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Etiology and risk factors for placenta previa: An overview and meta-
analysis of observational studies
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Cande Ananth
Columbia University
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Objective: Several clinical and epidemiologic studies have reported disparate data on the preva-
lence rate as well as risk factors associated with placenta previa – a major cause of third-trimester
bleeding. We performed a systematic literature review and identified 58 studies on placenta previa
published between 1966 and 2000.
Study design: Each study was reviewed independently by the two authors and was scored (on the
basis of established criteria) on method of diagnosis of placenta previa and on quality of study
design. We extracted data on the prevalence rate of placenta previa, as well as associations with
various risk factors from each study. A meta-analysis was then performed to determine the extent
to which different risk factors predispose women to placenta previa.
Results: Our results showed that the overall prevalence rate of placenta previa was 4.0 per 1000
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births, with the rate being higher among cohort studies (4.6 per 1000 births), USA-based studies
(4.5 per 1000 births) and hospital-based studies (4.4 per 1000 births) than among case–control
studies (3.5 per 1000 births), foreign-based studies (3.7 per 1000 births) and population-based
studies (3.7 per 1000 births), respectively. Advancing maternal age, multiparity, previous Cesarean
delivery and abortion, smoking and cocaine use during pregnancy, and male fetuses all conferred
increased risk for placenta previa. Strong heterogeneity in the associations between risk factors
and placenta previa were noted by study design, accuracy in the diagnosis of placenta previa and
population-based versus hospital-based studies.
Conclusion: Future etiological studies on placenta previa must, at the very least, adjust for
potentially confounding effects of maternal age, parity, prior Cesarean delivery and abortions.
INTRODUCTION
Placenta previa is an obstetric complication in which the natal care, it is still challenging to avoid maternal compli-
maturing placenta partially or completely obstructs the cations and to improve perinatal outcomes among women
internal cervical os. It is a major cause of third-trimester with this condition.
bleeding and has been associated with serious maternal The etiology of placenta previa remains largely obscure,
complications and adverse perinatal outcomes1. Maternal but several clinical and epidemiological studies have
complications associated with placenta previa include observed increased occurrence of placenta previa among
hemorrhage requiring blood transfusion, disseminated women with advanced maternal age, multiparity, male
intravascular coagulation and partial or total hysterectomy. fetuses, multiple pregnancy, prior Cesarean delivery and
Pregnancies complicated by placenta previa also result in prior spontaneous or induced abortion. Furthermore,
greater frequencies of prematurity and fetal and neonatal behavioral factors that have been implicated with
death2–5. Despite early diagnosis and careful surveillance of increased occurrence of placenta previa include maternal
women with placenta previa and great advances in neo- smoking and drug use during pregnancy. Finally, women
Corr espondence: Dr A. S. Faiz, Division of Hem atology, Room 378, One Robert Wood J ohnson Place, PO Box 19, New Brunswick,
NJ 08903, USA
ã 2003 The Par thenon Publish ing Group 175 Received 24–06–02 Revised 28–10–02 Accepted 29–11–02
Etiology and risk factors for placenta previa Faiz and Ananth
with a history of placenta previa in a prior pregnancy are at previa was diagnosed in early pregnancy (first or second
higher risk of developing this condition in a subsequent trimesters), as these studies were predominantly focused
pregnancy. on evaluating the accuracy of an early diagnosis of placenta
The prevalence rate of placenta previa and the extent to previa by sonographic methods. If more than one study
which various risk factors predispose women to develop had the same data source covering overlapping time
placenta previa vary greatly in the previous studies. We periods, then only one study was chosen for inclusion in the
therefore performed a systematic review of the literature meta-analysis. The choice of study in such instances was
to estimate the prevalence of placenta previa and its asso- based on the availability of data on risk factors for placenta
ciation with various risk factors. A meta-analysis was previa. If two or more studies using the same patient
then performed to identify sources of heterogeneity across population provided information on placenta previa
studies, as well as to evaluate the strength and magnitude cross-classified by the same risk factors, then the study
of the association of placenta previa with these risk factors. that was published first was arbitrarily chosen for inclusion
in the meta-analysis.
