178 } CHAPTER 9 FILTER€ IN CONTROL €Y€TEM€

The phase lag at 07 Hz is— 26○. A one-pole filter or a two-pole filter with a larger damping
ratio produces poorer results. For a single-pole filter, the settings to achieve at least 07-d/
attenuation for all frequencies above 077 Hz imply that the bandwidth is ,ust 0* Hz 1again,
this was determined experimentally2. The resulting phase lag at 07 Hz is A3○. For two
identical one-pole filters in cascade, 07 d/ of attenuation at 077 Hz implies a bandwidth of
88 Hz. This filter produces 33○ phase lag at 07 Hz. However, if the damping ratio is set to
7.A, the filter bandwidth moves to 87 Hz, and the phase lag is ,ust *8○. These results are
shown in Table )-*. 1Note that having two single-pole filters with the same bandwidth is
equivalent to a two-pole filter at the same bandwidth with a damping ratio of *.7.2
When the damping ratio falls below 7.D7D, the two-pole filter will have pea!ing. If
the pea!ing is large enough, it can reduce the gain margin. When two-pole filters are
used, a damping ratio between 7.A and 7.D often wor!s well. However, single-pole
filters are easier to implement’ in analog form they can be created with two passive
components, and in digital form they require fewer calculations. As a result, both one-
pole and two-pole filters are commonly used in controllers.

9.2.1.3 A Simple Model for a Closed Loop System

The two-pole low-pass filter with a damping ratio less than * is the simplest filter that
models effects of marginal stability: overshoot and ringing. As a result, two-pole
filters are frequently used as a model of a closed-loop control system. For example,
engineers will often characterize a control system as having a damping vatio. /roadly
spea!ing, this implies that the controller has a command response similar to that of a
two-pole filter with a specified bandwidth and damping ratio. Such a comparison is
limited’ closed-loop control systems are more complex than a two-pole filter. How-
ever, the comparison provides a useful shorthand.

9.2.1.4 Higher-Order Low-Pass Filters

High-order filters are used because they have the ability to roll off gain after the
bandwidth at a sharper rate than low-order filters. The attenuation of a filter above
the bandwidth grows proportionally to the number of poles. When rapid attenuation
is required, higher-order filters are often employed.

TABLE 9-1 PHASE LA- FOR 0IFFERENT FILTERS WITH 20-dB ATTENUATION AT 200 Hz
Filter order Damping ratio Filter bandwidth Attenuation at 200 Hz Phase lag at 20 Hz
* NBA 0* Hz 07 d/ A3○
0 *.7 88 Hz 07 d/ 33○
0 7.D 83 Hz 07 d/ 08○
0 7.A 87 Hz 07 d/ *8○