Olive Cultivation

Top Countries Cultivating Olives

Sl.No Country Name Position Annual Production In Metric
Ton
1 Spain 1 5,276,899
2 Italy 2 3,220,674
3 Greece 3 2,232,412
4 Turkey 4 1,292,072
5 Tunisia 5 841,524
6 Morocco 6 745,019

Olive Cultivars and Characteristic

Spain –Olive Cultivars and its characteristic

Sl.No Type Cultivating Color Shape End Use Ripping Season Remark
Name Region (Table/Oil)
high production High tolerance to
green/violet mall and
variety, middle draught and frost,
1 Arbequina Entire Country or Light round, Table /Oil
blooming and High resistance to
Brown symmetrical
ripening loosening
high production
Alicante and small , round, High tolerance to
2 Blanqueta light Green Table/Oil late blooming and
Valencia symmetrical draughts and frost
middle ripening
3 Cornicabra Toledo, Ciudad Black long, Table/Oil high production, well adapted to poor
 Real and asymmetrical late blooming and and dry grounds.
Madrid with pointed middle ripening High tolerance to
apex draughts and frost,
resistence to
loosening
high production,
Changlot Alicante and ovoid, lightly High tolerance to
4 Black Table/Oil late blooming and
Real Valencia symmetrical draughts and frosts
middle ripening
Aragón,
Balearic Islands, Large and high productivity,
Low tolerance to
5 Empeltre Castellón, Black asymmetrical Table /Oil mid blooming and
draught and frost
Tarragona and olive ripening
Navarre
Very resistance to
draughts and high
temperatures. Low
Castellón ,
tolerance to frost
6 Farga Valencia, Teruel Black Medium Table /Oil high production
early blooming and
and Tarragona
ripening. High
resistance to
loosening
Low draught and
middle high temperature
oval shape,
Malaga,Granada productivity, tolerances, High
7 Hojiblanca Black slightly Table/Oil
& Seville middle blooming loosenning
asymmetrical
and late ripening. resistance

Lechín de Córdoba, Yellowish- Medium well adapted to hot

8
Sevilla Sevilla and green Production in summer and sharp
 Granada lowering
temperatures in
winter,draughts and
limestone grounds
High draught and
high productivity
Manzanilla Cáceres and high temperature
9 Black oval/spherical early blooming and
Cacereña Salamanca tolerance, high
ripening
productivity,
Sevilla city,
spherical high production,
Carmona, Dos Low resistence to
10 Manzanilla Green shape and early blooming and
Hermanas and loosening
round base ripening
Morón
Huge fruit
zone south of with havesting is not easy
11 Morisca Badajoz county Black asymmetrical high production because of loosening
till north and oval difficult
shape
Low Productivity
Tarragona and
12 Morrut Wine Red Oval Shape early blooming and
Castellón
a very late ripening
Olive with low
high productivity,
Jaén, Córdoba drought tolerance
13 Picual Black Oval Shape early blooming and
and Granada and well adapted to
medium ripening
frozen
well adapted to
Córdoba, Big fruit with limestone
high production,
14 Picudo Granada, Dark Green pointed and groundsand damp
Late ripening
Málaga bend apex excess, high
resistence to
 loosening
middle
oval shape
Verdial de Huelva and productivity, late
15 red/violet with round
Huévar Sevilla blooming, middle
base
ripening

Italy –Olive Cultivars and its characteristic

Sl.No Type Name Cultivating Color Shape End Use Ripping Season Remark
Region (Table/Oil)
1 Castelvetran Sicily bright-green medium-large
o in size,
2 Cerignola Puglia region Black/Gree Large High Oil
n
3 Geata West Coast Black Small Size Both
4 Leccino Tuscany, Black Medium Oil trees grow well in
Northern cooler climates
Italy
5 Ligurian North- dark brown Small
Western Italy color
6 Frantoio Tuscany intense Large Oil Strong Tree
green
7 Moraiola Tuscany and vivid black- Small
Umbria violet
8 Coratina Puglia and Green Large Both
Basilicata
Greece–Olive Cultivars and its characteristic

Cultivating End Use

Sl.No Type Name Color Shape Ripping Season Remark
Region (Table/Oil)
stand low
south temperature during
Early Oct-Dec
1 Koroneiki Peloponnese,Cre Green Small Oil the winter, suitable
High Production
te for warm – dry
climates
2 Athenolia Athens Green Medium Oill End of Dec-Jan
moderately ressistant
Kalamata in
Kalamata/Kala Dark to cold and sensitive
3 Messenia, Large Both Mid Nov-Early Jan
mon purple to excessivety hot
Laconia
climates
4 Mavroelia Messinia district Black Table
It is ressistant to cold
and olive knot
Delphi, Evia, whereas it is
5 Amphissis Grecia centrale, Green Medium Both sensitive to
Ricopre, Salona vertieillium wilt and
moderately sensitive
.to dry climates
Mount
Pale ressistant to drought
6 Chalkidikis Athos,Chalkidik Large Table Nov -Dec
Green .and cold
i
7 Ladolia Peloponnese Light Small Oil End Oct-Nov
 )Tsounati) Golden
Yellow

Turkey –Olive Cultivars and its characteristic

Sl.No Type Name Cultivating Color Shape End Use Ripping Season Remark
Region (Table/Oil)
1 Ayvalik Aegean
(Edremit) Region
2 Çekiste Aegean
(Ödemiş) Region
3 Çelebi (Silifke) Mediterranean
Region
4 Domat Aegean Green Both it is recommended
(Akhisar) Region to clay loam and
watery arazil
5 Erkence (İzmir) Aegean
Region
6 Gemlik (Bursa) Marmara Black Small - Med Both Early Nov-Jan
Region
7 Kalembezi South Eastern Both
(G.antep) Region
8 Butko (Artvin) Black Sea
Region
9 Sayfi (Hatay) Mediterranean
Region
 10 Memeli Agnean Green Both
(Menemen) Region
11 Uslu (Akhisar) Agenan Large Oil It is an early, non-
Region disease resistant,
easy-to-grow
variety