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placenta pr(a)evia, placental disorders, antepartum four-level ordinal scale (1–4, with 4 being the most accu-
h(a)emorrhage, and antepartum and uteroplacental rate) for the method of diagnosis of placenta previa used
bleeding. The other key words used in conjunction with in each study. The criteria used for scoring the study
previa were maternal age, gravidity, parity, C(a)esarean quality and method of diagnosis of placenta previa were
delivery/section, uterine surgery, uterine instrumentation, determined a priori, and are shown in Tables 1 and 2,
abortion, spontaneous abortion, induced abortion, elective respectively.
abortion, chronic hypertension, pregnancy-induced hyper- We were left with 58 studies4–61 for the meta-analysis
tension, pre-eclampsia, eclampsia, cigarette smoking and after excluding 42 studies2,3,62–101 that did not meet our
drug use. Both the primary author and the librarian in our inclusion/exclusion criteria. Both authors gave identical
institution conducted the searches independently using scores to 36 studies on study quality and to 48 studies for
these key words. method of diagnosis of placenta previa. The chance-
Published case reports on placenta previa and studies on corrected kappa statistic with 95% confidence interval
placental abruption were excluded. No attempts were made (CI) for agreement in the scores between the two authors
to locate any unpublished studies or those published in on study design and diagnosis of placenta previa, respec-
abstract form. We excluded studies in which placenta tively, were 0.66 (95% CI 0.53, 0.79) and 0.85 (95% CI
5 5 studies in which no obvious biases could be identified or potential confounders were adequately
controlled for
4 4 studies in which adjustment was made for potential biases but residual confounding appeared likely
3 3 studies in which adjustment for potential confounders was done poorly
2 2 studies in which no adjustment was made for potential confounders
1 1 studies without appropriate control subjects
Studies that controlled for maternal age, parity, previous Cesarean delivery, previous spontaneous or induced abortion were considered
as those without obvious biases (score of 5)
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Etiology and risk factors for placenta previa Faiz and Ananth
Table 2 Numeric scoring of study’s quality based on the method Statistical methods for meta-analysis
of diagnosis of placenta previa
The prevalence rate of placenta previa (per 1000 preg-
Study nancies) was either abstracted from the study directly or
score Criteria for scoring derived by dividing the number of cases of placenta previa
by the total number of pregnancies. Data on placenta
4 placenta previa confirmed at Cesarean delivery
previa cross-classified by the presence or absence of risk
3 placenta previa confirmed by third-trimester ultrasound
factors were abstracted from every study, and were
examination
2 placenta previa as reported by attendant at delivery or by
organized in 2 ´ 2 tables. Odds ratios (OR) with associated
digital examination at the time of delivery 95% CI were computed as the measure of effect.
1 criteria for the diagnosis of placenta previa not well A meta-analysis was then performed by pooling the data
defined for each risk factor across all studies. We did not pool the
data for multiple pregnancies, recurrent placenta previa
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Etiology and risk factors for placenta previa Faiz and Ananth
Table 3 Description of studies conducted within the USA and scores assigned to each study based on study design and diagnosis of
placenta previa
Placenta Scores assigned
Number of previa (per Criteria Criteria
Author Study years pregnancies 1000 births) for inclusion for exclusion Study design Diagnosis
1000 pregnancies), respectively. Furthermore, the between 1.2 and 2.7 for three cohort studies9,11,14, seven
prevalence of placenta previa showed no temporal trends USA-based studies7–10,12–14, six studies with probable
(Figure 1). diagnosis of placenta previa7–10,12,13, and three poorly
The odds ratios based on the covariance-adjusted designed studies6,9,14. Odds ratios ranged between 1.2 and
method showed that both advanced maternal age and high 2.5 for six case–control studies6–8,10,12,13 and six well-
parity were associated with an increased risk of placenta designed studies7,8,10–13. For two foreign based
previa. There were nine studies6–14 that reported an asso- studies6,11 and for three studies with definite diagnosis
ciation between advancing maternal age and placenta of placenta previa6,11,14 pooled odds ratios ranged between
previa (Figure 2). Results showed that odds ratios were 1.5 and 2.5.
