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I. Introduction
I.1 Concrete as a construction material
Concrete has developed into one of the most, if not the most, used building material
everywhere in the world. Three main reasons explain this fact:
1) Concrete possesses excellent resistance to water. Therefore it is going to be the
material of predilection for building structures that control, store and transport
water. Structure elements that will also be exposed to moisture such as piles and
foundations will also benefit from being constructed using concrete.
2) Structure concrete elements can easily be formed into a variety of shapes and sizes.
Freshly made concrete is of a plastic consistency which enables the material to flow
easily in formworks (moulds or guides) of any shape. These formworks can be reused
once the concrete has solidified and hardened.
3) Concrete is the cheapest and most readily available material. Aggregate, water and
cement are relatively inexpensive and commonly available in most part of the world.
Additionally to these three main reasons, secondary reasons can also be cited to explain the
preference of concrete over steel:
‐ Maintenance: concrete does not corrode, does not need surface treatment and
becomes stronger with time.
‐ Fire resistance: using concrete makes for safer constructions as concrete is fire
resistant.
‐ Resistance to cyclic loading: the allowable concrete stresses (maximum stresses that
should be applied on a concrete element) are limited to 50% of the ultimate stress so
fatigue is not an issue.
I.2 Components of concrete
Concrete is a composite material that consists essentially of a binding matrix within which
are embedded particles or fragments of aggregate. In hydraulic concrete, the binder is
formed of a mixture of hydraulic cement and water. Sometimes admixtures are added to
modify the properties of concrete.
Aggregate is a granular material such as sand, gravel, crushed stones, crushed blast‐furnace
slag or construction and demolition waste that is used with a cementing medium to produce
either concrete or mortar. Two types of aggregate exist: coarse aggregate (particles larger
than 4.75mm) and fine aggregate (particles smaller than 4.75mm).
Mortar is a mixture of sand, cement and water (concrete without a coarse aggregate).
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Cement is a finely pulverised, dry material that by itself is not a binder but develop binding
properties as a result of hydration (from chemical reactions between cement minerals and
water). Cement is called hydraulic when the hydration products are stable in aqueous
environment. The most commonly used hydraulic cement is Portland cement which consists
essentially of reactive calcium silicates (3CaO∙SiO2 and 2CaO∙SiO2) which form calcium
silicate hydrates when reacting with water.
Admixtures are materials other than aggregates, cement and water that can be added in the
concrete batch immediately before or during mixing. These are widespread used nowadays
as they can improve the concrete in many different ways. For example, air‐entraining
admixtures can improve the durability of concrete exposed to cold weather and mineral
admixtures such as pozzolans (siliceous and aluminous materials which will, in finely divided
form and in the presence of water, react chemically with calcium hydroxide at ordinary
temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious properties) can reduce thermal
cracking in mass concrete.
I.3 Types of concrete
Different classifications exist for concrete depending if one is considering weight or
strength. The most commonly used classification in Australia (and many Europeans
countries) concerns the compressive strength:
‐ Low‐strength concrete: less than 20 MPa
‐ Moderate‐strength concrete: 20 to 40 MPa
‐ High‐strength concrete: more than 40 MPa
Moderate‐strength concrete is also referred as normal or ordinary concrete and is used in
most structural work.
Typical proportions of materials producing the different types of concrete are shown in
Table 1. The influence of the cement paste content and water‐cement ratio on the strength
of concrete is very clear from this table.
Table 1: Typical proportions of materials in concrete mixtures of different strength (source: Mehta
and Monteiro 2006).
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II. Portland and Blended Cements
The term cement is used to describe a range of binding materials, the most common of
which are known as hydraulic cements. These have the ability to react with water and
harden to produce a strong and durable product.
The most commonly used hydraulic cement is the Portland cement. In 1824, a bricklayer
from Leeds, UK, Joseph Aspdin, found that by mixing certain proportions of limestone and
clay and burning this mixture in a crude shaft kiln, a cement was produced with far greater
strength and durability than the lime/gypsum and lime/pozzolan mixes previously used.
Aspdin named and patented is cement Portland cement because when hard it resembles a
popular building stone quarried back then in Portland, UK.
II.1 Manufacturing of Portland Cement
Two main stages are involved in the manufacturing of Portland cement (see Fig. 1):
1) Clinker production involves the quarrying or dredging of raw materials which are
then crushed and ground to smaller size and once blended in the correct proportions
are burned at high temperature in a kiln. The resulting material is cooled in a
controlled manner and is called clinker.
2) Cement production: the clinker is ground to a fine powder in which gypsum is added.
This fine powder is the cement that is used in concrete.
Figure 1: Flow diagram from the dry process of Portland cement manufacture
(source: Mehta and Monteiro 2006).