Tunisia–Olive Cultivars and its characteristic

Sl.No Type Name Cultivating Color Shape End Use Ripping Season Remark
Region (Table/Oil)
1 Chemlali de Sfax Oil High Production resistant to the arid
Sfax conditions
2 Chétoui Sfax Oil
3 Beldi Gafsa Both
4 Meski Tunis Table
5 Besbessi Tunis Table
6 Chemcheli-S Sfax Small Both
7 Fougi Gafsa Both
Morocco –Olive Cultivars and its characteristic

Sl.No Type Name Cultivating Color Shape End Use Ripping Season Remark
Region (Table/Oil)
1 Beldi Central Black Small Both Late Season
Morocco
2 Haouzia Marrakesh, Both High Production It is highly resistant
Casablanca, first fruiting occurs to olive leaf spot
Meknes and in the third year and tolerant of
Fez olive knot and
drought
3 Menara Both High Production It is particularly
resistant to olive
knot
4 Meslala irrigated or Both bearing late and its It is resistant to
that have good time of flowering is olive leaf spot but
rainfall intermediate appears to be very
sensitive to olive
knot.
5 Picholine Throughout Black Oil High Production It is sensitive to
marocaine Morocco olive leaf spot,
resistance to
drought

CHOOSING THE VARIETIES

The list below has been drawn up from the information available and categorizes the varieties according to the most important requisites for
developing olive growing.
• Early start of bearing and crop volume: ‘Koroneiki’, ‘Arbequina’, ‘Maurino’, ‘Picual’, ‘Manzanilla’
• Oil quality: ‘Frantoio’ ‘Arbequina’, ‘Moraiolo’, ‘Picual’
• Cold resistance: ‘Nostrale di Rigali’, ‘Leccino’, ‘Orbetana’, ‘Dolce Agogia’
• Lime tolerance: ‘Picudo’, ‘Cobrançosa’, ‘Galego’, ‘Lechín de Sevilla’, ‘Lechín de Granada’, ‘Hojiblanca’
• Salinity tolerance: ‘Picual’, ‘Arbequina’, ‘Lechín de Sevilla’, ‘Canivano’, ‘Nevadillo’
• Tolerance of Spilocaea oleagina: ‘Lechín de Sevilla’, ‘Leccino’, ‘Maurino’, ‘Ascolana tenera’
• Tolerance of Verticillium dahliae: ‘Frantoio’, ‘Arbequina’, ‘Cipressino’
• Tolerance of Bacterium savastanoi: ‘Leccino’, ‘Dolce Agogia’, ‘Orbetana’, ‘Gentile di Chieti’, ‘Cordovil
de Serpa’, ‘Galega vulgar’, ‘Picholine marocaine’, ‘Gordal sevillana’
 Climate Requirements
Temperature
Olives can be grown in a wide range of climates in many different countries. Olives
are traditionally grown in regions which have relatively cool, frost-free winters
followed by hot, dry summer. The crop requires:

 Mild to cool winters with a chilling period of about two months, with average
temperatures varying between 1.5°C to 10°C for flower bud differentiation.
 No late spring frosts that may kill the blossoms.
 Long, hot and dry summers to properly ripen the fruit.
It is, therefore, best suited to a Mediterranean-type climate.

Some olive varieties, such as those grown in Egypt, Tunisia, bloom and fruit with
very little winter chilling, while other varieties require more chilling for a normal
flower differentiation.

Rainfall

Areas receiving a mean annual rainfall of 400 to 700 mm are most suitable for olive
growing. 800 mm is considered moderate and 1,000 mm is considered good.
Rainfall should be distributed in such a way as to avoid dry periods of more than 30-
45 days and extended wet periods.

Supplemental irrigation during summer increases fruit yields by 30% – 50%. A long,
sunny, warm summer results in a fruit with high oil content. Olives perform well, with
humidity varying between 40% – 65%. High humidity above 80% at flowering causes
flower drop and infestation by sooty-mold producing insects. The olive is a long-day
plant and benefits from prolonged sunlight (2,400 – 2,700 sunshine hours annually)
and a warm environment.

Being an evergreen tree, the olive is sensitive to hard freezing temperatures. Buds and
fruiting shoots are usually damaged by temperatures below -5ºC. Large branches and
whole trees can be killed if temperatures fall below -10ºC.Excessive snow to stop it
building up on the canopy and causing limb breakage.

Soil type
Olives grow well on almost any well-drained and well aerated soil with pH values
between 5 – 8.5, preferably close to 6.0. The soil should be prepared to a depth of at
least 80 cm. It is important to have the soil analyses before planting in order to obtain
guidelines for soil preparation. Therefore, sites where water stands during rainy
periods or where ground water is shallower than 1.2 meters deep should be
avoided. Soils with a clay content of above 30 % are unsuitable for olive
production while soils with high gravel content are ideal.

Olive trees are tolerant to mild saline conditions, but extremely salty or sodic
(Alkali) soils should be avoided. Olives have a relatively shallow root system and
consequently they only require a 1.0 – 1.5 meter deep soil profile without any serious
physical limitations. Olives prefer moderately fine textured soils ranging from sandy
to silty clay, loamy soils.

Sodic (Alkali) Soils

Soils that contain excessive amounts of exchangeable sodium in proportion to calcium

and magnesium are termed sodic or alkali soils. They are characterized by a
dispersion of soil particles that reduces the soil permeability to water and air. By
definition, a sodic soil has an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of greater
than 15. This means that 15% of the soil exchange capacity is associated with sodium,
and the rest with calcium, magnesium and other cations. Olive trees are affected when
ESP levels reach 20 – 40.

Characteristic of Good Olive growing Soil

Sand 20 – 75 %
Texture Silt 5-35%
Clay 5-30%
Structure Crumbly
Water holding capacity 30-60%
Permeability 10-100 mm/h
pH 5-8
Organic matter >1%
Nitrogen >0.10%
Available phosphorus (P2 O
5-35 ppm
5)
Exchangeable potassium
50-150 ppm
(K2O)
Exchangeable calcium (Ca
1,650-5,000 ppm
CO3)
Exchangeable magnesium 10-200 ppm

Propagation in olive Farming

In Olive cultivation, propagation can be done either through seeds or cutting.
The trees should:
 Be true to type
 Be free of pests and diseases
 Not have any signs of nutrient deficiency
 Have a well-developed root system
 Have one main straight stem with some secondary lateral branches
 Sprouting from approximately 20 to 30 cm above the soil surface
 Be 18 months old
 Have a height of approximately 0.5 m

Land Preparation, Planting and Spacing

Ideal Planting Time

The trees should be planted during late winter or early spring.