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Etiology and risk factors for placenta previa Faiz and Ananth
Table 4 Description of studies conducted outside the USA and scores assigned to each study based on study design and diagnosis
of placenta previa
Placenta Scores assigned
Number of previa (per Criteria Criteria
Author Study years pregnancies 1000 births) for inclusion for exclusion Study design Diagnosis
The relationship between parity and placenta previa was Prior Cesarean delivery as a risk factor for placenta
provided in 13 studies6–18 (Figure 3). Among four cohort previa was evaluated in 21 studies6,7,10,12,14,16,18–32
studies9,11,14,15 and among ten studies with a probable (Table 6). The association was stronger among eight cohort
diagnosis of placenta previa7–10,12,13,15–18 the odds ratios studies14,19,25–29,32 (pooled OR 6.2) and for 12 foreign-based
ranged between 1.1 and 2.9. Odds ratios for nine case– studies6,18–21,25–29,31,32 (pooled OR 4.8) compared with 13
control studies6–8,10,12,13,16–18 ranged from 0.9 to 2.3, and for case–control studies6,7,10,12,16,18,20–24,30,31 (pooled OR 2.0)
three studies with definite diagnosis of placenta previa6,11,14 and nine studies7,10,12,14,16,22–24,30 conducted in the USA
they were between 0.9 and 2.0. Odds ratios were between (pooled OR 2.0). With Cesarean delivery, the risk of
0.9 and 2.9 for five foreign-based studies6,11,15,17,18 and placenta previa was higher in ten studies with definite
six poorly designed studies6,9,14,15,17,18. Among the eight diagnosis of placenta previa6,12,14,20,23,25,28–31 (pooled
USA-based studies7–10,12–14,16 and seven well-designed OR 3.0) and in 17 poorly designed studies6,12,14,18–21,23–32
studies7,8,10–13,16, odds ratios ranged between 1.1 and 2.3. (pooled OR 3.5).
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Table 5 Prevalence rate of placenta previa (per 1000 pregnancies) by type of study design and geographical location
Number of studies Rate of previa (derived) Number of studies Rate of previa (reported)
Figure 1 Prevalence rate (per 1000 singleton births) of placenta Figure 3 Association between parity and placenta previa from
previa from each study based on year of data collection. The size of the 13 studies: odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals
the ‘bubble’ denotes the study size
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Etiology and risk factors for placenta previa Faiz and Ananth
Table 7 Association between previous abortions (spontaneous or induced) and placenta previa
Test of homogeneity of pooled odds ratios Random-effects
pooled odds ratio
2
Number of studies c Qh Degrees of freedom p Value (95% CI)
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previous induced abortion, the risk of placenta previa was studies with probable diagnosis of placenta previa23,24
higher in five studies with probable diagnosis of placenta (pooled OR 3.0) and two poorly designed studies23,24
previa7,10,12,22,24 and in four well-designed studies7,10,12,22 (pooled OR 5.2).
(pooled OR 1.6) than in studies with a definite diagnosis of There were seven studies4,6,11,15,22,33,36 describing the
placenta previa23,34,35 (pooled OR 1.3) and in four poorly association of male fetuses with risk of placenta previa
designed studies23,24,34,35 (pooled OR 1.2). (Table 12). There were four cohort11,15,33,36 and three
Smoking during pregnancy was associated with a 60% case–control studies4,6,22 with similar risk of placenta previa
increase in the risk of placenta previa (Table 10). There (pooled OR 1.2 and 1.1, respectively). Male fetuses were
was one foreign-based cohort study11 and there were eight associated with higher risk of placenta previa in three
USA-based case–control studies7,10,12,13,22–24,34. The risk of foreign-based studies6,11,15 (pooled OR 1.3) than in four
placenta previa was higher among smokers in six studies USA-based studies4,22,33,36 (pooled OR 1.1). With male
with probable diagnosis of placenta previa7,10,12,13,22,24 fetuses there was a higher risk of placenta previa in two
(pooled OR 1.8) and in six well-designed studies7,10–13,22 studies with definite diagnosis of placenta previa6,11
(pooled OR 1.6) than in three studies11,23,34 with definite (pooled OR 1.5) than in five studies with probable diag-
diagnosis of placenta previa (pooled OR 1.1) and in three nosis of placenta previa4,15,22,33,36 (pooled OR 1.2).
