooling systems of internal combustion

engines, Nieh et al. (2014) investigated the thermal performance of TiO 2 and Al2O3-

water/Ethylene Glycol nanofluids in radiators. The nanoparticles were dispersed in

water using 0.2wt% of chitosan, and then mixed with ethylene glycol. The thermal
properties of nanofluids were analyzed and then the nanofluids were tested in a radiator.

The heat transfer capacity was reported to increased about 25.6%, while the pressure

drop and pumping power the augmentation was 6.1 and 2.5, respectively. Hussein et al.

(2014) investigated the heat transfer enhancement of TiO2-Water and SiO2-Water

nanofluids. The experimental setup included an automotive radiator. The nanofluids

were tested in an experimental set-up with the inlet temperature at the radiator between

60 and 80ºC, the volumetric flow varied from 2 up to 8 L/min. A significant increase on

the Nusselt number was found for both fluids, indicating that these fluids can increase

the heat transfer rate in car radiators. Muhammad ali et al. (2015) carried out

experiments evaluating the heat transfer performance of ZnO-Water nanofluids in a

radiator, with volumetric concentrations between 0.01 and 0.3%. The heat transfer

enhancement for the nanofluids with volumetric concentration of 0.2% was 46% higher

compared to base fluid. Bhimani et al. (2013) investigated the thermal performance of

TiO2-Water Nanofluids in an automotive radiator, with a volumetric flow varying from

90 to 120 l/min. The nanoparticle concentrations varied between 0.1 and 1% vol. They

found an increase up to 45% in the heat transfer efficiency for low concentrations.

Naraki et al. (2013) investigated experimentally CuO/Water nanofluids under laminar

flow regime in a car radiator. Concentrations up to 0.4% were used and the inlet

temperature varied from 50 to 80ºC. The overall heat transfer coefficient was 8% higher

than the base fluid and decreases with the increment of the inlet temperature.

Peyghambarzadeh et al. (2011) investigated experimentally an automotive radiator with

Al2O3/water and Al2O3/Ethylene-glycol nanofluids. The liquid flow varied from 2 to 6

L/min and the nanofluid concentration between 0 and 1%. The results shown an

increase up to 40% on the heat transfer of nanofluids compared to the base fluid.
Wang et al. (2015) investigated experimentally the thermal conductivity of different

carbon nanotubes/water nanofluids, and found an increase of 16.2% for long single-

walled (aspect ratio=3000) CNT/water nanofluid, at 60ºC, compared to deionized water.

The thermal conductivity increases with the nanoparticle concentration and temperature.

Leong et al. (2010) investigated analytically the thermal performance of Cu/EG

nanofluids in an automotive radiator. They utilized data from the literature and

empirical correlations to modeling the thermal properties. The global heat transfer

coefficient for the nanofluids was 3.8% for nanofluids higher than to base fluid, for a

concentration 2% and Reynolds number of 6000 for the air side and 5000 for the

coolant side. This enhancement could provide a reduction of 18.7% of the radiator

frontal area, with a penalty of 12.1% in the pumping power.

Present paper reports results from an experimental investigation focusing on the thermal

performance of MWCNT/water-EG nanofluids inside an automotive radiator. The range

of the mass flow rate varied from 30 to 70 g/s, the inlet temperature from 50 to 80ºC

and concentration from 0 to 0.3 wt%. Additionally, the nanofluids properties were

measured experimentally. To the authors´ knowledge, no other work with similar data

coverage has been found in the literature.

2. Experimental Set-up and Procedure

2.1 Nanofluid preparation

The preparation method for nanofluids is a delicate operation and requires special

attention. In other words, it is not a simple solid–liquid mixture. The physical–chemical

phenomena that take place during nanofluid preparation, on a quasi-atomic scale,are

still poorly understood. According to Sundar et al. (2014), stable, lasting suspensions
without agglomerations and, additionally, without chemical alterations of the fluid, are

essential requirements of nanofluids that must be satisfied when preparing the fluids.

