mass occupied

Simplest form of 2 or more atoms An atom / molecule

matter. It cannot be combine chemically with charge when
divisible, created E.g. Hydrogen, H2 donate or receive
nor destroy Oxygen, O2 ; electrons.
E.g. copper, Cu ; Chlorine , Cl2 ;
Cation Anion
Sodium, Na, water, H2O ; carbon
Lead, Pb ; dioxide, CO2 ; Na+ Cl–
Magnesium, Mg glucose , C6H12O6 Mg2+ O2–

Substance that are made 2 or more elements that

from the same type of atoms combine chemically
E.g. : Cu ; Na ; Pb ; Mg ; O2 E.g. : H2O ; CO2 ; C6H12O6 ;
; H2 ; Cl2 NaCl ; MgCl2 ; Na2O
 high
low

vaporisation

condensation
During constant temperature
-Energy supplied is equal to
energy use to overcome forces
of attraction by all particles
-As a result, temperature
become constant.

When heating
- Heat energy  kinetic energy
-Particles vibrate more rapid
-Overcome forces of attraction
between particles
 During constant temperature
-Energy lost by system is equal to
energy released to surrounding
-Particles rearranged in close pack
to form liquid / solid

When cooling
- kinetic energy  heat energy
-Lost to surrounding by heat energy
-Forces of attraction become stronger
as K.E. is now lowered
+

proton +
neutron
 same
different

6 6 6
6 7 8
6 6 6
2 2.3
2.5 2.7
2.8.4 2.8.6
2.8.8 2.8.8.2
Pb(NO3)2 + 2 KI  PbI2 + 2 KNO3

C3H8 + 5 O2  3 CO2 + 4 H2O

P4O10 + 6 H2O  4 H3PO4

 1.0

0.090

0.15 0.15 x 24 dm3

= 3.6 dm3
He

Ne

Ar

Kr

Xe

Rn
Li

Na

Rb

Cs
 red
blue
F

Cl

Br

At
2+ 2-
N N C N
H
 + –

 Pb2+ + 2 Br –

2 Br –  Br2 + 2 e– Pb2+ + 2 e–  Pb
 Cu2+ + 2 Cl –

2 Cl –  Cl2 + 2 e– Cu2+ + 2 e–  Cu
 2Al3+ + 3 O2–
2 O2–  O2 + 4 e– Al3+ + 3 e–  Al
Ag+ Cu2+ H+ Pb2+ Fe2+ Zn2+ Al3+ Mg2+ Na+ K+

OH– I– Br – Cl– NO3– SO42– F–

– +
Copper(II) Zinc nitrate,
nitrate, Cathode Zn(NO3)2 Anode
Cu(NO3)2
Lead (II) Silver (I)
nitrate, Anode nitrate, Cathode
Pb(NO3)2 AgNO3
Iron(II) Nickel (II)
nitrate, Anode nitrate, Cathode
Fe(NO3)2 Ni(NO3)2
Gold (I) Tin(II) nitrate,
nitrate, Cathode Sn(NO3)2 Anode
AuNO3
Copper(II) Silver (I)
nitrate, Anode nirate, Cathode
Cu(NO3)2 AgNO3
Cu2+ + 2 e-  Cu Zn  Zn2+ + 2 e-
Cu2+ + Zn  Cu + Zn2+
Pb  Pb2+ + 2 e- Ag+ + e-  Ag
2 Ag+ + Pb  2 Ag + Pb2+
Fe  Fe2+ + 2 e- Ni2+ + 2 e-  Ni
Ni2+ + Fe  Ni + Fe2+
Cu  Cu2+ + 2 e- Ag+ + e-  Ag
2 Ag+ + Cu  2 Ag + Cu2+
 X √ √
√ √ √
X X √
X X X

Cu < Pb < Zn < Mg

 H+ + Cl–  Na+ + OH–
↔ H+ + CH3COO– + H2O ↔ NH4+ + OH–
Concentrated Diluted
solution solution
↑M ↓V ↑V ↓M
Mol = MV Mol = MV

M1V1 = M2V2
pH

End point

V of NaOH
A

V of NaOH
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O

HNO3 + Mg  Mg(NO3)2 + H2

H2SO4 + ZnCO3  ZnSO4 + H2O + CO2

Colourless gas evolve Colourless gas is
and gas helps to oxygen
ignite the glowing
wooden splinter.

Colourless gas evolve

and gas cause the Colourless gas is
burning wooden hydrogen
splinter to give “pop”
sound
Colourless gas evolve
and gas turn lime Colourless gas is
water chalky. carbon dioxide

Colourless gas evolve

Gas released give an Colourless gas is
odour & turn red ammonia
litmus paper to blue

Brown gas evolved

Gas released give an
odour smell & turn Brown gas is nitrogen
damp blue litmus dioxide
paper to red
 Hard yet brittle

Low melting point High melting point

Amorphous Crystalline
I
II

II
I

II
I
 Ea

∆H

Ea

∆H
Element Carbon (C = 12) Hydrogen (H = 1)
Mass 82.76 g 17.24 g
82.76 / 12 17.24 / 1
Mol
= 6.90 mol = 17.24 mol
6.90 / 6.90 = 1 X 2 17.24 / 6.90 = 2.5 X 2
Ratio
=2 =5
Empirical formula = C2H5
Since (C2H5)n = 58
( 2x12 + 5x1 )n = 58
(29) n = 58 ; n = 2
Molecular formula = (C2H5)2 = C4H10
  CH3COONa + H2O