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II.2 Raw materials
The major ingredients used for the manufacturing of the clinker are limestone (calcium
carbonate CaCO3) and clay (or shale). These materials contain the four main oxides required
to produce the hydraulic characteristics of the cement (other oxides might also be present
additionally to these four):
‐ Lime (CaO)
‐ Silica (SiO2)
‐ Alumina (Al2O3)
‐ Iron oxide (Fe2O3)
Table 2 lists the oxide and clinker compounds as well as the used abbreviations to name
them.
Table 2: Oxide and clinker compounds and their abbreviations (source: Mehta and Monteiro
2006).
II.3 Chemistry of Portland Clinker
The chemical composition of Portland cement is critical as it affects the behaviour of the
cement once water is added. Portland cement consists essentially of four major compounds
or minerals formed in the burning zone of the kiln by the combustion of lime with silica,
alumina and iron oxide (see Australian standard AS 2350.2):
‐ Tricalcium silicate (C3S): main contributor of early age strength of concrete. Usually
makes 55 to 65% of the cement.
‐ Dicalcium silicate (C2S): gives concrete strength at later age. Usually accounts for 15
to 25% of the cement.
‐ Tricalcium aluminate (C3A): responsible for very early setting and strength gain.
Usually makes 2 to 10% of the cement.
‐ Tetracalcium alumina ferrite (C4AF): produces little strength and is dark in colour.
Usually very low percentage in the cement especially in white and off‐white cement.
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Other constituents are present in the raw material and can have a significant effect on
the final properties of the concrete.
‐ Sulfate (SO3) helps control the reaction rate and therefore the setting time of
cement. It also affects strength and shrinkage properties. Not more than 3.5% should
be present in cement according to the Australian standard AS 3972.
‐ Free lime is the unreacted lime during the heating process. This should be kept very
low.
‐ Magnesia (MgO) can produce long‐term expansion at too high level so should be
kept below 4.5%.
‐ Alkali oxides (K2O or Na2O) can participate to alkali‐silicate reactions (ASR) or alkali‐
aggregate reactions (AAR) which might make the concrete crumble. They should be
kept below 0.6%.
II. 4 Types of Cement
There are many types of cement used in Australia. Some are for general purposes and
others are designed for specialised applications. The most commonly used are the General
Purpose and blended cements that comply with the requirements of the Australian standard
AS3972 (see Table 3).
General Purpose Cements:
‐ Type GP – General Purpose Cement
‐ Type GB – Blended Cement
‐ Type GL – General Purpose Limestone Cement
Special Purpose Cements:
‐ Type HE – High Early Strength Cement
‐ Type LH – Low Heat Cement
‐ Type SR – Sulphate Resistant Cement
‐ Type SL – Shrinkage Limited Cement
II.4.1 General Purpose Cement – Type GP
This is the most used cement in Australia for construction where the special properties
offered by the other types of cement are not necessary.
Composition (can vary from manufacturer from manufacturer):
‐ 89% clinker (min)
‐ 3.5% SO3 (max)
‐ 7.5% mineral additions (max)
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Table 3: AS3972 Requirement (source: Cement and Concrete Association of Australia and
Standards Australia 2002)
II.4.2 Blended Cement – Type GB
The performance of blended cement is dependent on the proportion and type of
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) added. These SCMs include naturally
occurring deposits but more frequently nowadays they are sourced from waste materials
from other manufacturing industries.
1) Fly ash: dust collected in electrostatic precipitators used to clean the flue gases from
black coal burning stations.
2) Ground granulated iron blast furnace slag: produced during the smelting of iron ore
to extract iron.
3) Amorphous silica (silica fume): naturally occurring deposits or silica fume which is a
very fine particulate material collected in the refining of silicon metal.
Composition: ‐ 92.5% GP cement (max)
‐ 7.5% SCMs (min)
Usually for equal 28 day strength, the early strengths are lower for concrete made with type
GB cement than for concrete made with type GP cement, but the later strengths are
generally improved with the type GB cement (see Fig. 2).
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Type GB cements can offer additional advantages (composition dependent) such as
improved sulphate resistance, greater alkali‐silica reaction resistance, lower drying
shrinkage and higher chloride penetration resistance.
Figure 2: Development of concrete strength with age – comparison of type GP and type GB
cements (source: Cement and Concrete Association of Australia and Standards Australia 2002).
II.4.3 General Purpose Limestone Cement – Type GL
This is a newer type of cement that was introduced in the standard in 2010. It’s a “green”
version of type GP cement. It contains Portland cement and may include limestone alone or
in combination with minor additional constituents. Properties depend on compositions and
should be provided by the manufacturer.
II.4.4 High Early Strength Cement – Type HE
As the name suggests, this type of cement develops strength more rapidly than other types
of cement (see Fig. 3). Usually this property is obtained by grinding the cement clicker into a
finer powder than for the type GP cement and sometimes gypsum is added.
