1. What is meant by a load on a generator? A load on a motor?

The load on a generator constitutes those electrical devices that convert electrical energy into
other forms of energy. The load on a motor constitutes the force that tends to oppose rotation
and is called a countertorque.
2. List several practical types of loads applied to motors.
Such loads may be fan blades, pumps, grinders, boring mills, crushers, excavators, elevators,
turntables, churns, drills, food mixers, and a host of other commonly used machines.
3. When the load changes, what tends to change in a generator? In a motor?
The voltage of a generator tends to change when the load changes. In the case of the motor, the
speed of rotation tends to change as the load varies.
4. What methods are usually employed to adjust the voltage of a generator? The speed of a
motor?
The voltage of a generator can always be adjusted by doing either or both of two things: (1)
changing the speed and (2) changing the strength of the magnetic field. The speed of rotation of
a DC motor can be changed by varying either or both of two things: (1) the strength of the
magnetic field and (2) the voltage impressed across the armature terminals.
5. Generally speaking, what factor is kept constant when a generator is in operation? When a
motor is in operation?
In either case, an increase in speed or flux is accomplished by an increase in voltage. In general,
an increase in flux decreases the speed, while a higher armature voltage raises the speed.
6. Are generators started under load? Explain.
Generators are always started without electrical loads.
7. Are motors strarted under load? Explain.
Motors, however, may or may not have a mechanical load when they are started.
8. Is it possible to operate a DC generator as a motor and vice versa? Explain.
Structurally, DC generators and motors are identical, except for minor differences that may
permit them to function in accordance with known practical requirements.
9. Name the three general types of DC motor.
It was learned that there are three general types, series, shunt, and compound.
10. Indicate, in a general way, how the speeds of the three types of DC motor are affected by an
increase in load.
The shunt motor slows down the least and the series motor the most, while the compound type
is a sort of compromise between the first two.
11. What is meant by a constant-speed motor? What type of motor exhibit constant-speed
characteristics?
In general, if a change from no mechanical load to full load causes the speed to drop
approximately 8 per cent or less, the motor is said to be of the constant-speed type; shunt
motors fall into this classification.
12. What is meant by a variable-speed motor? What types of motor exhibit this characteristic?
Motors in which the speed changes by greater values than indicated here are regarded as falling
into the variable-spee classification; series and compound motors behave in this manner.
13. What is meant by an adjustable-speed motor?
Whenever the speed of a motor can be controlled by an operator who makes a manual
adjustment, it is said to be of the adjusted-speed type.
14. Under what condition would a motor be called a constant-speed-adjustable-speed motor? A
variable-speed-adjustable-speed motor?
It is possible, therefore, to have a constant-speed-adjustable-speed motor; a shunt motor with a
field-rheostat control would fall into such a classification. Or a variable-speed-adjustable-speed
motor might be a series motor with a line rheostat.
15. Why is the generated emf in in a DC motor called a counter emf?
Since the generated voltage opposes the flow of current, it is called a counter electromotive
force (counter emf).
16. Can the counter emf ever be equal to the impressed voltage in a motor? Give reasons for your
answer.
Clearly, this counter emf can never be equal to, and must always be less than, the voltage
impressed across the armature terminals, because the direction in which the current flows
determines first the direction of rotation and thus the direction of the counter emf.
17. How does the counter emf control the value of the armature current?
This can only mean that the armature current is controlled and limited by the counter emf.
Therefore, by Ohm’s law, armature current is equal to the difference of impressed voltage
across armature winding and counter emf generated in armature over resistance of armature.
18. Upon what two factors does the counter emf depend in a given motor?
It depends, for a given machine, upon two factors: (1) the flux per pole and (2) the speed of
rotation in revolutions per minute.
19. When the load upon a shunt motor is increased, what electrical factor affects the speed?
That is, Ec is directly proportional to flux per pole and S.
20. When the load upon a compound or series motor is increased, what two factors affect the
speed?
There are two reasons for the drop in speed: (1) the increased load, which requires an increased
armature current, and (2) an increase in the flux because of the series field of the compound
motor.
21. Approximately, what percentage of the impressed voltage is the counter emf in a DC motor?
It should be stated that the counter emf developed in the armature of a motor is usually
between 80 and 95 per cent of the voltage impressed across the armature terminals.