In the present study, the nanofluids were prepared using a high-pressure

homogenization process, which is a two-step method preparation. A solution containing

3%wt. containing multi-walled carbon nanotube was acquired from Nanostructured &

Amorphous Materials, Inc. (NanoAmor). The values of the specific heat and density of

the carbon nanotubes were provided by the manufacturer, used were c p = 710 J/kgK and

r = 2.1 g/cm3.

In the high-pressure homogenization process, the agglomerates of nanoparticles are

broken, contributing to the homogeneity and stability of the suspension according to

Bandarra Filho et al. (2014). All the nanofluid samples were prepared using the same

routine which starts when the mixture goes to an interaction chamber, where the

combination of 3 mechanisms break nanoparticle agglomerations: irregular strong

impacts with the inner wall of the interaction chamber, microbubbles induced by

cavitation implosion energy, and high rate of shear flow. Figure 1 shows high-pressure

homogenization process.
2.2 Nanofluid characterization

It is essential to fully characterize the nanofluids for an accurate heat transfer analysis.

In other words, it is important to determine the thermal properties of nanofluids, mainly

over the temperature range of interest. In the present study, thermal conductivity, (k),

and viscosity, (µ), were measured experimentally, while the specific heat, (cp), and

density, (ρ), were calculated based on mass and energy balance relations, from the

literature, proposed by Pak and Cho (1998) and Xuan and Roetzel (2000), as follows:

= ∙ + (1 − ) ∙ (1)

∙ = ∙ ∙ + (1 − ) ∙ ∙ (2)

Where the subscripts bf, nf and np represents base fluid, nanofluid and nanoparticle,

respectively.

The viscosity of nanofluids was measured using a viscometer SVM 3000 (Anton Paar).

The measuring principle with Peltier thermostat enables wide viscosity and temperature

ranges with a single system. This equipment is compact and versatile in use, with a

good advantage that only small amounts of sample are required.

The thermal conductivity of nanofluids was measured using a transient hot bridge

sensor (Linseis). The transient hot bridge is an evolution of transient hot wire method,

however it remains a transient method, that is better than stationary one, specially due to

shorter measuring time. Also, thermal diffusivity is measured in parallel to the thermal

conductivity. In this method, a strip, that is immerged in the fluid sample, emits a

constant heat flux during the measurement. The advantages of this method compared to

the common hot wire method are related to the reduced heat loss by the electrical
conductors, the hot bridge has a better sensibility for temperature variations and it is less

sensitive for mechanical stress.

2.3 Experimental set-up

In order to evaluate the thermal performance of nanofluids with carbon nanotubes, an

experimental device was constructed in order to determine the heat transfer rate in

automotive radiators. Table 1 shows the geometry of the tested radiator. The

experimental set-up consists of a wind tunnel responsible to simulate the air conditions

and a hot fluid circuit to evaluate the nanofluid characteristics. Figure 2 shows the

schematic diagram of the experimental set-up. The air circuit was constructed to control

and measure the air conditions upstream and downstream the automotive radiator. The

air is heated by a group of electrical resistors of 6 kW, adjusted by a PID control,

aftermixing it with ambient air from the admission duct in the plenum. After being

heated, the air flow is straightened up in a honeycomb rectifier before entering the

radiator. After this, the air is directed towards a volumetric flow rate measuring section,

which includes a nozzles plate and two flow rectifiers located upstream and downstream

of the plate. The nozzles plate includes five aluminum nozzles of different diameters in

order to allow readings over a wide range of volumetric flow rates. Leaving the flow

measuring section the air is directed toward the entrance of the circulating fan. The fan

is run by a 15 HP motor controlled by a frequency inverter in such a way that the air

flow rate through the radiator can be varied over a wide range. The air mass flow rate

was maintained constant at 0.175 kg/s.