 CH3COONa + H2

 2 CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

CH3COOH + C2H5OH  CH3COOC2H5 + H2O

Methyl ethanoate
Ethyl propanoate
Propyl ethanoate
Butyl pentanoate
Ethyl butanoate
 Unvulcanised rubber Properties Vulcanised rubber

More C=C in long rubber Less C=C : formation of

Double bond
chain sulphide linkage

Lower melting point (melt Melting / boiling Higher melting point as

easily) point number of S increase

Less elastic : polymer can More Elastic : sulphide

slide over easily
Not strong and soft. When
over stretch it will snap
Poor heat resistant when
Resistant to heat
heat soft and sticky
Easily oxidise by O2, O3 &
UV as there’s many C=C
Elasticity
linkage prevent slide off
Strong and hard. The
Strength and
strength depend on degree
hardness
of vulcanisation
Better heat resistance. As
presence of sulphur
linkage makes it harder
High resistant to oxidation
Oxidation
as there’s lesser C=C
Increase in no of O Decrease in no of O

Decrease in no of H Increase in no of H

Right side of ½ equation Left side of ½ equation

Oxidation state increase Oxidation state decrease

Reducing agent Oxidising agent

 2H + 1C + 3O = 0 2H + 1S + 4O = 0
2(+1) + (C) + 3(-2) = 0 2(+1) + (S) + 4(-2) = 0
C = +4 S = +6
3H + 1P + 4O = 0 1K + 1Mn + 4O = 0
3(+1) + (P) + 4(-2) = 0 1(+1) + (Mn) + 4(-2) = 0
P = +5 Mn = +7
1Cr + 4O = -2 1Co + 3Cl = 0
1(Cr) + 4(-2) = -2 1(Co) + 3(-1) = 0
Cr= +6 Co = +3
1Mn + 3O = -2 1Pb + 4Cl = -2
1(Mn) + 3(-2) = -2 1(Pb) + 4(-1) = -2
Mn= +4 Pb = +2
0  +1 oxidation Na  Na+ + e-
0  +2 oxidation Mg  Mg2+ + 2 e-

0  +3 oxidation Al  Al3+ + 3 e-
+2  0 reduction Cu2+ + 2 e-  Cu
0  +1 oxidation H2  2 H+ + 2 e-
0  -1 reduction Cl2 + 2 e-  2 Cl–
-1  0 oxidation 2 I-  I2 + 2 e-
0  -2 reduction O2 + 4 e-  2 O2–
+2  +3 oxidation Fe2+  Fe3+ + e-
+4  +2 reduction Pb4+ + 2 e-  Pb2+
 Na  Na+ + e- X2
Cu2+ + 2 e-  Cu
Cu2+ + 2 Na  Cu + 2 Na+

Mg  Mg2+ + 2e-
Fe3+ + e-  Fe2+ X2
2 Fe3+ + Mg  2 Fe2+ + Mg2+

Al  Al3+ + 3 e- X2
Zn2+ + 2 e-  Zn X3
2 Al + 3 Zn2+  2 Al3+ + 3 Zn
 Br2 + 2e-  2 Br-
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e-  Mn2+ + 4H2O
Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e-  2 Cr3+ + 7H2O

Mg  Mg2+ + 2e-
Sn2+  Sn4+ + 2 e-
Al  Al3+ + 3 e-
 Stronger as oxidising agent

Stronger as reducing agent

Light yellow Brown Brown

colourless Brown Purple

Cl2 + Br -
2Br-  Br2 + 2e-
Cl2 + 2e-  2Cl-
Cl2 + 2Br- Br2 + 2Cl-

Cl2 + I -
2I-  I2 + 2e-
Cl2 + 2e-  2Cl-
Cl2 + 2I-  I2 + 2Cl-
Br2 + I -
2I-  I2 + 2e-
Br2 + 2e-  2Br-
Br2 + 2I-  I2 + 2Br-
X
X
√
√
√

√
√
√
X
Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)  AgCl (s)
Pb2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)  PbSO4 (s)
Pb2+ (aq) + 2 Cl- (aq)  PbCl2 (s)
Ca2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)  CaCO3 (s)
2 Al3+ (aq) + 3 CO32- (aq)  Al2(CO3)3 (s)
 Cu2+ (aq) + Mg (s)  Cu (s) + Mg2+ (aq)
2 Ag+ (aq) + Pb (s)  2 Ag (s) + Pb2+ (aq)
3 Zn2+ (aq) + 2 Al (s)  3 Zn (s) + 2 Al3+ (aq)
Fe3+ (aq) + 3 Na (s)  Fe (s) + 3 Na+ (aq)
Sulphuric acid is a diproctic acid-
dissociate 2 mol of H+ from 1
mole of acid. Hence 2 mol of
water is produced which cause
the energy release is doubled

Ethanoic acid is a weak acid,

which dissociate partially in water.
So, the energy released is lesser
than expected.
q = (50 + 60)(4.2)(33-27)
q = 2772 J

mol = (50.0)(0.10) / 1000

= 0.05 mol

H = 2772 / 0.05
= 55440 J / mol
= - 55.4 kJ / mol
 2 Mg (s) + O2 (g)  2 MgO (s)

C (s) + O2 (g)  CO2 (g)

2 H2 (s) + O2 (g)  2 H2O (l)

2 C4H10 (g) + 13 O2 (g)  8 CO2 (g) + 10 H2O (l)

2 C3H7OH (g) + 7 O2 (g)  6 CO2 (g) + 8 H2O (l)

C6H12O6 (g) + 9 O2 (g)  6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l)