poorly designed studies23,24,34 (pooled OR 1.4). Three However, the risk was similar for three well-designed11,22,36
case–control studies in the USA 12,23,24 (Table 11) also and four poorly designed studies4,6,15,33 (pooled OR 1.2).
demonstrated a higher risk of placenta previa with cocaine There was a 50% increased risk of placenta previa due to
use during pregnancy (pooled OR 2.9). There were two chronic hypertension in three studies33,34,37 (Table 13).
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Two studies were cohort studies33,37 (pooled OR 1.2) and tension in two studies with definite placenta previa34,37
two were USA-based studies33,34 (pooled OR 1.6). There (pooled OR 2.0) and in two poorly designed studies33,34
was significant risk of placenta previa due to chronic hyper- (pooled OR 1.9).
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Table 15 Association between pre-eclampsia and placenta previa. Reprinted from reference 103, Ó 2003, with permission of
Elsevier Science
Test of homogeneity of pooled odds ratios Random-effects
pooled odds ratio
2
Number of studies c Qh Degrees of freedom p Value (95% CI)
184
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Etiology and risk factors for placenta previa Faiz and Ananth
placentae from older women that have revealed utero- dispose to the low implantation of the placenta in the
placental underperfusion and large placental infarcts8. To uterus.
maintain optimal blood flow, an increased surface area may There is a higher risk of placenta previa with cigarette
be required for placental attachment, and this may result in smoking and maternal cocaine use during pregnancy, as
placental encroachment on the lower uterine segment8. previously reported. Placental enlargement has been noted
Our results also show a greater risk of placenta previa with among women who smoke cigarettes and this has been
higher parity, confirming findings from earlier studies. This attributed to the vasoactive properties of nicotine and to
may be due to endometrial scarring at the site of prior chronic hypoxia associated with carbon monoxide22,62,63. It
placental attachments resulting in lower placental has also been observed that there are chronic hypoxic
implantation. The other possibility may be that blood changes in the uterine vasculature of smokers, resulting in a
vessels at the sites of prior placental attachments undergo larger placenta with increased likelihood of placental
changes that may lead to decreased uteroplacental blood encroachment on the cervical os22,74. Similarly, maternal
flow3. This, in turn, may result in a larger placenta cocaine use is known to cause catecholamine-mediated
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encroaching on the cervical os with repeated pregnancies. vasoconstriction and vasospasm in blood vessels innervated
In this meta-analysis we analyzed only maternal age and by the sympathetic nervous system. This is likely to result
parity as independent risk factors for placenta previa. in underperfusion of the uteroplacental vessels and a larger
However, since women with higher parity are likely to placenta encroaching on the cervical os12,22.
be older, it is possible that advanced maternal age and This meta-analysis confirms an increased male/female
increased parity are not independent risk factors for the ratio at birth among women with placenta previa. It has
placenta previa risk. This combined effect of age and been proposed that early and late insemination during the
gravidity on the risk of placenta previa was demonstrated in menstrual cycle may cause an increase in the conception of
a large (n = 37 956 020), population-based, cohort study males as well as lower implantation of the placenta15. With
of singleton births from the USA (1989–98)103. This early insemination it may be possible that the embryo
study showed that the risk of placenta previa was not reaches the lower uterine segment before the endometrial
For personal use only.
independent of maternal age and parity, but rather that lining is ready for implantation. Similarly, with late insemi-
both factors exerted a joint influence on placenta previa nation, the ovum may be in the lower uterine segment
risk. In other words, increasing maternal age and increasing when it is fertilized, resulting in lower uterine implantation
parity conferred the greatest risk of placenta previa in both cases.
compared with that of primigravid women aged < 20 years There is an increased frequency of placenta previa
(Table 16). among women with pre-existing or chronic hypertension.