The air temperature measurement is performed using two meshes of 12 thermocouples

each: one upstream and one downstream of the radiator. The wet bulb temperature is
measured at the air inlet section, and the properties of the air downstream of the radiator

are calculated based on the conservation of the absolute humidity. For an accurate

measurement of the volumetric flow rate of the air, a calibrated set of 5 nozzles was

used, installed in a plate according to ASHRAE Standard 41.2 (1987). The nozzles have

been machined in an aluminum block forming an internal geometry according to ASME

(1989). The volumetric flow rate of the air was measured in terms of the pressure drop

across the nozzles plate by a differential pressure drop transducer. A similar differential

pressure transducer was used in the measurement of the air pressure drop across the

automotive radiator.

To measure the air flow, the wind tunnel has a plate of 5 nozzles and the air differential

pressure passing through the nozzles is measured by a U manometer. From this

differential pressure, the flow rate can be determined air mass, using the following

equations:

∙ ∙ ∙∆
̇ = (3)

̇ =∑ , ∙ ̇ (4)

The index i=1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 indicates the nozzle and , are the discharge coefficient

for each nozzle.

, = 0,9975 − 0,00653 ∙ (5)

,
The hot fluid circuit consists of a micropump capable of providing flow rates up to 12

L/min and supports fluids at elevated temperatures. The mass flow rate can be varied by

acting of the frequency inverter of the micropump motor. Upon leaving the micropump,

the liquid is directed toward a Coriolis mass flow meter and then enter in the heat

exchanger reservoir, called thermostatic bath as can be seen in Fig. 3. In order to control

the inlet temperature of the hot fluid, a thermostatic bath was built, which provides the

desired temperature of the fluid in the inlet of the radiator. An overview of experimental

bench is showed in Fig. 4.

The inlet and outlet sections were connected to T-junctions and the temperatures were

measured using RTDs, resistance temperature detectors, located at a T in the inlet and

outlet sections, respectively, as well as the pressure transducers were installed to

measure the pressure. The heat exchange rate can be determined from the equation

below:

̇ = ̇ ∙ , ∙∆ (6)

Where,

∆ = , − , (7)

The measuring uncertainty of these parameters can be found in Table 2. Each

thermocouple used in the experimental facility has been calibrated along with the data

acquisition system in a thermostatic bath. In this study, the method used to calculate the

uncertainty in the measurement, which used a confidence interval of 95%, was the least

squares method suggested by Abernethy and Thompson (1980). The differential

pressure transducers accuracy was obtained from a certificate provided by the

manufacturer. Confirmation tests with a water U tube have been performed in order to

check for the manufacturer suggested accuracy.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Nanofluid Properties

3.1.1 Viscosity

The experimental results for the viscosity showed a significant increase for nanofluid,

compared to water, and also an increase with nanoparticle concentration. For a

temperature of 30ºC, this increase was 8.5, 20.6 and 54% for the concentrations 0.05,

0.08 and 0.16wt%, respectively. The maximum increase in the viscosity was 54% for

the 0.16%wt concentration at 30ºC. For all samples tested, the viscosity decreases when

the temperature increases, and for higher temperatures the increase on the viscosity for

nanofluids compared to based fluid is lower, for example, the viscosity for nanofluid

0.16wt% concentration was 40% higher than for the water at 90ºC, and 54% higher at

30ºC. These results can be observed in Fig.5.

3.1.2 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity tests were performed for ambient temperature of 25ºC and 50º.

Results show a slightly increase on the thermal conductivity, as compared to distilled

water. The enhancement on the thermal conductivity was about 5% at 50ºC, for the

concentrations 0.08 and 0.16wt%. For the temperature of 25ºC the enhancement was

lower, 1.6 % for 0.16wt% concentration. A small decrement on the thermal conductivity

for concentration of 0.08wt% was observed. It is important to mention that the observed

thermal conductivity enhancements were within the maximum uncertainty of the

experiments, that is, 3% of measured value. These results are shown in the Fig. 6.
3.2. Heat transfer

3.2.1.Results validation

Nusselt number was experimentally obtained for distilled water and compared

with Dittus-Boelter correlation (1930),

. .
= 0.023 ∙ ∙ (8)

The heat transfer rate was also compared between the two main circuits (air and hot

fluid) of the experimental setup, that is, the energy balance verification was carried out

over the radiator air and water control volumes.