This type of cement lends itself to applications where rapid strength development is
required (columns or when formwork needs to be removed early). It can also be beneficial
to use that type of cement in cold weather.
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Figure 3: Development of concrete strength with age – comparison of type GP and type HE
cements (source: Cement and Concrete Association of Australia and Standards Australia 2002).
II.4.5 Low Heat Cement – Type LH
Type LH cement is used when the rate of temperature rise, caused by the hydration of
cement, has to be controlled to prevent thermal stresses and possible cracking of the
concrete. Its principal use is in massive structure or thick structural element.
II.4.6 Sulphate Resisting Cement – Type HE
The susceptibility of Portland cement to sulphate attacks (from sulphate in some ground
water) is due to the presence of C3A. The reaction created is accompanied by a change of
volume which may lead to cracking. To avoid this problem, the composition of the cement
can be changed.
II.4.7 Shrinkage Limited Cement – Type SL
It is used for large area pours such as concrete roads. Type SL cement can either have a
different chemical composition (optimum gypsum content for a given alkali and C3A
content) or be of finer powder.
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II.4.8 White and Off‐White Cement
They necessitate the careful selection of raw materials in order to control that the iron
content is low to have a light colour. These cements are used primarily for architectural
purposes and should not be used in situations where sulphate attack is likely to occur.
II. 5 Hydration Characteristics of Portland Cement Compounds
Two basic factors affect almost all the properties of cement and therefore of concrete:
1) Hydration reaction:
That is the reaction between water and Portland cement. Water is essential, without
it the cement cannot play its role of binding all the components of concrete together
and therefore the final product will have no properties of interest.
2) Water/cement (w/c) ratio:
This ratio controls the performance of concrete. Higher w/c ratio concretes have
lower performance than lower w/c ratio concretes.
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III. Aggregates
Aggregates comprise the major volume fraction in concrete and therefore the types and
proportions of aggregates have a tremendous influence on the final properties of concrete.
Aggregates affect a wide range of properties including workability, drying shrinkage,
serviceability, ultimate strength and durability.
Australian aggregates are generally produced from naturally occurring sands, gravels,
crushed rocks and metallurgical slag or artificial stones.
Commercial aggregates used in the production of Australian concrete are selected from
local materials according to the Australian standard AS 2758.1 and specification
requirements.
Factors that influence the impact on concrete quality are:
‐ Geological type
‐ Shape and size
‐ Strength and hardness
‐ Grading or range of sizes
‐ Cleanliness
‐ Bond with cementitious paste
‐ Reactivity with alkali
‐ Shrinkage
III.1 Classification of aggregates
Australian practice is to classify aggregates in term of their normal size, grading, petrology,
source and compliance with standards.
The nominal size of an aggregate provides the size of the largest particles of a material
made up of different sized particles. The grading (or size distribution or range of sizes) can
be obtained using sieving.
Nominal sizes of aggregate used in concrete can range from 75µm to 150mm. Coarse
aggregates are defined as aggregates with a nominal size above 4.75mm while fine
aggregate will have a nominal size below 4.75mm. Silt and clay can also be present in small
quantities in concrete. Silt has particles between 2 and 75µm and clay has particles below
2µm.
Most coarse aggregates are manufactured from rocks of igneous origin by crushing and
screening. Igneous rocks are formed by cooling of the magma either above or new the
earth’s surface.
Fine aggregates are generally extracted from water‐borne or air‐borne sedimentary deposits
such as dune sand or river sand. Sedimentary rocks are stratified rocks that are usually laid
down under water but are, at times, accumulated by wind and glacial action. Most fine
aggregates contain a high proportion of various forms of silica.
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III.2 Types of aggregates
The Australian standard AS 2758.1 identifies four main types of concrete aggregate by
weight as shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Types of aggregates (source: Cement and Concrete Association of Australia and Standards
Australia 2002).
III.3 General aggregate properties
Bulk density: mass of the aggregate required to fill a container having a unit volume. It
usually ranges from 1.2 ro 1.75 t/m3.
Aggregate relative density: ratio of its mass to the mass of an equal volume of water. An
aggregate is said to be “Saturated Surface Dry” (SSD) when it is fully saturated within its
structure and does not have any excess moisture on its surface. The value of the aggregate
relative density ranges from 2.4 to 2.9.
Aggregate absorption: Difference between dry and SSD aggregate weights. It ranges from
0.2 to 5% for coarse aggregate and from 0.2 and 3% for fine aggregate. High values might
indicate weak or unsound aggregate.
III.4 Dimensional aggregate properties
III.4.1 Grading or particle size distribution
The grading (and nominal size) affect cementitious materials and water requirements,
workability, pumping ability, economy, porosity and durability of concrete.
The Australian standard 2758.1 provides grading requirements for single sized and graded
coarse and fine aggregates as well as the permissible deviations (see Tables 5, 6 and 7).