There is an increased risk of placenta previa among The exact mechanism that leads to lower implantation of
women with a history of previous Cesarean delivery and the placenta among women with chronic hypertension is
previous abortion. Our meta-analysis corroborates these not clear. However, placenta previa has a protective effect
general findings reported in several previous studies as well on the risk of pregnancy-induced hypertension and
as a meta-analysis104. Damage and scarring to the endo- pre-eclampsia. Although the precise mechanism is unclear,
metrial and myometrial lining during Cesarean delivery it has been suggested that, owing to the wider diameter and
and spontaneous and induced abortion are known to pre- less restricted course of blood vessels, there is better
Table 16 Joint effects of maternal age and gravidity on the risk of placenta previa: adjusted relative risks with 95% confidence intervals
Gravidity (number of pregnancies)
< 20 1.00 (referent) 1.72 (1.57, 1.89) 2.13 (1.86, 2.44) 2.87 (2.28, 3.60) 3.00 (2.05, 4.37)
20–24 1.61 (1.50, 1.72) 2.21 (2.07, 2.37) 2.99 (2.79, 3.22) 3.66 (3.37, 3.98) 4.66 (4.26, 5.08)
25–29 2.82 (2.63, 3.00) 3.59 (3.37, 3.83) 4.31 (4.04, 4.61) 4.99 (4.65, 5.36) 6.22 (5.80, 6.67)
30–34 4.71 (4.41, 5.03) 5.24 (4.92, 5.59) 6.02 (5.65, 6.43) 6.52 (6.08, 6.98) 7.82 (7.31, 8.35)
35–39 7.30 (6.78, 7.86) 7.87 (7.35, 8.44) 8.38 (7.82, 8.98) 9.24 (8.59, 9.94) 10.01 (9.35, 10.72)
³ 40 10.41 (9.25, 11.72) 9.95 (8.93, 11.08) 11.96 (10.80, 13.24) 12.16 (10.90, 13.57) 12.62 (11.59, 13.74)
Table reprinted from reference 103, Ó 2003, with permission of Elsevier Science
Relative risks were adjusted for the confounding effects of maternal anemia, intrapartum fever, preterm premature rupture of
membranes, hydramnios, maternal diabetes, placental abruption, unexplained uterine bleeding and male sex
185
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Etiology and risk factors for placenta previa Faiz and Ananth
oxygenation of the placenta implanted in the lower uterine strength of association of all the risk factors with placenta
segment48. With higher implantation of the placenta in previa and directionality of association with population-
the uterine cavity there may be restricted blood flow, attributable risk are presented in Table 17.
causing hypoxia and release of vasoactive substances into The population-attributable risk for placenta previa
the blood stream, resulting in a greater risk of pregnancy- indicates that smoking has the greatest effect (26%)
induced hypertension and pre-eclampsia. A better blood followed by previous abortion (16%) and Cesarean delivery
supply and oxygenation of the placenta in the lower uterine (10%). This implies that, if all women were to quit smoking
segment prevents the release of vasoactive substances during pregnancy, 26% of placenta previa cases would
into the blood stream and thus reduces the risk of potentially be preventable. As cigarette smoking is pre-
pregnancy-induced hypertension and pre-eclampsia in ventable, it would be beneficial to encourage pregnant
cases of placenta previa47,48. An alternative hypothesis women to quit smoking, especially those women suspected
suggests that venous drainage from the placenta implanted of being at increased risk for placenta previa. Similarly,
in the fundal part of the uterus is through ovarian veins, Cesarean deliveries and abortions should be performed
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causing visceral congestion and vasoconstriction, resulting with more caution and only in cases where there is
in pre-eclampsia. However, when the placenta is implanted evidence of fetal or maternal distress, in order to reduce
in the lower uterine segment, drainage is through uterine the risk of placenta previa in future pregnancies.
veins and there is no visceral congestion; therefore, In this study, we attempted to identify all published
placenta previa has a protective effect on pre-eclampsia studies between 1966 and March 2000. However, in spite of
and pregnancy-induced hypertension105. our best efforts we may have missed some that may have
There are a number of risk factors that increase the like- reported data on placenta previa. To account for this bias,
lihood of developing placenta previa. These include the random-effects analysis formed the basis of pooling of
advanced maternal age, multiparity, smoking during data across studies. Thus, we assume that studies included
pregnancy, alcohol and drug use during pregnancy, prior in our meta-analysis are a (random) sample from a larger
Cesarean delivery and abortion, multiple pregnancy, population of similar studies. In this meta-analysis, each
For personal use only.