̇ = ̇ . , .∆ (9)

̇ = ̇ . , .∆ (10)

For an ideal condition, with no heat losses to the environment, ̇ = ̇ . The error on

the energy balance was evaluated as described in the Eq. (13).

̇ ̇
(%) = 100 ∙ ̇
(11)

This error varied between 1 and 10%, that indicates that the experimental results

obtainedfor the heat transfer rates are reliable. The error obtained for the energy balance

between air and liquid side can be observed in Fig. 8.

3.2.2.Thermal performance

As mentioned before, the nanofluids were tested at different MWCNT concentrations,

0.05, 0.08 and 0.16 wt%, and mass flow rates varying from 30 up to 70 g/s. This mass

flow rate range is lower than a real car cooling system. The tests were conducted at
different inlet temperatures 50, 60, 70 and 80ºC to evaluate the effect on the thermal

performance of the radiator.

Results show that the heat transfer rate were sligthly lower for the nanofluidsif

compared to water. Also, for all fluids tested in the radiator, the heat transfer rate

increases with liquid mass flow rated, as expected. Different concentrations have shown

different decrements when compared to the base fluid, and the heat transfer rate

decreases when the concentration increases. For the concentration 0.5wt%, the heat

transfer rate was almost the same of distilled water, as observed in Fig.9. For the

concentration 0.08wt%, the heat transfer rate obtained values between 3 and 8.8% lower

than the base fluid. The highest difference was achieved for 50ºC inlet temperature and

mass flow rate of 30g/s. For 80ºC and 70g/s, the decrement was lower, about 3%. These

results can be seen in Fig.10. Finally, for the highest concentration, 0.16%wt, Fig. 11,

the heat transfer rate was more significant, varying between 7.3% for 80ºC and 70g/s

and 17% for 80ºC and 30g/s.

4. Conclusions

In this work, an experimental bench was constructed toevaluate the thermal

performance of nanofluids flowing inside an automotive radiator. The thermal

performance of MWCNT/water nanofluids was determinated for different inlet

temperatures (50 - 80ºC) and mass flow rates (30-70 g/s). The viscosity and thermal

conductivity of nanofluids was also experimentally measured in the temperature range

from 30 up to 90ºC. The analysis of the experimental results permitted the following

conclusions:
· According to the experimental results, the viscosity of nanofluidsresulted

significantly higher than base fluid. Results show a maximum enhancement of

54% for concentration of 0.16%wt at 30ºC. The viscosity was strongly

dependent on temperature and decreased when temperature increases. For higher

temperatures, the increment of the viscosity were lower, 40% for concentration

of 0.16%wt at 90ºC.

· The thermal conductivity of nanofluids resulted slightly higher than pure water

for 50ºC temperature with concentrations of 0.08 and 0.16%wt. For ambient

temperature, the thermal conductivity of nanofluid wascloser to the water,

indicating that the enhancement on the thermal conductivity can be accentuated

at higher temperatures.

· The heat transfer rates presented slighty lower values for the MWCNT

nanofluids compared to the distilled water. The higher heat transfer decrement,

17%, was achieved for concentration of 0.16%wt.

· The experimental results demonstrated that the heat transfer enhancementsof

nanofluids are strongly dependent of the concentration.

· Heat transfer rates were found dependent of the temperature. An increase in the

temperature from 50ºCto 80ºC, presentedabout 180%of increment in the heat

transfer rate for water.

· The greater heat transfer rates were obtained with distilled water instead of

nanofluid, indicating that this nanofluid is not ideal to replace coolant. Thus,

new tests will be performed with different nanofluids and concentrations.

 Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledge the support given by CNPq, CAPES and FAPEMIG to this

investigation. The authors would like to extend the acknowledgement to the FCA FIAT

CHRYSLER Automoveis Brasil Ltda.