Soil preparation
An olive tree has a lifespan of at least 30 years. It is therefore important to select the
correct locality and to prepare the soil properly. It is beneficial to seek expert advice
with regard to site selection and soil preparation. Soil samples should be taken prior to
soil preparation in order to determine the water-holding capacity as well as the
nutrient content of the soil. Perennial weeds should be removed before soil
preparation.

The soil should be fumigated if necessary. However, it is important to seek expert

advice with regard to soil fumigation. Aspects such as the availability of water and
drainage should also be considered. Planting holes 1 m wide, 1 m in length and 80 cm
deep (1m x 1m x 80 cm), should be made on plots which are too steep to be prepared
by implements or on plots which are too small for the movement of large implements.
Specific quantities of lime, phosphorus, potassium and microelements, based on the
soil analysis, should be applied to the soil during soil preparation. The edges of the
planting holes should be rough to allow the plant roots to penetrate the soil adjoining
the planting hole.

PLANTING TECHNIQUES
This is when the earlier choices are put into practice. It involves the preliminary jobs
of site preparation, deep tillage and planting and the subsequent steps to create a
fertile environment and to allow the new orchard to settle and start to develop.

Preliminaries
The first step is to remove debris of previous crops, including the root system of any
trees, shrubs or hedges on the site. The site should then be leveled to make the land
flat or evenly sloping; this is done in large plots of more than one hectare to reduce
idle time during cultural operations. If ground preparation requires moving more than
the active soil layer, the surface soil layer should first be piled up on one side, the
ground should then be leveled and lastly the fertile soil should be spread on top of the
areas where the earth has been moved. Although costly, this allows the orchard to
develop uniformly. Scrapers and high-power tractor loaders are used for this kind of
earthmoving.

Another important aspect of site preparation has to do with surface and subsurface
water drainage. Olive is very sensitive to water logging and to the virulent fungal
attacks that go with it and which cause root rot. If the ground is flooded by water
running down from land higher up, a sufficiently deep channel should be dug around
the orchard to remove the water before it floods the land below. Ditches should be
dug every 20-30 meters across the orchard to prevent surface soil erosion and the
formation of deep crevices along the lines of maximum slope; these should run into
closed side channels.

Deep tillage
Deep tillage is crucial to make sure the rooting zone is fertile. It is particularly
necessary in compacted soils where empty spaces between the deep soil particles
become more and more impoverished. These conditions oblige the roots to spread to
the surface, which heavily limits the water and nutrients available. Deep tillage is
therefore required when impervious or hardpan layers prevent the roots from
exploring deeper and when it is advisable to homogenize the texture and chemical
composition of the soil.

Weed control
If weeds have not been controlled through deep tillage and soil preparation, they
should be removed by applying herbicides. The most worrisome species are bermuda
grass (Cynodon dactylon) and creeping thistle. These are particularly pernicious for
young olive trees when they infest the planting holes because they compete for water
and nutrients. They can also cause allelopathy through their root excretions which are
damaging to the olive roots. They are easily controlled with glyphosate, which is
actively absorbed and translocated when the weeds are at the start of flowering and
not subject to water stress. Micro-applications of a mix of glyphosate and MCPA
(40% potassium salt) plus mineral oil can be applied to protect the olive orchard from
tree weeds like Asparagus, Rubus and Crategus.

Tree Spacing
The ultimate size and growth rate of the trees are determinants of planting density.
Planting distances will depend on cultivar, soil fertility, level of orchard management,
availability of water and the size of the orchard. In the majority of cases ultimate tree
spacing ranges from 5 m x 5 m or 6 m x 6 m or 7 m x 7 m. In areas where the climate
is particularly favourable, bigger distances are required because tree development is
greater than normal.

It is possible to achieve the same optimal volume of canopy per hectare, and
consequently yields, with various spacing variations. The main advantage of higher
densities is the possibility of achieving the optimal volume in a shorter period of time.

Main tree densities of olive orchards

Production system Spacing Tree density (trees/ha)
Traditional 7 – 20 m 30 – 200
intra-row: 5 – 4 m
Intensive 250 – 600
inter-row: 6 – 8 m
intra-row: 4 – 1.5 m
Super-intensive 1,655 – 2,990
inter-row: 3 – 4 m

Designs For Permanently Set Trees

The most common designs are:
 Square
This is the most popular design. Trees are equally spaced within and between rows.
This type of orchard is easy to layout and orchard operations can be carried out in
both directions. Irrigation drip lines, however, may impede this. It is not generally
used when filler trees are planned, as distances between trees and within rows
eventually become too small for efficient orchard care.

 Offset square
This system is similar to the square design except that trees in adjacent rows are
offset. This system is less popular than the square system. It is more difficult to layout
and, unless farmed on the diagonal, the rows are closer.

 Hexagonal / Equilateral Triangle

This system is similar to the offset square except that distances between trees in any
direction are equal. This is only adaptable to plans without filler trees. It allows 17.5%
more trees per acre than the square or offset square systems at any given spacing and
therefore is more efficient in use of sunlight and land.

Planting out
Before planting the olives the orchard is marked out to identify the planting positions
according to the chosen spacing and layout. If a rectangular layout is chosen the
longer spacing is related to the working direction of the machinery, which prefers
following the slope of the land. After positioning two stakes to be able to find the
exact position for planting the olive trunk, the next step is to dig the planting hole 40
cm wide and deep with a planter or spade.

The planting holes should be dug when the ground is dry, especially when the soil is
clay-rich, because when it is very wet the action of the planter causes glazing on the
sides of the hole. This limits root growth and can cause asphyxia of the root system
owing to water collecting in the planting hole. It is a good idea for the holes to be dug
in advance of planting to allow atmospheric agents to improve particle aggregation by
making the soil crumbly.
A stake, usually made of chestnut wood, about 6 cm in diameter and at least 2 meters
high is then placed in the bottom of the planting hole at least 1.5 m of the stake should
be above ground.