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Table 5: Coarse aggregate grading requirements (source: Cement and Concrete Association of
Australia and Standards Australia 2002).
Table 6: Limits of deviation for coarse aggregates (source: Cement and Concrete Association of
Australia and Standards Australia 2002).
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Table 7: Fine aggregate grading and limits of deviation requirements (source: Cement and
Concrete Association of Australia and Standards Australia 2002).
III.4.2 Particle shape and texture properties
They influence the workability of a freshly mixed concrete. Smooth, rounded aggregate
particles are preferable to achieve the maximum workability and compatibility. However,
for optimum strength a rough texture, cubical shaped aggregate is preferred. Flat, flaky or
elongated particles can reduce both workability and strength of concrete. Fig. 4 shows the
different types of aggregate shape.
III.5 Aggregate Durability Properties
III.5.1 Aggregate strength
The strength of the aggregate does not influence the strength of the normal‐strength
concrete (cement paste strength and bond strength between aggregate and cement paste
are more important). However, aggregate strength becomes important for high‐strength
concrete. Strength is measured for aggregate in the dry and wet conditions. Aggregates with
higher wet strength are usually used in more adverse environment conditions.
III.5.2 Aggregate soundness
It is the aggregate ability to withstand the aggressive actions due to weather especially. The
sodium sulphate soundness test determines the aggregate resistance to disintegration when
subjected to five cycles of immersion followed by five cycles of oven drying. The more
material loss the less sound the material is.
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Figure 4: Particle shape description. (source: Cement and Concrete Association of Australia and
Standards Australia 2002).
III.5.3 Aggregate abrasion resistance
It represents the ability of the aggregate to resist being worn away by friction with other
materials. This is important to avoid degradation during handling, stockpiling and mixing.
III.5.4 Aggregate alkali reactivity (AAR)
Some aggregates containing reactive silica will react with the sodium and potassium alkalis
in concrete to form an alkali‐silica gel that absorb water and swells. This causes expansion
and thus cracking in concrete.
III.5.5 Impurities presence
Aggregate can contain other substances (organic materials, silt and clay, dust particles and
salts) that can be harmful to concrete (volume change, hydration reaction delayed or
prevented, production of harmful by‐products, delays in setting and hardening of concrete).
The concrete needs to be tested to make sure that the amount of impurities is low.
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IV. Concrete Properties
Concrete properties are described in two stages of development:
1) When it is plastic: these properties determine the ease with which it can be placed,
worked into the required shape and finished.
2) When it has hardened: these properties determine the strength and serviceability of
the concrete and concrete structure.
IV.1 Plastic State Properties
IV.1.1 Workability
It determines the ease with which concrete can be placed into positon and finished.
It depends on:
‐ Water content: increasing water content will increase the workability BUT it will
increase the w/c ratio which will reduce the strength and durability and increase
shrinkage and cracking.
‐ Cement content: for the same water content, increasing the cement content will
increase workability (fine paste acts as lubricant). To maintain the w/c ratio it is a
good idea to then match the increase in water.
‐ Aggregate particle shape and size: larger aggregate tends to give a greater
workability. Rounded and cubical particles produce more workable concrete than
flaky or elongated particles.
‐ Chemical admixtures: water reducing, plasticising and super plasticising admixtures
help reach the required workability.
‐ Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs): Fly ash and slag can be used to
improve the workability of concrete. Amorphous silica on the contrary reduced
workability.
IV.1.2 Consistency
It is the ability of concrete to flow or the degree of wetness of concrete. It gives a measure
of whether anything has changed from one batch of concrete to the next. It is measured
using the slump test described later in this section.
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IV.1.3 Cohesiveness
It describes the stability of concrete while it hardens. It is the opposite of segregation
(separation of the coarse particles from the fine particles). It is affected by:
‐ Water content: too high a water content will cause segregation.
‐ Cement content: higher cement content improve cohesiveness
‐ Aggregate grading: mixes deficient in fine aggregate are more prone to segregation
but if there is too much of the finer particles the mix becomes too sticky to be
worked effectively.
‐ Chemical admixtures: air entraining agents can help mixes deficient in fine particles.
‐ SCMs: they improve the cohesiveness of concrete.
IV.2 Slump test
The procedure for the slump test is given on Fig. 5. The test uses a slump cone or mould
which is made of galvanised metal and has handles and foot pieces fitted, and steel tamping
rod of defined dimension. The mould is seated on a steel tray so that it is on an even and
consistent surface. The concrete is sampled as per AS 1012.1 to ensure a representative
sample has been obtained. The slump cone is filled with concrete in three approximately
equal height layers with each layer being rodded 25 times to compact the concrete. Once
the third layer has been completed, the top is struck off level and the mould removed by
lifting at the required rate (it should take 2 to 4 seconds), letting the concrete subside or
slump. The cone is inverted and the average difference between the height of the cone and
the slumped concrete is recorded as the slump of the mix. Variations in the slump from mix
to mix indicate that something has changed (frequently water has been added to the mix). It
is accepted though that some variations will occur and Table 8 lists the permitted tolerance.