22. Explain why the power developed by a DC motor is determined by the value of the counter
emf.
Equation (14) states that the power in watts developed by the armature is EcIA because it is equal
to the power in watts supplied to the armature VAIA minus the copper loss in the armature IA2RA.
23. What limits the armature current in a DC motor at the instant of starting?
Therefore, for a given load current IA, it should be clear that a motor will develop the greatest
power when the counter emf Ec is a maximum.
24. How is it possible to keep the armature current down to a reasonable value when a DC motor
is started?
As the armature accelerates to full speed, the value of Ec rises to a value that causes the proper
value of armature current IA to flow.
25. Why is it not particularly serious to start a small motor directly from the line without the use
of external resistors?
In the case of very small motors, usually the fractional-horsepower sizes up to about ¾ hp, no
starting resistor is necessary.
26. What is the primary function of a starter for a DC motor?
There primary function is to limit the current in the armature circuit during the starting or
accelerating period.
27. What are the two general types of manual starter for DC motors?
The are two standard types of motor starter for shunt and compound motors: the three-point
type and the four-point type.
28. How are starters rated?
They are always rated on the basis of horsepower and voltage of the motors with which they are
to be used.
29. When starting a DC motor with a manually operated starter, why is it not permissible to hold
the handle on an intermediate stud for a considerable length of time? Give reasons for your
answer.
The entire starting process should take from 5 to 10 sec. This function of the starter is
particularly important because (1) if the power fails and the starter arm is not restored to the
OFF position, the motor might be damaged should the power come on again, and (2) if the
shunt field circuit were opened accidentally and the starter arm did not return to the OFF
position, the motor speed might become dangerously high.
30. Explain exactly how a DC motor should be properly started with a manual starter.
To start the motor, one hand is held on the handle of the open main switch while the starter
arm is moved to th first stud with the other hand; then the main switch is closed.
31. How many electrical circuits are there in a three-point starter? A four-point starter?
Figure 96 is a greatly simplified schematic writing diagram clearly showing the two electric
circuits of a shunt motor and its starter. Thus, when the starter arm is on the first stud, the line
current divides into three parts.
32. What is the disadvantage of the three-point starter? How is this disadvantage overcome in the
four-point starter?
In the last circuit, it should be noted that the current through the field is the same current that
flows through the holding coil. Thus, if sufficient resistance is cut in by the field rheostat, so that
tbhe holding coil current is no longer able to create sufficient electromagnetic pull to overcome
the spring tension, the starter arm will fall back to the OFF position. It is this undesirable feature
of the three-point starter that makes it unsuitable to use with speed-controlled motors. If this
starter is compared with the three-point type, it will be observed that one important change has
been made: the holding coil has been removed from the shunt-field circuit and, in series with a
current-protecting resistor, has been placed in a separate circuit in parallel with armature and
field.
33. What is the function of the holding coil?
The electromagnetic pull exerted by the holding coil will always be sufficient and will prevent
the spiral spring from restoring the arm to the OFF position, no matter how the field rheostat is
adjusted.
34. What is a controller? What function, other than starting, can it perform?
Whenever a starter is equipped with some means for varying the speed of the motor to which it
is connected, it is called a controller. Controllers may also be designed to permit reversing the
direction of rotation and may include protective feautures such as overload relays, undervoltage
relays, and open-field devices.
35. What two important advantages are possesses by a manual controller for a shunt or
compound motor?
There are two objections to the use of a standard four-point starter when a field rheostat must
be provided to control the speed of a motor. Refer again to Fig. 98 and note that a field rheostat
is provided in the shunt-field circuit. As resistance is cut in, the speed increases; also, at a
comparatively high speed, the field must be weakened considerably.
36. Explain the operation of a four-point controller for a shunt or compound motor. Refer to the
wiring diagram of Fig. 101 in doing this.
When the motor is started, the two arms move forward simultaneously, the long one pushing
the short one. Resistance is first inserted and then cut out of the armature circuit in the usual
way as the armature accelerates. The field is excited without any rheostat resistance in the field
circuit because the current passes directly from L to a to b to F. When the final position of the
armature-resistor arm is reached, the arm is held by the electromagnet; at the same time, the
connection between a and b is broken so that the field current must now pass up to point c
before reaching F. Obviously, when the field-rheostat arm is moved backwards, resistance is cut
into the field circuit, which causes the motor to speed up.