The trees for planting are 18-24 month old plants raised in 3-litre containers at least.
They should be 1.5-1.8 m high, the canopy and trunk should be well developed,
without vigorous branching, and they should have leaves. The planting hole is filled
with well structured soil and tamped firmly, while leaving a small hollow in the
middle. The tree is tied loosely to the stake with plastic tape and it is watered with
approximately ten liters of water to make the soil stick to the roots.

Planting design for cross pollination

Pollination and ovule fertilization are essential steps to guarantee a normal fruit-set
and crop. Successful pollination requires the pollen grain to germinate and its pollen
tube to grow fast enough to reach a still viable embryo sac to fertilize the ovule.

Olive flowers are largely wind pollinated with most olive varieties being self-
pollinating, although fruit-set is usually improved by cross pollination with other
varieties. When environmental or management conditions are not optimal, the
presence of pollen from another variety will normally guarantee a better fertilization
and fruit-set. Since many cultivars are self-sterile or nearly so, they are generally
planted with a single primary cultivar and 1 – 3 additional cultivars for cross-
pollination to optimize yield.

Pruning
Pruning is practised in all the olive-growing countries and is considered essential to
orchard management. It takes different forms depending on orchard characteristics,
environmental conditions and long-standing traditions. The most important fact to
bear in mind when pruning, is that the olive tree usually bears fruit on the previous
year's new growth, and never bears in the same place twice.

Olive trees are pruned in order to enhance productivity and to ensure early, regular,
profitable fruiting. Pruning entails removing part of the tree, generally a portion of the
canopy consisting of branches, shoots and leaves no longer considered to be of use for
the correct management of the tree. It aims to prevent any part of the tree from
dominating over the others and to optimize the contribution that each part makes to
crop production and to the application of cultural techniques.

Pruning is necessary to adjust the trees to the climatic conditions of the area and
increase the productivity of a plantation. The aims of pruning are:
 To balance vegetation with fruit yield
 To minimize the non-productive period
 To prolong the productivity of the trees
 To save soil water, a critical factor in non-irrigated orchards
 Pruning of overcrowded canopies improves light and air penetration and
increases fruit size

PRUNING OPERATIONS
Branch thinning and heading
Thinning entails removing entire branches that are exhausted or that hinder light
penetration to nearby areas. Heading is a fundamental practice in pruning for fruit
production where the terminal section of the branch weakened by fruiting is cut back
to just above a vigorous shoot, which with time will replace the old branch. Pruning
implements should be kept sharp and the cuts should be made at a slight slant to
encourage water drainage and healing. If very large cuts are made it may be advisable
to coat the surface with pruning dressings.

Shoot thinning and heading

One-year-old shoots can be cut at their point of origin or they can be pinched. The
first operation is done to thin overcrowded canopies and to thin the tops of the
branches in order to debilitate them and give the underlying shoots a chance to grow
and cover the branch uniformly. After fruiting, shoots of medium vigour tend to bend
and, as a result, new shoots form at the point of curvature. Pruning aims to remove the
middle-terminal section of the shoot that has fruited, replacing it by one or two of
those which grow from the base.

Bending
This entails bending the shoots or branches to alter the angle of the axis with respect
to vertical. It heightens the basitonic tendency of the olive, causing vigorous shoots to
develop at the base of the shoot or branch and stimulating the weakened tip to fruit.

Removal of decayed wood

This entails cutting out decayed wood from the branches, trunk or stump. The
operation is complete when healthy wood is reached.

Size of most efficient shoots

On mature trees, medium-sized shoots about 25 cm long are the most productive
because they have high flowering and fruit set. Shoots that are around 40 cm long
flower less, although fruit set is the same or even slightly higher than on medium-
sized shoots. On young trees, shoots measuring 15-50 cm are equally efficient.
Longer shoots exhibit less flowering but fruit set is just as high

There are three main types of pruning:

 Regulated pruning. It aims to develop the tree’s frame and is of great
importance in the first years of the tree’s life.
 Pruning for fruiting. The aim of this pruning is to induce productive
branches to form fruits, leaving the structural branches unaffected.
Additionally, it maintains uniform production in terms of yield and quality, a
feature that is particularly important in table olive varieties.
 Renovating pruning. This aims to stimulate sprouting in order to rejuvenate
senescent trees.
For intensive cultivation where trees are densely planted, short pruning shapes are
desired, namely the "short cup" and the "bush". In the former shape, branching takes
place very close to the ground, at a height of 30 – 40 cm, while in the latter no
pruning is done in the first 5 – 6 years. Afterwards, only weak shoots and top
branches exceeding 3 m are removed. The bush shape has certain advantages for
intensive cultivation systems, such as:
  Earlier fruiting period.
 Higher yields per hectare compared with other pruning shapes.
 Lower labor costs, due to the possibility of harvesting from the ground without
using ladders.
However, both shapes present a major disadvantage because they obstruct mechanical
cultivation of the soil. In addition, harvest is difficult particularly for fruits that have
fallen on the ground. An improved short shape without the latter disadvantages is
shaping the tree with one central trunk into a Christmas-tree type shape.

The main pruning shapes applied in the wider Mediterranean area is the following:
1. Vase shapes (polyconical vase, inverted vase and bushy vase)
2. Globe shapes
3. Leader shapes (monoconical and central leader).
4. Flat-plane shapes (trellis hedgerow, palmette).

TIMING OF PRUNING AND TYPES OF CUTS

Olive trees should be pruned preferably in winter, between harvesting and budding.
Pruning should be later in areas where winter temperatures are low because it has a
negative effect on cold resistance and low temperatures stop wounds from healing
quickly.

Pruning after budding weakens the tree because the nutrient reserves accumulated in
the roots and large limbs during the winter have already been mobilized in the parts
intended for removal.

Summer pruning is recommended for trees infected with olive knot because the cuts
heal quickly and the conditions are not conducive to the spread of the bacteria that
cause the disease. The cuts made to the branches and shoots should not be too deep to
avoid notching branches underneath.