Table 8: Permissible tolerance on slump. (source: Cement and Concrete Association of Australia
and Standards Australia 2002).
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Figure 5: Sequences of step in the slump test procedure (source: Mehta and Monteiro 2006).
This test is not a measure of workability although it is a fairly good measure of the
consistency or flow characteristics of plastic concrete. It is a popular test because it provides
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a simple and convenient way for controlling the batch‐to‐batch uniformity of ready‐mixed
concrete.
IV.3 Hardened Concrete Properties
IV.3.1 Elastic behaviour
The elastic characteristics of a material are a measure of its stiffness. In spite of the non‐
linear behaviour of concrete, an estimate of the elastic modulus is necessary for
determining the stresses induced by strains associated with environmental effects. It is also
needed for computing the design stresses under load in simple elements and moments and
deflections in more complicated structures.
By looking at Fig. 6 showing the stress‐strain responses of aggregate, cement and concrete,
it is obvious that concrete is not a linear‐elastic material. It has been shown that the non‐
linearity of the stress‐strain response of concrete can be explained by progressive micro‐
cracking of concrete under loads even at low loads.
Figure 6: Typical stress‐strain behaviour of cement paste, aggregate and concrete. (source: Mehta
and Monteiro 2006).
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This non‐linearity has given rise to three different types of elastic moduli:
‐ Tangent modulus: given by the slope of a line drawn tangent to the stress‐strain
curve at any point on the curve.
‐ Secant modulus: given by the slope of a line drawn from the origin to appoint on the
curve corresponding to a stress equal to 40% of the failure stress.
‐ Chord modulus: given by the slope of a line drawn between two points on the stress‐
strain curve (usually use an offset strain of 50x10‐6).
The Poisson’s ratio is not generally needed for most concrete design computations.
However it is needed for the structural analysis of tunnels and arch dams for example. The
Poisson’s ratio of concrete generally varies between 0.15 and 0.2.
IV.3.2 Strength
The strength of concrete is the property most valued by designers and quality engineers. It
is the porosity of the cement paste matrix as well as the interfacial transition zone between
the matrix and the coarse aggregate which usually determines the strength characteristics
of normal weight concrete. Although the w/c ratio is important in determining the porosity
of both matrix and interfacial zone and therefore the strength of the concrete, factors such
as compaction, curing conditions, aggregate size and mineralogy, admixtures, specimen
geometry, moisture condition, and loading conditions can have an important effect on
strength.
Concrete is very strong in compression and can resist large crushing loads. It is relatively
weak in tension but does have some tensile strength explaining why it is used in roads and
pavements.
Compressive strength
The compressive strength is a measure of the crushing load that concrete can sustain. It is
assessed by crushing a standard test cylinder in a compression testing machine. The
compressive strength is tested according to the Australian standards AS1012.8 and
AS1012.9. This test requires the casting of at least two specimens or test cylinders at 28
days. A third specimen is often also tested for early age strength (usually 7 day strength).
The size of the specimen adopted is usually 100mm diameter by 200 mm height (the size of
the aggregate can be a factor in designing the test specimen, larger aggregate will require
larger specimens). The specimens are casted into cylinder moulds in two equal layers and
each layer is compacted by rodding 25 times or by vibration. Test cylinders are then covered
for protection against weather elements during the transport from the site to the laboratory
for testing. They are then stripped from the moulds and they undergo curing (kept in
saturated conditions and constant temperature). After the required period (7 or 28 days)
they are then tested in compression after being capped (usually rubber caps are places at
the end of the cylinders).
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Tensile strength
This is a difficult property to measure directly for concrete so usually an indirect technique is
used to measure the tensile strength: Brazil or Splitting test (see Fig. 7).
Flexural strength
The flexural strength of concrete is measured by testing an unreinforced beam in bending
(see Fig. 8). This simulates the type of loading and failure that can occur in concrete
pavements as traffic load is applied.
There is no correlation in general to relate tensile, flexural and compressive strengths.
However, usually the tensile strength of concrete is around 1/10th of the compressive
strength.
Figure 7: Brazil test rig (source: Cement and Concrete Association of Australia and Standards
Australia 2002)
Age at testing
The strength of concrete will change with time. The strength used by the designer is the one
measured at 28 days. But sometimes early strength is important and can be measured at 1,
3, 7 or 14 days. For work where long‐term strength is important, the strength will be
measured at 90 days.
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Figure 8: Flexural test rig (source: Cement and Concrete Association of Australia and Standards
Australia 2002)
Factors affecting strength
From now on, the discussion will focus on compressive strength as it is the most important
strength.
