AGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING LASSROOM TRAINING BOOK Written for ASNT by Gordon E, Smith H.C. Nutting Company he American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 4Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc 1711 Arlingate Lane Columbus, OH 43228-0518 Copyright © 2004 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Ine, All rights reserved. ASNT is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein, and published opinions or statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT. IRRSP, Level IIT Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, NDT Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, The NDT Technician and are service marks of The American Society for Nondestructive ‘esting, Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of ‘The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing, ISBN 1-57117-118-5 Printed in the United States of America Library of Congeess Cataloging-in-Publication Data Magnetic particle testing : classroom training book / written for ASNT by Gordon Smith p.cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-57117-118-5 1. Magnetic testing. 1. American Society for Nondestructive Testing. UL. Title, 417 3.845 2004 620.1°1278--de22 2004020048 First printing October 2 Personnel Training PublicationsAcknowledgments Dedicated to the memory of Ronald H. Setner, AA special thank you goes to the following technical reviewers who helped with this publication: Gina Caudill, United States Coast Guard Ast Gallant, Elite Inspection Services, Vilma Holmgren, Magnaflux Division of Tlinois Too! Works Brian MacCracken, Pratt and Whitney Joe Mackin, International Pipe Inspectors Association William Mooz, Met-L-Chek Company Robert Saunders, Ellwood City Forge Thomas Schafer, ManTech International Corporation Kermit Skeie Noel Tracy, Universal Technology Corporation A special thank you goes to the following corporate reviewers who helped with this publication: Joseph Brown, VSE Corporation, BAV Division Bruce Dewey, Maryland Q.C. Laboratories, Inc Jerry Fulin, Tennessee Gas Pipeline Lawrence Goldberg, Sea Test Services Jim Houf, The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. Scott Huddleston, Huddleston Technical Services Stephen Lakata, Norfolk Southern Corporation Don Locke, Karta Technologies, Inc. Joseph E, Monroe, Eastern NDT David R. Quattlcbaum, Quattlebaum Consultants ‘Tim Rendle, X-R-I Testing Frank Sattler, Sattler Consultants, Ine Stephen Senne, Senne Technical Services Ron VanArsdale, Inspection Training and Consulting Albert M. Wenzig, Jr, Industrial Tasting Laboratory Services, LLC The Publications Review Committee includes: Chair, Sam J. Volk, North Atlantic Energy Services Company Sharon I. Vukelich, University of Dayton Research Institute B. Boro Djordjevic, Johns Hopkins University Ann E. Spence Educational Materials Editor Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book iliForeword ‘The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc, (ASNT) has prepared this series of Personnel 1g Publications to present the major areas in each nondestructive testing method. Each classroom training book in the series is organized to follow the Recommended Training Course Outlines found in Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. The Level I and Level I candidates should use this classroom training book as a preparation tool for nondestructive testing certification. An ASNT NDT Level I or Level IT may be expected to know additional information based on industry or employer requirements iv Personnel Training PublicationsTable of Contents Acknowledgments Foreword Table of Contents ciples of Magnetic Particle Testing Capabilities of Magnetic Particle Testing . Personnel Qualifications Magnets and Magnetic Fields Magnetic Fields : Law of Magnetism... 7 Materials influenced by Magnetic Fields | Characteristics of Magnetic Fields Chapter 2 - Effects of Discontinuities on Materials Surface Discontinuities ee Scratches viteteteeeeenee Subsurface Discontinuities ... 2100222... ular Fields Contact Plates ees Prods : Discontinuity Detection Longitudinal Field Pe Field Direction Pt Magnetization Methods Test Materials Wet Particles Dry Particles : o Multidirectlonal Magnetization Retentivity and Coercive Force Longitudinal Magnetization . Longitudinal Fields . Field Direction Field Strength Discontinuities Discovered by Longitudinal Fields . (Chapter,3=(Magnetizatlon| stent teres tre ce nae Chapter 4 - Principles of Demagnetization ............0..200005 Alternating Current Demagnetization . . ee eee Direct Current Demagnetization 7 Efficiency of Demagnetization ‘Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training BookChapter 5 - Equipment Equipment Selection Purpose of Test Area Tested Mobile Equipment Particles Used Stationary Testing Equipment - Chapter 6 - Discontinuities Inherent Discontinuities Processing Discontinuities . Inservice Discontinuities Summary Magnetic Particle Testing Caples 2 ene - Theories ‘Techniques. : Magnetic Field Theory ‘Magnetic Domains Magnetic Poles Magnetic Fields Magnetized Ring... Eifect of Cracks in a Magnetized Ring Bar Magnet ... 