Alternate bearing and means to reduce its impact

The olive tree is, genetically, highly alternating in fruit production. In non-irrigated
olive groves, the yield may vary between 7 – 8 tons / ha and a few hundred kg. The
occurrence and development of alternate bearing is also potent in intensive orchards
with controlled irrigation, nutrition and training techniques, although the level of fruit
production is higher and better controlled. Without specific intervention, the gap
between 'off' and 'on' years may vary between 5 and 30 tons / ha. Therefore, alternate
bearing is of high economical severity.

 The degree of alternate bearing is highly dependent on environmental

conditions. The environmental conditions affect both the flowers and the
endogenous metabolic processes of the tree by inducing specific gene
activation or repression.
 Growth regulators, particularly gibberellins were shown to reduce flower bud
induction in the olive, as well as in many other fruit species when applied
during the major growth season in the summer or in fall.
  Specific changes in the mineral content of leaves between 'on' and 'off' years
were found and related to the activity of internal growth regulators. A
considerable depletion process of the N and K contents in the leaves took
place during the 'on' year, while these values increased during the 'off' year as
shown in Figure 2.4 Other elements, like P, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn and B showed
rather minute changes.

The possible involvement of nutrition, irrigation and fertigation in controlling

alternate bearing was checked in numerous studies. Under normal, balanced growing
conditions all aspects of intensification have little influence on alternate bearing.
Intensive olive cultivation increases production but does not significantly affect the
alternate fruiting habit of the tree. Nutritional deficiencies and / or water stress might
enhance alternate bearing. In such cases nutritional or irrigation intervention would
affect the level of biannual bearing as well. Spot-wise use of nutritional and water
application are useful to avoid or correct alternative bearing, when induced by an
acute nutritional deficiency or water stress, particularly during the early induction
period.

However, alternate bearing can be balanced by supplying the trees with more water,
nitrogen and potassium fertilizers during the "on" years so that they can produce
ample shoot growth despite the heavy crop; and reduce the inputs during an "off" year
so that they don’t over-grow in the absence of fruit.

Horticultural intervention via pruning, thinning, girdling, etc. can reduce and even
eliminate alternate bearing in regions with favorable and stable climatic conditions.
Under more marginal and unstable environmental conditions, alternate bearing is
most difficult to control and even drastic horticultural means have to be reinitiated
anew after each of the various climatic events.

Fruit thinning
Wherever table olives enjoy special premium for greater fruit sizes, it is advisable to
thin the fruits, when bloom is plentiful.

Spray the foliage 10 days after full bloom with an NAA (Naphthalene-acetic-acid)
product at a concentration of 100 ppm, and spray volume of ~2,000 L / ha. If spraying
is carried out at a later time, the concentration should be increased by 10 ppm for
every day of delay. A surfactant such as Triton X-100 should be added to the final
spraying solution at 0.025%.

Spraying must not be done if the following days are expected to be very hot and dry.

Irrigation
Irrigation in olive growing has been focused primarily on table olives because oil-
olives are traditionally rain fed. Extensive research evidence has revealed that
irrigation is a necessary tool for enhancing the quality and volume of crop production.
The olive trees are among the most drought-resistant trees in the world. But the olive
tree is not a desert plant. It needs regular watering to thrive. Insufficient water will
cause the plantation to suffer and even die if left too dry for too long. Thus, olive
yield is greatly increased by applying small amounts of water. Moreover, if
commercial yields are desired greater amounts of water will be needed, provided that
soil humidity does not become excessive.

The irrigation requirements of a tree, i.e. the volume of water applied at a specific
time and the frequency of irrigation are influenced by the following factors, viz. the
age and size of the trees, the season and growth stage, the crop size, rainfall,
temperature, relative humidity, wind, soil texture, soil structure, soil depth as well as
the type of irrigation system that is used. A physical analysis of the soil to determine
the water-holding capacity of the soil will assist in ensuring efficient water usage. A
good general rule to use is to wet the soil to the full rooting depth. A young olive tree
requires 15 to 20 liters of water per week during the first growing season. The volume
and frequency of irrigation from the second year after planting and for mature olive
trees will depend on the climate, season as well as tree size and age.

Consequently, it is essential to implement correct irrigation management aimed at:

 Avoiding resource wastage
 Improving water use efficiency
 Using suitable distribution systems

Effects of water deficit on olive growth and crop production processes in relation to
the timing deficit
Growth Stage Period Effect of water Deficit
Vegetative growth Late summer- Poor development of flower buds and
autumn next season’s shoots
Flower bud formation February-April Decrease in the number of flowers; pistil
abortion
Flowering May Decrease in fertile flowers
Fruit set May-June Decrease in set fruit (increased
alternate bearing)
Initial fruit growth June-July Reduction in fruit size
(fewer cells/fruit)
Subsequent fruit August- Reduction in fruit size (smaller size of
growth November fruit cells)
Oil build-up July-November Lower oil content/fruit

WATER REQUIREMENTS
Knowing and defining the main soil and climatic parameters are a must for
determining water requirements in different olive-growing environments.

Adequate water availability

The extremely critical periods, during which soil moisture must be kept optimal, for
maximum bearing, as follows:
1) When vegetative flush occurs it should be ensured that water and nutrients are
available to promote vegetative growth, the formation of perfect flowers, flowering
and fruit set.

2) According to research results, the olive is less sensitive to water stress during the
stone hardening stage. Irrigation volume can therefore be decreased during this period
thereby saving a considerable seasonal volume of irrigation water without causing
significant negative effects on crop production.

3) The processes of oil formation and cell swelling take place during fruit maturation
and through to the end of harvest. This is a period when the plant is very sensitive to
water stress, especially if there has been a summer water shortage, because it is when
final fruit size is determined and the plant accumulates the reserves it will need to
ensure an adequate potential crop for the next season.

Soil water availability

Different soil types have clearly defined hydrological characteristics which determine
their capacity to allow water to reach the root system. A soil is saturated when the
macro and micro-pores are full of water. When all the water contained in the macro-
pores has percolated, the soil is at field capacity (FC). When the water is held so
tightly in the soil that the plant cannot extract it.