37. In an automatic starter disinguish between: a relay and a contactor; normally open and
normally closed contacts.
When the automatic starter functions to bring a motor up to speed, two or more sets of
contactors are generally made to short-circuit resistor units in a definite sequence, the latter
being, of course, connected in series in the armature circuit. In one scheme, the counter-emf
type of starter, a number of relays are connected across the armature where the counter emf
increases as the motor accelarates, and the former are adjusted to pick up at predetermined
values of voltage.
38. What is a timing relay? Explain its operation.
In a second type, the time-limit starter, a group of relays are timed to operate at preset intervals
of time, by means of devices that function mechanically, pneumatically, or electrically.
39. In what respects do the counter-emf, time-limit, and current-limit automatic types of starter
differ from one another in operation? What advantages are possessed by each?
In one scheme, the counter-emf type of starter, a number of relays are connected across the
armature where the counter emf increases as the motor accelerates, and the former are
adjusted to pick up at predetermined values of voltage In a second type, the time-limit starter, a
group of relays are timed to operate at preset intervals of time, by means of devices that
function mechanically, pneumatically, or electrically In still another method, the current-limit
starter, the relays are designed so that they are sensitive to current changes in the armature
circuit.
40. Describe the operation of the counter-emf automatic starter of Fig. 102.
Referring first to Fig. 102, the counter-emf method, the shunt motor is started by pressing the
START button. This energizes the main contactor M, which instantly closes the auxiliary contacts
M1 (to seal the START button) and the main contacts M. The motor then starts with resistors R1,
R2, and R3 in series in the armature circuit. Note that relays 1AX, 2AX, and 3AX are connected
across the armatuee terminals, where the voltage drop changes as the motor accelerates; since
these relays are adjusted to pick up at preset and increasingly larger values of voltage, contacts
1AX, and 2AX, and 3AX will close in a definite sequence.
41. Describe the operation of the time-limit automatic starter of Fig. 103.
Figure 103 is a circuit diagram for a time-limit acceleration starter connected to a compound
motor. When the START button is pressed, the control relay CR picks up; this closes the sealing
contacts CR1 and the contacts CR2 the feed the four contactors M, 1A, 2A, and 3A. The closing
of CR2 energizes the M contactor, which opens contacts M1 to insert resistance in the M-coil
circuit (to keep current down) and closes the main contacts to start the motor. After a definite
time delay, contacts M2-T.C. close; this energizes the 1A contactor which, in turn, short-circuits
resistor section R1. The operation of the 1A contactor also closes the 1A-T.C. contacts after a
time delay and permits contactor 2A to pick up, which, in turn, closes the second pair of
contacts 2A to short-circuit R2. Finally, the 2A-T.C. contacts close after a time delay to energize
the 3A contacts to short-circuit the last resistor R3. The operation of contactor 3A also closes the
3A-T.C. contacts for sealing purposes and opens the normally closed 3A contacts across the
shunt-field rheostat; the latter contacts are kept closed until the motor reaches full speed, after
which the preset field rheostat resistance is inserted further to accelerate the motor to a
desired high speed.
42. Describe the operation of the current-limit automatic starter of Fig. 104.
The current-limit acceleration starter of Fig. 104 functions in still another way, depending for the
motor’s increase in speed upon the current taken by the armature circuit; this permits the
motor to start more slowly when the load is heavy and more rapidly under light-load conditions.
When the START button is pressed, the M contactor is energized and this causes contacts M1
and M to close. The motor now starts as current passes through R1, R2, R3, and the SR1 series
relay which open the normally closed contacts SR1 instantly and before the M2 contacts close;
the latter is an important feature of the starter. When the current in relay SR1 drops to normal
after the motor accelerates sufficiently, contacts SR1 close to energize contactor 1A; this
permits the SR2 relay to bypass R1 and the SR1 relay, and current, a greatly increased value,
passes through relay SR2. The operation of relay SR2 opens he SR2 contacts, and an instant later
the 1A contacts close; when the current through SR2 drops sufficiently, its contacts close again,
contactor 2A is energized, and contacts 2A close. Again the motor increases speed, the armature
current drops, and the same procedure is followed by relay SR3, normally closed contacts SR3
and contacts 2A, contactor 3A, contacts 3A. The motor now runs with all of the armature-circuit
resistance cut out.