5 Effect of Cracks ina Magnetized Bar Effect of Materials on Electromagnetic Fields Units of Measure for Magnetic Flux Magnetic Hysteresis . . a Magnetic Permeability Chapter 8 - Flux Fields . Electric Current Alternating Current . Direct Current ..... Half Wave Direct Current Full Wave Direct Current : - Three Phase Full Wave Direct Current . : Chapter 9 — Magnetic Particles and Methods of Application Introduction Current Level and Particle Application Continuous Method Wet Continuous Method - Residual Method Field Direction « é Magnetic Field Measurements. Personnel Training PublicationsCircular Magnetization Direct Contact Central Conductor Amperage Requirements Sensitivity Level Amperage Testing Media Direct Contact Central Conductor Coil Shot Cable Wrap Chapter 10 - Magnetization by Means of Electric Current Circular Magnetization Circular Magnetization of Solid Test Objects Circular Magnetization with Prods Circular Magnetization with Direct Contact Circular Magnetization with Induced Current + Circular Magnetization of Hollow Test Objects « Longitudinal Magnetization Coil Magnetization Important Considerations in Coil Magnetization Field Flow Magnetization Yoke Magnetization .. .. Combined Circular and Longitudinal Magnetization Units of Measure and Terminology Types of Magnetic Materials Diamagnetic Materials . Paramagnetic Materials Ferromagnetic Materials 5 Calculation of Magnetic Force Requirements Prods . Yokes Coil : Air Core Coil Longitudinal Magnetization - Fill Factor Coils ...... Interpretation of Indications Relevant Indications Nonrelevant Indications False Indications Chapter 11 - Demagnetization Purpose Principles of Operation for Demagnetization | Requirements to Demagnetize Reasons to Demagnetize Justification for Demagnetizing Reasons Not to Demagnetize Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training BookDemagnetization Methods Heating Above Curie Point Electromagnetic Demagnetization . Alternating Current Demagnetization ........+.-0+0002e0eer rere Direct Current Demagnetization Besoonosonned beeen BE Yoke Demagnetization Demagnetization Practices Chapter 12 - Equipment Stationary Equipment Mechanized Equipment Semiautomatic Equipment Single Purpose Semiautomatic Equipment : Fully Automatic Equipment : Portable Equipment Yoke Break or Lift Test ‘Weld Bead Crack Reference Standards Reference Standards for Weld Cracking Effect of Coating Thickness on Test Results Concurrent Leakage... Wet Magnetic Particles for Yoke Magnetization Dry Powder Test Equipment Powder Selection Powder Applications Applicators : Wet Visible Test Equipment Particle Selection Black Powder Concentrate Red Powder Concentrate Suspension Characteristics Particles : Media .. Wet Fluorescent Method Test Variables Surface Preparation Suspension Application ‘Water Problems Suspension Preparation’ Dry Powder Liquid Concentrate Paste Concentrate .. Water Baths Water Bath Safety : Water Bath Concentration Fluorescent Background Check Oil Based Media Contamination Check |. - Settling Test Bapcosonococen vill Personnel Training PublicationsFluorescent Test Materials Maintenance Surface Preparation Test Variables Ultraviolet Radiation ..... Generation of Ultraviolet Radiation Ultraviolet Lamp Fixtures Sources : Carbon Arc Systems Low Pressure Fluorescent Bulbs High Pressure Bulbs Chapter 13 ~ Types of Discontinuities . Inherent Discontinuities Cold Shut Hot Tears... : Blowholes and Porosity.» Nonmetallic Inclusions - Segregation Primary Processing Discontinuities Seams Laminations Stringers Cupping Cooling Cracks": Forged and Rolled Laps Intemal and External Bursts Hydrogen Flakes Welding Discontinuities Cold Cracking . Hot Cracking Lamellar Teating Lack of Fusion Lack of Penetration Porosity Inclusions Undercut Overlap Secondary Processing Discontinuities Cracks... Heat Treating and Quench Cracks Pickling Cracks Machining Tears Plating Cracks Inservice Discontinuities Fatigue Cracking Fatigue Crack Structure Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 104 105, 106 -106 106 +106 107 107 107 107 + 108 +109 = 109 +110 - 110 11 2 lll 11 2112 113 2113. 2114 114 114 115Creep Cracking .... Be 129) Stress Corrosion Cracking : on Saogod Hydrogen Cracking ............ coe 132 Chapter 14 — Evaluation Techniques Reference Standards . Empirical Rules for L System Evaluation zi System Standardization Parametric Evaluations Technique Development : : Reference Standards for System Evaluation: | Standard Tool Steel Ring Using the Ring Standard Ring Standard Magnetic Fields . . Limitations of the Ring Standard Reference Standard Test Blocks Split Prism Test Block . Magnetized Test Blocks Prism Block Standards Block Standard Measurements . Electronic Reference Standards Hall Effect Meters Eddy Current Devices Conclusion ing Reference Standards Chapter 15 - Quality Control ‘New Materials, In Use Materials . Material Contamination . Evaporation Losses Heat Degradation Process Degradation Material Control Requirements Use of the Settling Test Ultraviolet Radiation and Facilities Ultraviolet Radiation Intensity Requirements Ambient Light Measurements . Variables Line Voltage Variations Service and Aging Variations . Ultraviolet Lamp Hazards Proper Procedures Variation in Technique" Selection of Current Current Application Choices - Selection of Media Selection of Technique . x Personnel Training PublicationsField Orientation Head Shot Central Conductor Longitudinal Field Sensitivity Requirements Conclusion Glossary Bibliography and Figure Sources Index ‘Magnetic Paice Testing Classroom Training BookChapter 1 Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic particle testing can detect both production discontinuities, such as seams, laps, grinding cracks and quenching cracks, and inservice damage, such as fatigue and overload cracks, Next to visual testing, itis one of the most cost effective methods of nondestructive testing. Its major difficulty is that the test object must bbe magnetizable. Magnetic particle technology depends on the property of magnetism occurring in certain elements referred to as ferromagnetic materials. Magnetic particle testing is a relatively simple test method that can be applied to finished articles, billets, hot rolled bars, castings and forgings. It can also be used to confirm that the processing operations, such as heat treatment, machining and grinding, did not cause discontinuities. There are many differing modes of electrical current that are used in magnetic particle testing Magnetic particle testing consists of magnetization of the test object, followed by the application of the particles and interpretation of the patterns formed by the particles as they are attracted by magnetic leakage fields. These patterns of magnetic particles are compared to codes or known standards to determine test object acceptability. The purpose of this classroom training book is to provide the fundamental knowledge of magnetic particle testing required by quality assurance and nondestructive testing personnel. This, knowledge will enable them to ascertain that the proper test technique is used to ensure the quality of the finished product, to interpret, evaluate and make a sound decision as to the results of the test and to recognize those areas exhibiting doubtful test results that require either retesting or assistance in interpretation and evaluation. CAPABILITIES OF MA Magnetic particle testing can reveal surface discontinuities, including those too small or too tight to be seen with the unaided eye. Magnetic particle indications form on an object's surface in the area of a discontinuity and show the location and approximate size of the discontinuity. Magnetic particle tests can also reveal discontinuities that are slightly below the surface. There are limits to this ability to locate subsurface discontinuities. These are determined by the discontinuity’s depth, size, type and shape; the strength of the applied field; and the type ofcurrent used. In some cases, special techniques or equipment can improve the test’s ability to detect subsurface discontinuities, Magnetic particle testing cannot be used on nonmagnetic materials, including glass, ceramics, plastics or such common metals, as aluminum, magnesium, copper and austenitic stainless steel alloys. In addition, there are certain positional limitations: a magnetic field is directional, and for best results must be oriented perpendicular to the discontinuity. This generally requires two ‘complete magnetizing operations to detect discontinuities parallel and perpendicular to the test object's axis. Objects with large cross sections require a very high current to generate a magnetic field adequate for magnetic particle tests. A final limitation is that a demagnetization procedure is usvally required following the magnetic particle process. Personnel Qualifications Personnel performing nondestructive testing should, at a minimum, be qualified in accordance with Recommended