Climate and evapotranspiration

Environmental parameters (temperature, relative air humidity, wind, solar radiation,
etc.) need to be determined for irrigation scheduling because they influence water
transpiration and evaporation by the plant and soil.
Types of irrigation and their implications
Irrigation Water
Implications
method availability
Furrow / Less than 50%,
flood Uneven water application, often wasteful. depending on
irrigation soil and slope
High set-up costs, good filtration needed,
Overhead
encourages wider root formation, higher 65% – 75%
sprinkler
evaporation losses than drip irrigation.
High set-up costs, good filtration needed,
Drip reduced evaporation losses, can restrict root
75% – 85%
irrigation development; can be buried, easiest to
manage for saline water.
High set-up costs, good filtration needed,
Micro- Greater than
encourages wider root formation, higher
sprinkler 85%
evaporation losses than drip irrigation

Olive trees are very sensitive to over irrigation and will not perform well in
waterlogged soils. Waterlogged soil, often a result of poor drainage, causes poor soil
aeration and root deterioration and can lead to the death of the trees. Trees cultivated
in saturated soils are more susceptible to varying weather conditions and soil borne
pathogens such as phytophthora and verticillium.
 Drip irrigation in many diverse agro-ecological conditions brought about considerably
higher olive oil yield (30% – 50%), water savings (30% – 45%), and improvement in
oil qualitative characteristics, in comparison to rain-fed and surface flood irrigation
methods. Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) proved even better than on-surface drip
irrigation.

The effect of subsurface drip irrigation in comparison to rain fed olive orchard
Subsurface
Rain-fed orchard Increase by
drip
Fruit yield (tons/ha) 4.6 12.6 174%
Olive oil yield
1.1 2.4 118%
(tons/ha)

Plantations in a Mediterranean climate

As no rain is expected in the summer, the first irrigation should be done 3 weeks after
the last effective rain. It should be at a rate of at least 100 m3 / ha to saturate the entire
root zone. As mentioned above, water stress during bloom and fruit-set is specifically
harmful; effective irrigation should therefore take place during that period. Water
consumption increases during flower-bud development and the daily evapo-
transpiration (the loss of water to the atmosphere by the combined processes of
evaporation from soil and transpiration from plant tissues). It is therefore advisable to
adopt the following regime during the spring, summer and fall seasons.

A. Young orchards
Irrigation schedule and water amounts for young olive trees in a Mediterranean
climate
Season
Irrigat
Early
Age ion Early Sprin Late Summ Late Early
(yrs) spring g spring
sum summer
Fall
interva er fall
mer
l (days)
Daily rate (liters/tree)

1 3-7 5 6 8 10 10 9 8 7

2 3-7 7 10 15 20 20 18 15 15

3 3-7 15 25 35 40 40 35 30 30

4 3-7 30 40 50 60 60 60 50 30

B. Mature orchards

The irrigation rate of mature olive orchards should be calculated based on the
evaporation data, multiplied by the season-specific crop coefficient (CC).
Seasonal crop water requirement: Intensive 600 – 800 mm / ha / year; traditional350 –
600 mm / ha / year, under drip irrigation for range of environments.

Crop coefficients for evaporation rates (mm / day) for olive orchards yielding
over10 tons / hectare

Early Late Early Late Early

Spring Summer Fall
spring spring summer summer fall
Table
0.3 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.2 0.15
olives
Oil
0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.4
olives
Oil
olives
0.18 0.27 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.15
under
drought

Irrigation schedule for mature table and oil-olive plantations in a Mediterranean

climate
Late Early Late
Early Spri Summ Early
sprin summ summ Fall
spring ng er fall
g er er
Harve
Flower Fruit growth
Fruit growth stages:cell st and
Phenologic bud Fruit stages:cell
enlargement -oil fall
al stage developme -set division -pit
accumulation growt
nt bloom hardening
h
Evaporatio
n 5.6 7.3 8.7 8.7 8.0 6.9 5.4 3.5
(mm/day)
No. of
15 31 30 31 30 31 30 31
days/ stage
TABLE - OLIVES
Crop
0.30 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.20 0.15
coefficient
m3/ha* 252 792 783 674 600 535 324 163

m3/ha/day 17 26 26 22 20 17 11 5

*Table - Olives - annual irrigation rate: 4,123 m3/ha

OIL - OLIVES
Crop
0.40 0.40 0.50 0.50 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.4
coefficient
m3/ha* 336 905 1,305 1,349 1,320 1,177 891 434

m3/ha/day 19.8 25.6 43.5 43.5 44 38 29.7 14

* Oil - Olives - annual irrigation rate: 7,717 m3/ha

Water utilization efficiency varies between 0.15 to 0.5 kg of oil per m3 of water. The
recommended irrigation system by dripping is surface drippers during the first two
years, followed by subsurface drip irrigation for the rest of life span of the entire
plantation, combined with Nutrigation. Nutrigation (= fertigation) is the application of
plant nutrients through an irrigation system.

Specifications of the recommended system:

Two laterals per row in traditional and intensively- cultivated plantations and one
lateral per row in super-intensive orchards.
Effective drip line spacing: Traditional (5 – 10 m), Intensive (3 – 4 m) and Super-
intensive (3 – 4 m).
Emitter spacing: 0.50m – 0.75m, depending on soil texture.
Emitter flow rate: 1.0 to 1.6 Liter / h, depending on soil texture.
Drip line installation depth in SDI: 0.3 m.

Specific limits of irrigation water

Recent studies suggest that olives can be irrigated with water containing up to 3,200
mg / l of salt (ECw of 5 dS/m) with an SAR value of 18, producing new growth at leaf
Na levels of 0.4 – 0.5% d.w.

Irrigation water quality guidelines for olives

Problem scale
Water characteristics
None Increasing Severe

EC (dS/m) < 2.5 3-5 > 5.5

Sodium (g/L) 0.25 0.3 - 1.0 > 1.2

Chloride (g/L) 0.35 0.4 - 1.5 > 1.8

Boron (ppm) 1-2

Fertilization
Fertilization is a common practice in olive growing as it is designed to satisfy the
nutritional requirements of trees when the soil does not provide sufficient quantities of
nutrients for them to grow. All soils have many characteristics in common, but each
one differs considerably in terms of its morphological features and fertility. The
requirements of a young olive may differ from those of a mature tree, and the
cultivation system may also affect nutrient availability to the tree. Hence, each crop
on each orchard poses different problems at different times.