prior placenta previa, maternal anemia and diabetes, study was individually reviewed and scored by the two
hydramnios, placental abruption and chronic hyper- authors on the basis of established criteria for study quality
tension. Although we calculated pooled odds ratios for all and for method of diagnosis of placenta previa.
the risk factors for which data were available, there were The careful review of studies indicated that there is a
not enough data for the analysis of certain risk factors. The wide variation in the definition of placenta previa and
Table 17 Strength and direction of association between various risk factors and conditions associated with placenta previa
Associations
Population-attributable risk
Risk factors for placenta previa Strength Directionality (%)
186
J ournal of Maternal–Fetal and Neonatal Medicin e
Etiology and risk factors for placenta previa Faiz and Ananth
method used for the diagnosis of placenta previa across 4. Wolf EJ, Mallozzi A, Rodis JF, et al. Placenta previa is not
studies. This ranged from studies that did not give any an independent risk factor for a small for gestational age
definition of placenta previa or method used for the infant. Obstet Gynecol 1991;77:707– 9
diagnosis of placenta previa to studies that explicitly 5. Neri A, Gorodesky I, Bihari C, et al. Impact of placenta
defined placenta previa and included only those women previa on intrauterine fetal growth. Isr J Med Sci 1980;
with the placenta completely covering the internal cervical 16:429–32
os and who were diagnosed at the time of Cesarean 6. Parazzini F, Dindelli M, Luchini L, et al. Risk factors
delivery. Similarly, risk factors including advanced mater- for placenta previa. Placenta 1994;15:321– 6
nal age, higher parity, prior Cesarean delivery and the 7. Taylor VM, Kramer MD, Vaughan TL, et al. Placenta
previa in relation to induced and spontaneous abortion:
potential confounders for placenta previa were controlled
a population-based study. Obstet Gynecol 1993;82:88– 91
in varying degrees across studies. This ranged from studies
8. Williams MA, Mittendorf R. Increasing maternal age as a
that controlled for all potential confounders to studies that
determinant of placenta previa: more important than
had no control group. These discrepancies make it difficult
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also be controlled adequately in order to minimize possible cigarette smoking and cocaine use and placenta previa.
biases in the study findings. This will help to clarify the Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;170:884– 9
epidemiology of placenta previa and its impact on adverse 13. McMahon MJ, Li R, Schenck AP, et al. Previous cesarean
maternal and perinatal outcomes. birth – a risk factor for placenta previa? J Reprod Med
1997;42:409– 12
14. Clark SL, Koonings PP, Phelan JP. Placenta previa/
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS accreta and previous cesarean section. Obstet Gynecol
1985;66:89– 92
At the time of the study, Ambarina Faiz MD, MPH was 15. MacGillivary I, Davey D, Isaacs S. Placenta previa and
a Primary Care/Health Services research fellow in the sex ratio at birth. Br Med J 1986;292:371– 2
Department of Family Medicine, UMDNJ, and was 16. Zhang J, Savitz DA. Maternal age and placenta previa:
supported through an NRSA Fellowship award (T32PE- a population-based case–control study. Am J Obstet
10011) from the Health Resources and Services Adminis- Gynecol 1993;168:641– 5
tration. Cande Ananth, PhD, MPH is partly supported 17. Gorodesky IG, Bahari CM. The effect of placenta previa
through a grant (HD-38902) awarded to him from the localization upon maternal and fetal–neonatal outcome.
National Institutes of Health. J Perinat Med 1987;15:169– 77
This study formed part of Dr Faiz’s post-doctoral 18. Abu-Heija AT, El-Jallad F, Ziadeh S. Placenta previa:
research under the direction of Dr Ananth. effect of age, gravidity, parity and previous cesarean
section. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1999;47:6– 8
19. Makhseed M, El-Tomi N, Moussa M. A retrospective
analysis of pathological placental implantation-site and
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