‐ w/c ratio: this is the most influential parameter for strength as shown on Fig. 9. As
the w/c ratio increases the strength decreases.
Figure 9: w/c ratio impact on strength (source: Cement and Concrete Association of Australia and
Standards Australia 2002)
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‐ Compaction: voids in concrete reduce its strength so compaction (or vibration) is
used to reduce the amount of voids.
‐ Extend of hydration: concrete that is not kept moist by curing may achieve as little as
40% of its normal strength.
‐ Curing temperature: high temperatures promote faster hydration of the cement and
therefore higher strength.
‐ Type of cement: different types of cement will develop their strength at different
rates (see Fig. 10).
Figure 10: concrete age development for different types of cement (source: Cement and
Concrete Association of Australia and Standards Australia 2002)
‐ SCMs: They usually slow down the strength development.
‐ Admixtures: water reducers, plasticisers, and accelerators can be used to improve
the strength characteristics of concrete.
‐ Aggregate: if the aggregate is weak, the failure of the concrete will be caused by the
failure of the aggregate rather than the failure of the cement paste.
IV.3.3 Durability of concrete
A long service life is considered synonymous with durability. Environment is a major factor
in durability and needs to be mentioned when talking about durability. Durability of
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Portland cement concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering action, chemical
attack, abrasion or any other process of deterioration (volume change, freeze thaw
resistance…). In other words, a durable concrete will retain its original form, quality and
serviceability when exposed to its intended service environment. Durability is affected by
properties such as permeability and absorptivity of the concrete.
Permeability and absorptivity definitions
Permeability is a measure of the resistance of the concrete to gasses and liquids
penetration.
Absorptivity can be described as the amount of water that the concrete will soak up when it
is immersed in it.
Volume change
Hardened concrete will undergo a reduction volume as it dries, this is called shrinkage.
During its life, and depending on the environment, it will be subjected to expansion and
contraction. Higher temperatures will cause expansion and lower temperature contraction.
When it is wet it will expand and when it dries it will contract. These volume changes are
important as they impose stresses on the concrete that can cause cracks formation.
Abrasion resistance
Abrasion resistance is important for any type of floor or paving and structure that are
subjected to moving water or silt/sand. The strength of the outer layer is what matters in
these cases.
Chemical attack
Portland cement concrete does not resist all chemical attacks and in particular, acid attacks
need to be designed against. The basic approach to any chemical resistance is to improve
the impermeability of the concrete and sometimes coatings are essential. Adding SCMs into
the mix can also help increase chemical attack resistance.
Alkali‐Aggregate reactions (AAR)
Certain aggregates have the potential to react with the alkalis in the concrete and this will
result in expansion that can create cracks in the material.
Freeze thaw resistance
Concrete that is subjected to freezing conditions suffers expansion as the water in the voids
and capillaries expands when it freezes and the contracts when it melts. The end result of
multiple cycles of freeze‐thaw (expansion‐contraction) can be scaling on the surface of the
concrete.
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IV.4 Specification of Concrete
The specification is written to ensure that the structural strength of a concrete structure is
adequate and to ensure that it will perform properly in the environment where it will be
placed for the anticipated life time. This involves all aspects of durability and serviceability
as well as strength. Specifications should be based on up‐to‐date and relevant standards,
recommended practices and codes. The three main Australian standards that cover
concrete performance are: AS 1379, AS 3972 and AS 2758.1.
IV.4.1 Standard strength grades
Table 9 lists the standard strength grades for Australia and their corresponding
characteristic strength. Compressive strength is the most commonly specified criteria
covering the structural design requirements of the concrete. The value specified is known as
the characteristic strength, which is defined as ‘that value of the material strength, as
assessed by standard tests, which is exceeded by 95% of the material’.
Table 9: Standard strength grades. (source: Cement and Concrete Association of Australia and
Standards Australia 2002).
IV.4.2 Classes of concrete
Normal class enables the industry to offer an economical standard range of mixes that suit
most applications. Normal class concrete is designed by the prefix N on the concrete grade
(ex: N25). Normal class concrete will generally contain type GP or type GB cement with fly
ash and/or blast furnace slag. Water reducing admixtures are commonly used with
accelerating or retarding action depending on the weather conditions. To qualify as a
normal class concrete, the concrete must have the following properties:
‐ Mass per volume of 2100‐2800 kg/m3.
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‐ Acid‐soluble chloride ion content of the hardened concrete shall not exceed 0.8
kg/m3.
‐ Acid‐soluble sulphate ion content of the hardened concrete shall not exceed 50g/kg
of cement.
‐ Basic shrinkage strain shall not exceed 1000 x 10‐6 after 56 days drying.
‐ A mean compressive strength at 7 day according to table 10.
‐ A cement complying with AS3972 which may have SCMs added.
‐ Normal weight aggregates.