Rational fertilization has the following objectives:

1. To satisfy the nutritional needs of olive orchards.
2. To minimize the environmental impact of fertilization, particularly in terms of soil,
water and air pollution.
3. To obtain a quality crop.
4. To avoid systematic, excessive application of fertilizers.

Summary of main plant nutrient functions

Nutrient Functions Adequate (%)

Nitrogen (N) Synthesis of proteins (growth and yield). 1.5-2

Phosphorus Cellular division and formation of energetic
0.1-0.3
(P) structures.
Transport of sugars, stomata control, cofactor of
Potassium
many enzymes, reduces susceptibility to plant >0.8
(K)
diseases.
Calcium A major building block in cell wall and reduces
>1
(Ca) susceptibility to diseases.
Synthesis of essential amino acids cystin and
Sulfur (S)
methionine.
Magnesium
Central part of chlorophyll molecule. >0.1
(Mg)
Iron (Fe) Chlorophyll synthesis.
Manganese
Necessary in the photosynthesis process. >20
(Mn)
Formation of cell wall. Germination and
elongation of pollen tube.
Boron (B) 19-150
Participates in the metabolism and transport of
sugars.
Zinc (Zn) Auxins synthesis; enzymes activation. >10
Influences the metabolism of nitrogen and
Copper (Cu) >4
carbohydrates.
Molybdenum Component of nitrate-reeducates and
(Mo) nitrogenous enzymes.

The three tools for optimal nutrient management

1. Observation of trees and environmental conditions.
2. Soil and water analysis.
3. Leaf analysis.
1. Observation
Visual symptoms should be used as an aid to interpreting soil and leaf analyses:
 Look for abnormal symptoms in foliage or growth.
 Look for significant variations in yield.
 Observation can suggest deficiencies of nitrogen, potassium and boron.
2. Soil analysis
Knowing the soil characteristics is of great help in planning olive fertilization and
requires studying the soil profile by digging soil pits in representative parts of the
orchard. Soil profile analysis indicates the type and physical, chemical and biological
conditions of the soil and gives an idea of the soil limitations for olive growing.
Consequently, this type of analysis should be carried out before planting the orchard
and it should be borne in mind in any subsequent course of action.

From the fertilization point of view, this knowledge will indicate the amount of
nutrients in the soil and nutrient availability to the trees. If the soil of an olive orchard
contains a small quantity of a given nutrient, the orchard will be expected to record
deficiencies in the nutrient at some point in its lifetime. However, if the soil content is
normal, this does not mean that the nutrient is available to the trees whenever they
need it because its uptake may be blocked because of the soil characteristics. The
calcareous conditions of many Mediterranean soils are a clear example of soils that
block the uptake of certain mineral elements. Hence, although very useful in crop
management and fertilization, soil analysis is of limited use in determining the
nutritional requirements of olive orchards.

3. Leaf analysis

Olive leaves can be of three different ages: current season, one-year-old or two-year-
old. The physiological functions and nutrient content of each kind varies, which
means that leaf sampling cannot be carried out totally at random. Additionally, leaf
mineral content changes through the year, as a result, sampling has to be done at the
time of year when content changes the least.

The procedure is as follows:

1. Differentiate the blocks by soil type, variety, tree age, cultivation system or any
other distinguishing characteristic.
2. Take the samples during the period of summer vegetative rest. This coincides with
the month of July – preferably the second fortnight – in the northern hemisphere.
3. Take a sample of approximately 100 leaves from each block. If the block is large,
take more samples, at least in the first years.
4. Take the samples from several trees in each block, selected at random along a route
through the block in the same way as for soil sampling.
5. Take 2-4 leaves per tree. The leaves should be taken from representative shoots
located on different sides of the middle section of the canopy. Very vigorous shoots or
shoots that show little growth should be avoided, as should those located inside the
canopy.
6. Take current-season leaves, 3-5 months old, that are expanded to full size and have
a petiole. These are the characteristics of middle-to-basal leaves of current season
shoots in the month of July.
7. Do not take leaves from abnormal or symptomatic trees unless they are collected as
a separate sample. Leaves collected for leaf analysis should appear to be symptom-
free.
8. Clearly identify each leaf sample and place it in a paper bag, which should be kept
in a portable cool box during sampling.
9. Quickly send the samples to the laboratory for analysis, or keep them in a
conventional fridge until they are sent.

Leaf analysis standards

Leaf analysis interpreted as indicated in Mediterranean countries is a useful guide for
fertilizer management of olive plantations, and may promote more environmentally
responsible use of fertilizers in olive orchards.

Important nutrient level ranges in olive leaves from tissue analysis (dry weight
basis)

Nutrient Deficient Optimum Toxic

Nitrogen < 1.4% 1.5 – 2.0% > 2.55%

Phosphorus < 0.05% 0.1 – 0.3% > 0.34%

Potassium < 0.4% 0.8 – 1.0% > 1.65%

Calcium < 0.6% 1.0 – 1.43% > 3.15%

Magnesium < 0.08% 0.1 – 0.16% > 0.69%

Sulfur < 0.02% 0.08 – 0.16% > 0.32%

Iron < 40 ppm 90 – 124 ppm > 460 ppm

Zinc < 8 ppm 10 - 24 ppm > 84 ppm

Boron < 14 ppm 19 – 150 ppm >185 ppm

Manganese < 5 ppm 20 – 36 ppm > 164 ppm

Copper < 1.5 ppm 4 - 9 ppm > 78 ppm

Sodium > 0.20%

Chloride 100 ppm > 0.50%

ESTABLISHING THE ANNUAL FERTILIZATION PROGRAMME

After carrying out the leaf analysis and diagnosing each nutrient, the next step is to
establish the fertilization programme for the next season according to the following
strategy:
 1. If all the nutrients are at adequate levels in the leaves, it is advisable not to
fertilize at all the next season and to repeat the analysis the next July to
reassess the nutritional status.