43. In the push-button automatic starter, is the START button normally open or closed? Is the
STOP button normally open or closed? Are the overload relay contacts normally open or
closed?
The START button is normally open. The STOP button is normally open. The overload relay
contacts is normally closed.
44. Explain why the armature of a DC motor automatically draws more current from the source
when the load is increased.
When a load is applied to a motor, the natural tendency of the latter is to slow down because
the opposition to motion is increased. Under this condition, the counter emf decrease, for the
reason that Ec is proportional to the speed. This reduction in speed immediately results in an
increase in armature current since, by Eq. (12), IA equals (VA – EC)/ RA. Obviously, this increase in
armature current must be exactly that required by the motor to drive the increased load
because any increase in mechanical driving power must be met by a corresponding increase in
electrical power input to the armature.
45. What is meant by the normal speed of a motor?
The speed at which a motor operates when it is driving its rated load, its so-called rated
horsepower, is called the normal speed.
46. What general statements can be made with regard to the change in speed with load for shunt
motors? Compound motors? Series motors?
If the mechanical load is completely removed from a shunt motor, so that it is merely
overcoming its own bearing, brush, and wind friction, it will operate at a speed only slightly
higher than the normal speed; this will generally be between 2 and 8 per cent higher than the
normal speed. Doing the samething to a compound motor will result in rise in speed of about 10
to 25 per cent. The series motor, on the other hand, does attempt to race, or operate at a very
high speed, when the load is removed.
47. What is meant by torque? In what units is it usually expressed?
The torque (usually in pound-feet) developed by a motor, i.e., the tendency of a motor to
produce rotation, depends upon two factors: (1) the flux created by the main poles and (2) the
current flowing in the armature winding. The torque is independent of the speed of rotation.
48. In general, upon what two factors does the torque of a motor depend?
The torque (usually in pound-feet) developed by a motor, i.e., the tendency of a motor to
produce rotation, depends upon two factors: (1) the flux created by the main poles and (2) the
current flowing in the armature winding.
49. How much power must a motor develop? Be explicit.
Pd, the power developed in watts, is the power to drive the mechanical load and the power
necessary to overcome the motor’s own rotational losses.
50. Why is the torque of a shunt motor directly proportional to the armature current?
The torque of a shunt motor depends only upon the armature current; assuming that the shunt-
field current is not changed by field-rheostat adjustment, the torque is independent of the flux.
51. Explain how the torque varies with increased load upon a compound motor; a series motor.
The torque of a compound motor (cumulative only, where the shunt and series-field ampere-
turns aid each other) combines the torque-load characteristic of the shunt and series motors. As
the load on the motor increases, the armature, or load, current passing through the series field
creates flux that adds to the constant shunt-field flux. The torque developed by a series motor
depends upon the armature current and the flux that this current produces in passing through
the series field. At heavy loads, when the magnetic circuit iron is not saturated, the flux will
change very little or not at all with changes in load; under this condition, the graph will tend to
become a straight line.
52. Under what operating conditions is it desirable to use a shunt motor? A series motor? A
compound motor?
In fact, it is generally recognized in practice that the seriies motor is capable of developing such
high values of overload torques that it is difficult to stall. It is true, of course, that as the torque
increases, the speed drops; but whereas the series motor will slow down considerably under
heavy loading, the shunt motor will be unable to develop sufficient torque and will stall.
53. Are shunt and compound types of motor stable at no load?
In this typical shunt-motor example, it is seen that the rise in speed is 100 rpm, or about 6.7 per
cent, when the rated load is completely removed from the motor so that it runs idle. Unlike the
shunt motor, in which the flux remains substantially constant for all conditions of loading, the
effect of the series field is to cause the total flux in a compound motor to drop when the load is
removed.
54. What precautions must be taken in operating a series motor, the load on which varies over
wide limits?