Practice ‘No. SNT-TC-1A. Only personnel qualified for Level I nondestructive testing, and working under the direct supervision of a Level II or Level Ill nondestructive testing technician (or personnel qualified to Level II or Level III), may perform nondestructive tests, The Level I, Level Il or Level III magnetic particle testing technician should be qualified through specific and practical examinations based on the requirements of the applicable code. The technician should have successfully demonstrated the ability to accurately detect and evaluate discontinuities in accordance with the applicable code. Qualified personnel are required by many jurisdictions, codes, standards and specifications to be certified by an organized corporate, national or international agency ‘This text provides an overview of the magnetic particle testing process and is introductory to the detailed treatments in subsequent sections, Topics covered here include the following 1. The fundamental theory of magnetism, magnetic flux and types of magnetic fields, 2. Principles of electrically induced magnetism and magnetizing current. 3. Testing media, equipment and processes, 4. Process controls. 5. The basie principles and methods of demagnetization. 6. Reporting of magnetic particle tests. Such data can be helpful to managers, supervisors and personnel outside of nondestructive testing who require general information on the magnetic particle testing process, It may also be helpful for introductory studies by individuals already using magnetic particle testing, or those preparing for advanced training in the technique Personnel Training PublicationsMAGNETS AND MAGNETIC FIELDS ‘The theory of magnetic fields indicates that an object is magnetized when part or all of its atomic elements have their north and south poles aligned. Earth’s magnetic field is produced by the rotation and movement of the planet's molten iron core. This, produces a magnetic field that is relatively stable in direction. Because of this stable magnetic field, early explorers could reliably use compasses built with lodestone, charged iron needles and other naturally magnetic materials. The Earth itself can be considered a bar magnet because of its two poles. Quite frequently, the magnetic field surrounding the Earth strongly magnetizes large ferromagnetic objects that lie aligned with the Earth’s poles for periods of time. The directions of the Earth’s magnetic field may be changed by major geologic events over many thousands of years. There are many local magnetic anomalies having higher levels of magnetic attraction near the Earth's surface. It is thought that these may be caused by iron or nickel deposits Magnetic Fields A magnetic field exists within and around a permanent magnet or within and around a conductor carrying an electric current, The magnetic field surrounding a permanent bar magnet has polarity, but the magnetic field surrounding a conductor does not. Some types of magnetic fields may be contained entirely within a ferromagnetic object. A magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet is seen in Figure 1.1 The theory of magnetism and magnetic particle testing is based oon a material property that has its atomie domains oriented. This ‘material is called a magnet and will attract iron, nickel and cobalt, as well as many alloys. Magnets may be permanent (retaining thei magnetism more or less permanently) ot temporary (retaining theit magnetism only as long as a magnetizing force is being applied) ‘The ability of the magnet to attract or repel iron is not uniform over its surface, but is concentrated at local areas called poles. Each ‘magnet has at least two opposite poles, much like the Earth's ‘magnetic poles; hence, the poles are respectively called the north and soush poles. The aitraction and repulsion of poles ate illustrated in Figure 1.2 Because magnetization of certain metals is possible, small particles that are attracted to magnetic fields are applied to the surface of the test object after or during induction of a magnetic field, thereby allowing the detection of certain specific discontinuities that are present in the material. Magnetic particle testing is capable of revealing discontinuities (imperfections that interfere with the usefulness of an article or exceeds acceptability limits established by applicable specifications) economically; it is one of the most widely used nondestructive test methods. However, this test method is limited to disclosing only those discontinuities ‘Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Bookbar magnet [Figure 1-1: Magnetic field surrounding a | Figure 1.2; Magnetic attraction and repulsion, N |.—+| Repel N spe