Nomenclature

A area [m2]
a parameter that depends on Reynolds
CP specific heat at constant pressure [J/kgK]
CD Discharge coefficient
k thermal conductivity [W/mK]
L length of tube [m]
m& mass flow rate [kg/s]
heat transfer rate [W]
r aspect ratio
T temperature [°C]
wt mass concentration

Greek letters
ΔT differential temperature across the tube [°C]
m dynamic viscosity [kg/ms]
φ mass concentration
ρ density [kg/m3]

nondimensionals
Nu Nusselt number
Re Reynolds number

Subscripts
bf base fluid
CNT carbon nanotube
EG Ethylene Glycol
in inlet
nf nanofluid
p nanoparticle
out outlet
tun tunnel
lm logarithmic mean
liq liquid
air air
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 FIGURES

Figure 1 – High-pressure homogenization process.

 Figure 2 – Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up.

Figure 3– Thermostatic bath constructed to heat the hot fluid.

Figure 4– Overview of the experimental facility.
 x 10-3
1.4
Water
CNT 0.05wt%
1.2
CNT 0.08wt%
CNT 0.16wt%
1
m(Pa-s)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
T(ºC)
Figure 5 – Experimental results of viscosity of distilled water and MWCNT with respect

to temperature range.

0.8
WATER
MWCNT 0.05wt%
0.75 MWCNT 0.08wt%
MWCNT 0.16wt%
k (W/m-K)

0.7

0.65

0.6

0.55
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
T (ºC)

Figure 6 – Experimental results of thermal conductivity of distiled water and MWCNT

nanofluids according to the temperature.

 250

200
Nu

150

100
Nu (Dittus-Boelter)

±20%
Nuexp (WATER)

50
20000 25000 30000 35000 40000 45000 50000 55000
Re
Figure 7 – Comparison of the experimental results obtained for distilled water and

theDittusBoelter correlation.

20
WATER (50ºC)
WATER (60ºC)
WATER (70ºC)
15 WATER (80ºC)
error(%)

10

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
mliq (g/s)
Figure 8 – Comparison of the error obtained for the energy balance between air and

liquid side.
 8
Water (T in =50ºC)
7 Water (T in=60ºC)
Water (T in =70ºC)
6 Water (T in=80ºC)
CNT 0.05wt% (T in=50ºC)
CNT 0.05wt% (T in=60ºC)
5
Q[kW]

CNT 0.05wt% (T in =70ºC)

CNT 0.05wt% (T in=80ºC)
4

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
mliq [g/s]
Figure 9 – Comparison of the heat transfer rate obtained for distilled water and

nanofluid with concentration of 0.05wt% in relation to the mass flow rate.

8
Water (T in=50ºC)
7 Water (T in =60ºC)
Water (T in=70ºC)
6
Water (T in =80ºC)
CNT 0.08wt% (T in=50ºC)
CNT 0.08wt% (T in=60ºC)
5
Q[kW]

CNT 0.08wt% (T in =70ºC)

CNT 0.08wt% (T in=80ºC)
4

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
mliq [g/s]
Figure 10 – Comparison of the heat transfer rate obtained for distilled water and

nanofluid with concentration of 0.08wt% in relation to the mass flow rate.

 8
Water (T in =50ºC)
7 Water (T in =60ºC)
Water (T in =70ºC)
6
Water (T in =80ºC)
CNT 0.16wt% (T in =50ºC)
CNT 0.16wt% (T in =60ºC)
5
Q[kW]

CNT 0.16wt% (T in=70ºC)

CNT 0.16wt% (T in =80ºC)
4

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
mliq [g/s]
Figure 11 – Comparison of the heat transfer rate obtained for distilled water and

nanofluid with concentration of 0.16wt% in relation to the mass flow rate.

 TABLES

Table 1 – Geometry characteristics of the tested car radiator.

Width 480 mm
Height 300 mm
Thickness 30 mm
Tube dimensions 13 mm x 3 mm
(width x height)
Number of tubes 31

Table 2 – Uncertainty of measured parameters.

Uncertainty of measured parameters

Parameter Uncertainty

Temperature ±0.15 %

Pressure drop in nozzles plate ±0.75 Pa

Pressure drop in coil ±0.96 Pa

Liquid mass flow rate ±0.15 %

Air mass flow rate ±2.00 %