In operating a series motor, great care must be taken not to permit the load to be reduced to
such an extent that the speed becomes excessive. To understand why this is so, the following
points should be recognized:
1. The speed of any motor is inversely proportional to the flux [see Eq. (18)].
2. The flux produced in a given series motor depends entirely upon the load current.
3. When the load is heavy, the current is proportionately large and as a consequence, the flux
is high; this results in a low speed.
4. When the load is lightened (not completely removed), the current drops, and this reduces
the flux to increase the speed.
55. Two similar shunt motors are changed to compound machines. If one of them is wound with
twice as many series-field turns per pole as the other, which will have: (a) the greater speed
change with load? (b) the greater starting torque? (c) the greater overload torque?
Note that in this typical compound-motor example, the speed rises from 1,400 to 1,745 rpm;
i.e., it changes 345 rpm between full and nonload. This change represents a rise of nearly 25 per
cent, as compared with 6.7 per cent for the typical shunt-motor example previously given. The
shunt motor would develop the least starting torque because the high armature current at the
start has no effect upon the flux. Examination of the curves indicates that between no load and
full load the shunt motor develops the greatest torque.
56. Define speed regulation.
It is customary to speak of the natural, or inherent, change in speed of a shunt or compound
motor between full load and no load as the regulation.
57. What approximate values of speed regulation can be assigned to shunt and compound
motors?
Shunt motors are generally regarded as constant-speed motors because their per cent speed
regulation is very small. Compound motors are properly considered to be variable-speed motors
because their per cent speed regulation is comparatively high.
58. Why is it improper to speak of the speed regulation of a series motor?
If very few turns are used for the series field, the regulation will tend to approach that of a shunt
motor; if many series-field turns are used, the regulation tends to depart greatly from the shunt-
motor characteristic, although it never approaches the speed variations exhibited by series
motors. The series motor certainly has a variable-speed characteristic, and it too is classed as
such.
59. Distinguish between the terms speed regulation and voltage regulation.
And when this regulation is referred to the full load or rated speed of the motor expressed in
per cent, it is called the per cent speed regulation. (It is a term similar to the one used In
connection with shunt generators in Chap. 4, except that voltage values were implied there.)
60. Why are shunt motors generally referred to as constant-speed motors?
Shunt motors are generally regarded as constant-speed motors because their per cent speed
regulation is very small. Of course, they are not constant-speed motors in tbe strictest sense,
but their speed varies so little between full load and no llad that they are called so for practical
purposes.
61. Why are compound and series motors generally referred to as variable-speed motors?
Compound motors are properly considered to be variable-speed motors because their per cent
speed regulation is comparatively high. The series motor certainly has a variable-speed
characteristic, and it too is classed as such.
62. Give several practical applications for shunt (constant-speed) motors.
In some applications, such as wood planers, circular saws, grinders, polishers, and line shafts, it
has been found that constant-speed shunt motors perform most satisfactorily.
63. Give several practical applications for compound motors.
Variable-speed compound motors should, however, be applied to loads requiring considerable
torque upon starting or to loads that are subject to rapid change. Good examples of such
applications are compressors, pumps, and pressure blowers.
64. Give several practical applications for series motors.
Some common applications of this type of motor are streetcars, turntables, cranes, bucket and
mine hoists, and the operation of large valves.
65. Why are differential-compound motors unstable at heavy loads? Explain carefully.
At heavy loads, the series-field current is comparatively high, which means that the
demagnetizing action may be considerable.
66. Under what conditions is it permissible and desirable to use differential-compound motors?
Differential-compound motors, as they are called, have few practical application; they may be
used in special cases in which it is desirable to have a better constant-speed characteristic than
has the shunt type of motor.
67. What precautions must be taken when starting a differential-compound motor?
Differential-compound motors must be started with caution, preferably with the series field
short-circuited, because a large starting series-field current may be sufficient to reverse the
normal magnetic polarities and cause the motor to start up in the wrong direction.
68. Distinguish between speed control and speed regulation.
69. How does the speed vary when the shunt-field rheostat is adjusted?
In this method, the speed increases as resistance is cut in by the field rheostat; thisi is true
because, by Eq. (18), the speed rises as the flux is reduced.
70. How does the speed vary when the armature rheostat is adjusted?