energy of the particles in solution increases, allowing the gas particles to easily overcome

these weak forces and re-enter the gas phase.

This behavior can lead to an environmental problem known as thermal pollution.
During many industrial processes, large amounts of water are taken from
a nearby river or lake, pumped through the system to cool liquids, gases, and
equipment, and then returned to the body of water at a higher temperature. The
metabolic rates of fish and other aquatic animals increase in the warmer water
released near the plant outlet; thus, their need for O2 increases, but the concentration
of dissolved O2 is lower at the higher temperature. Farther from the plant,
the water temperature returns to ambient levels and the O2 solubility increases.
One way to lessen the problem is with cooling towers, which lower the temperature
of the water before it exits the plant.
Heat fl ow into a substance does not always raise its temperature. If heat fl ows into an
ice cube at 0°C, for example, the ice will melt to form liquid water at 0°C. (If heat continues
to fl ow into the resulting water, its temperature will begin to rise, of course.)
How can the temperature remain constant despite the infl ux of heat? To understand
this, we need to remember that intermolecular forces are more extensive in a solid
than in a liquid. So as the ice cube melts, energy must be expended to overcome some
of the intermolecular attractions. The internal energy of liquid water is higher than
that of solid ice, even though both are at the same temperature.
For similar reasons, there will be heat fl ow in any phase change. The names of
phase changes among solids, liquids, and gases are summarized in Figure 9.7. Because
these phase changes generally take place at constant pressure, the corresponding heat
fl ows should be viewed as changes in enthalpy. Some phase changes are so common
that their enthalpy changes have specifi c names and symbols assigned to them. The
heat required to melt a substance is the heat of fusion, DHfus. The enthalpy change
for converting a liquid to a gas is known as the heat of vaporization, DHvap. We know
that when a liquid is converted to a gas, all the molecules in a sample must overcome
whatever intermolecular forces are present. That means that energy must fl ow into
the substance to vaporize it, so the heat of vaporization will always be positive. It follows
that the reverse process, condensation, will always release heat. The values of
enthalpy changes in opposite directions have the same numeric value and differ only
in their signs. Because the strength of the intermolecular forces varies from one substance
to another, the magnitude of the enthalpy change for any phase transition will
also depend on the substance involved. Values can be found in many standard tables,
including one in Appendix D. Data for water are provided in Table 9.3 as an example.
 Tahap 1 Tahap 2 Tahap 3 Tahap 4 Tahap 5

suhu

130ºC
Gas-cair
100ºC gas

cair
Cair-padat
0ºC padat

∆Hº vap ∆Hº fus

40º
C panas