Table 10: Mean 7 days strengths for standard strength grades (source: Cement and Concrete
Association of Australia and Standards Australia 2002).
The customers can specify a range of parameters to have a concrete in the normal class mix
parameters. The parameters that can be specified are limited to the following:
‐ Standard strength grade N20, N25, N32, N40, N50
‐ Nominated slump between 200 mm and 120 mm in multiples of 10
‐ Maximum nominal aggregate size 10mm, 14mm or 20mm
‐ Intended method of placement
‐ Whether project assessment is required
‐ If required, a level of air entrainment up to a maximum of 5%
Special class concrete includes all the other concrete where specifications require
properties, parameters or compositions outside that of normal class concrete. It is
designated by the prefix S (ex: S40). This may involve:
‐ Non‐standard strength graded (ex: 30 or 45 MPa)
‐ Different aggregate sizes
‐ Slumps such as 10mm, 75mm or 180mm
‐ Max w/c ratio
‐ Minimum cement content
‐ Shrinkage values less than 1000 microstrain
‐ Restriction on the use of admixtures or SCMs
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‐ Specific type of cement
‐ Early strength at 3 days of specific values
‐ Specific flexural strengths
‐ Specific tensile strengths
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V. Cracking and Crack Control
Cracking in concrete can be defined in many ways but the two main categories are
structural and non‐structural cracking.
V.1 Structural cracking
Structural cracking involves an external load applied to the concrete which causes failure of
the section. Failure does not mean immediate collapse but will result in the section not
being able to perform as designed for. This is the most urgent category of cracking will
require fast examination and rectification.
The most likely location for structural cracking is where the concrete is in tension, flexure or
shear as concrete is inherently weak in these circumstances and reinforcement is used to
overcome that weakness.
V.2 Non‐structural cracking
Non‐structural cracking happens without the application of external load. This type of
cracking can have various causes but they are all related to the manner in which concrete
reacts to a variety of forms of movement while being restrained. The risk of cracking is
higher when the concrete is young because its strength is low.
Two different categories of non‐structural cracking can be distinguished relative to the time
at which it occurs:
‐ Pre‐setting cracking: occurs prior to the concrete setting and hardening.
‐ Post‐setting cracking: occurs after the concrete has set and hardened.
V.2.1 Pre‐setting cracking
‐ Plastic shrinkage cracking
Such cracks form when the concrete is still plastic (has not set). Rapid drying of the surface
of the plastic concrete causes it to shrink and crack. These cracks are not always seen during
finishing operations and can be discovered the next day. Fig. 11 illustrates such cracks. They
are often almost straight, ranging from 25mm to 2m (often actually between 300 and
600mm). They are most likely to occur away from the edge of the slab and they can
penetrate right through a concrete element. These cracks form a weakness in the concrete
but rarely impair the structural strength of a concrete element. However the visual aspect is
impacted and these cracks can also lead to water penetration problems.
They occur when the rate of evaporation of moisture from the surface exceeds the rate at
which moisture is being supplied to the surface, i.e. rate of bleeding of the concrete.
Bleeding is defined as a phenomenon whose external manifestation is the appearance of
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water on the surface after a concrete mixture has been placed and compacted but before it
has set. Controlling the rate of drying of the surface is the key to avoid plastic shrinkage
cracking.
Figure 11: typical plastic shrinkage cracks (source: Cement and Concrete Association of
Australia and Standards Australia 2002)
‐ Plastic settlement cracking
This type of cracks also happen while the concrete is still plastic; they may be visible early
(before or during finishing operations) but are often noticed later. They are distinguished
from plastic shrinkage cracks by the fact that they form a distinct pattern (see Fig. 12). The
cracks usually occur while the bleed water is still rising and covering the surface. They tend
to roughly follow a restraining element (reinforcement bar for example) or changed in the
concrete section (thickening beam for example). They can also be quite wide at the surface,
tend to extend only to the reinforcement or other restraining element and taper in width to
that location. In exposed conditions this may facilitate corrosion of the reinforcement and
therefore limit durability.
Figure 12: typical plastic settlement cracks (source: Cement and Concrete Association of
Australia and Standards Australia 2002)
V.2.1 Post‐setting cracking
‐ Craze cracking
Craze cracking frequently appears on the highest quality surfaces that have been hard
trowelled or have been cast against high quality polished steel formwork. It appears as a
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network or cobwebs of very fine cracks on the surface of the concrete and may not be
noticed until the surface has been wet and commences to dry. The cracks are only skin deep
and are of little consequence from a structural point of view but they affect the aesthetic of
the concrete.
‐ Thermal cracking
Thermal cracking is usually associated with mass concrete (mass concrete is defined as
concrete in a massive structure, for example a dam, where its volume is of such magnitude
as to required special means of copying with the generation of heat and subsequent volume
change) where the het of hydration leads to extreme temperature differences throughout
the concrete section. These temperature differences result in local tensile stresses that can
exceed the tensile strength of the material and therefore create cracks.
‐ Alkali – aggregate reaction cracking
Certain aggregates will react with the alkalis in the concrete in presence of water to create
internal expansive forces which will crack the concrete. The use of fly ash or blast furnace
slag is the most efficient way to control these reactions.
‐ Corrosion cracking
Corrosion cracks are due to the corrosion of the reinforcement in the concrete. The
transformation of metallic iron into rust is accompanied by an increase in volume of the
reinforcement which can be as large as 600% of the original metal. This volume increase will
cause concrete expansion and cracking.
‐ Drying shrinkage cracking
Shrinkage is a natural phenomenon due to the behaviour of materials when water is lost
from within the structure. The re‐arrangement of the solid material causes a reduction in
volume that is called contraction or shrinkage. Drying shrinkage happens in both aggregate
and cement paste. All concretes shrink and one can only aim at minimising that
phenomenon such that cracking does not occur. There are three parameters that can
usually be controlled to minimise shrinkage:
1) Material selection: minimising the cementitious content, using lower shrinkage
cement, using fly ash or blast furnace slag, using chemical admixtures (water
reducers) and keeping the w/c ratio as low as possible.
2) Joints: they are planned cracks that help relieve internal stresses in concrete and
that are positioned at locations that will help the structure to maintain its integrity.
3) Reinforcements: As the joint spacing gets larger, reinforcements are placed to
prevent the formation of cracks in between the joints.
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VI. Concrete at Early Age
The term early age covers only an insignificant amount of time (first two days of production)
in the total life of concrete but during that short period numerous operations are performed
to produce the final concrete element.
VI.1 Batching, mixing and transport
Batching is the process of measuring and introducing into the mixes the ingredients for a
batch of concrete. Most concrete today is batched and mixed by ready‐mixed concrete
plants, where the batching is generally automatic or semi‐automatic rather than manual.
Accurately proportioned concrete ingredients must be mixed thoroughly into a homogenous
mass.
Ready‐mixed concrete is defined as concrete that is manufactured for delivery to a
purchaser in a plastic and unhardened state.
Transportation of the ready‐mixed concrete to a job site should be done as quickly as
possible to minimise stiffening to the point that, after the placement, full consolidation and
proper finishing become difficult.
VI.2 Placing, compacting and finishing
After arrival at the job site, the ready‐mixed concrete should be placed as near as possible
to its final position. Belt conveyers, truck‐mounted chutes and mobile‐boom pumps are
amongst the most commonly used techniques of placement.
In general, the concrete mixture is deposed in horizontal layers of uniform thickness and
each layer is thoroughly compacted before the next one is placed.
Consolidation or compaction is the process of moulding concrete within the forms and
around embedded items and reinforcements to eliminate pockets of empty space and
entrapped air. This operation can be carried out by hand rodding and tamping or vibrators.
Flatwork such as slabs and pavements require proper finishing to produce dense surfaces
that will be maintenance‐free. Different finishing operations can be performed depending
on the final requirements. Screeding is the process of striking off excess bleed water
accumulated on the surface because it is one of the most important causes for surface
defects (dusting or scaling). Floating is an operation carried out with flat wood or metal
blades for the purpose of firmly embedding the aggregate, compacting the surface and
removing any remaining imperfections. Brooming or scoring with a rake or a steel‐wire
broom is done before the concrete as fully hardened to produce a skid‐resistance surface.
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VI.2 Concrete curing and framework removal
Inadequate curing causes the lack of proper strength and durability of concrete so it needs
to be done properly to obtain a concrete that will perform as its best. The two objectives of
curing are the prevent loss of moisture and to control the temperature of concrete for a
period sufficient to achieve the required strength level.
When the ambient temperature is sufficiently well above freezing, the curing of pavements
and slabs can be done by ponding or immersion; other structures can be cured by spraying
or fogging or using moisture retaining covering saturated with water. Other methods are
based on prevention of moisture loss from concrete by sealing the surface through the
application of water‐proof curing paper, sheets or membrane. The use of curing compounds
is preferred for fast construction.
When the ambient temperature is low, concrete must be protected from freezing with the
help of insulating blankets. In cold weather, curing can be accelerated by using live steam,
heating coils or electrically heated forms or pads.
Formwork removal is usually the last operation carried out during the “early age” period of
concrete. Formwork should not be removed until the concrete is strong enough to carry the
stresses from both the dead load and the imposed construction load. The correct time
frame can be obtained by looking at the age evolution of strength for each type of concrete.
Sources:
Cement and Concrete Association of Australia and Standards Australia (2002) Guide to
Concrete Construction.
P. K. Metha and P. J. M. Monteiro (2006) Concrete – Microstructure, Properties and
Materials, Third Edition, McGraw Hill, New York, USA.
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