2. If a nutrient is low or deficient, a fertilizer rich in the element concerned

should be applied, provided it is certain that this is not due to an excess or lack
of another nutrient, in which case action should concentrate on the other
nutrient.

3. If several elements are low or deficient, it would normally suffice in the

majority of cases to apply the one that is most deficient in order to remedy the
situation. However, this is not a general rule. It is recommendable, therefore,
to seek the advice of an expert. Remember that the application of excessive or
unnecessary nutrients at any given time may cause nutritional imbalances in
the tree that are not easily corrected afterwards.

CORRECTING NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES

Nitrogen (N) is the nutrient required in largest amounts by plants, including olive. For
this reason it has traditionally been the cornerstone of olive fertilization. Potassium
deficiency (K) is the major problem in dry-farming conditions and becomes worse
when yields are high. In calcareous soils, iron (Fe) and (B) boron deficiency may
occur in addition to potassium deficiency,

While calcium (Ca) deficiencies are to be expected in acidic soils. These are the
nutritional imbalances that can affect the majority of olive orchards and which it is
advisable to monitor through testing

Nitrogen (N)
Nitrogen is one of the essential nutrients needed by plants, mainly as a building block
of all proteins in the cytoplasm and the enzymes of the organism, and for chlorophyll
buildup associated with the photosynthetic activity. Nitrogen uptake and metabolism
is a key factor for olive roots to change the pH of their surrounding solution, which
facilitates nutrient uptake by increasing their availability to the plant.

Symptoms of nitrogen deficiency

 Small, yellowish leaves
 Poor shoot growth
 Sporadic bloom
 Poor fruit-set

Timing of side dressing

In dry farming orchards, nitrogen fertilizer is added to the soil in the fall to mid-
winter, in order to have available nitrogen during the critical period. Where low
rainfall prevails, nitrogen should be applied at the beginning of the floral induction
period, while in regions enjoying higher rainfall, it is a common practice to apply
nitrogen at the end of this period.
The total annual rate in bearing orchards is 0.5 – 1.0 kg / tree, (1 – 2 lbs. / tree).
 If only broadcasting is possible, it is best to apply half in January and half in
October, to moderate alternate bearing.
 If fertigation systems are available, it is best to apply some 25% of the annual
rate after fruit-set in order to contribute to vegetation and high yield in the next
year.

Phosphorus (P)
Functions
Phosphorus is one of the three primary nutrients and is absorbed by olive roots mainly
in the form of orthophosphate (H2PO4-). An adequate supply of phosphorous at early
growth stages is important for producing healthy rhizome and a strong root system,
root growth and development of reproductive parts.
This element is necessary for many life processes such as photosynthesis and
metabolism of carbohydrates. It helps plants, speeds-up the maturity process, and
increases disease- and drought-stress resistance. It also influences flower setting and
general vegetative growth.

Phosphate fertilization is especially necessary in acid soils and soils containing high
amounts of calcium carbonate. The same applies to orchards planted in shallow,
infertile soils or in new, irrigated olive orchards (1 – 10 years old) in which ample
nitrogen is used every year.

When phosphate fertilization is necessary, it should not exceed 20% – 30% of the
amount of nitrogen added. So, if 1 kg / tree of N is added (e.g., 5 kg ammonium
sulphate), the corresponding amount of phosphate should not exceed 200 – 350 g /
tree of Ρ2Ο5 (e.g., 1.0 – 1.7 kg of SSP, 0-20-0). As a rule of thumb, it is suggested to
add 500 g / tree of Ρ2Ο5 (e.g., 2.5 kg of SSP) in a two-year period.

In a case of severe phosphate deficiency, an amount of 4 – 5 kg / tree of Ρ2Ο5 (e.g.,

20 – 25 kg SSP) is added in trees at the full production stage. For younger trees,
smaller amounts (1 – 8 kg SSP) are added, depending on age and development stage.

For soil application it is suggested to use SSP, Single superphosphate (0-20-0), or

TSP, Triple superphosphate (0-46-0).
For application by nutrigation, fully soluble fertilizers are suggested, such as:
 Mono-ammonium phosphate (12-61-0)
 Di-ammonium phosphate (21-53-0)
 Mono-potassium phosphate, MKP (0-34-52)

Potassium (K)
Potassium is the element removed in largest amounts by the crop, around 4.5 g K/kg
olives. This means that potassium is important in olive nutrition, and its importance is
magnified by the fact that the growing environment affects potassium availability to
the tree. Olive trees demand this nutrient. High amounts of potassium are removed
from the soil with fruit harvest and pruning, particularly in high yield seasons.
Regular potassium fertilization is required in order to maximize yield and quality
especially in orchards where no potassium fertilizer has been added for several years.

Tree deficiency symptoms include leaf tip necrosis and shoot defoliation, and in “on”
years the olive fruits are wrinkled and smaller than normal. These deficiencies are
more pronounced in dry-farmed olive orchards and in dry years because the low soil
moisture limits the spread of the potassium ion (K+) through the soil solution and
prevents its absorption by the roots. They are also frequent in soils with low clay
content because the soil has a lower buffer capacity and, as a result, less K is available
to the trees.

Potassium deficiency is difficult to correct in olive orchards because the potassium

fertilizer is absorbed in smaller amounts by trees suffering from a deficiency. It is
advisable, therefore, to check leaf potassium concentration every year in order to
apply potassium when values are low, but before they turn into a deficiency.

Deficient leaves contain about 0.1% – 0.3% potassium (on a dry basis), whereas the
content of well-supplied leaves ranges from 0.4% – 1.7%.

The following potassium fertilizers are available:

 Potassium chloride (Muriate of potash), 0-0-60. Highest in potash content,
but also carries high chloride that may accumulate in the soil and bring about
chloride toxicity. See more on chloride toxicity at the end of this chapter.
 Potassium sulfate, 0-0-50. Non-chloride potassic fertilizer, with relatively
low solubility.
 Potassium nitrate, 13-0-46. Highly soluble, carries with it a considerable
amount of nitrogen, in the nitrate form, which is highly available and
nutritious for the tree in most stages. This fertilizer is also the preferred one
where soil pH is somewhat low. The absorption of the nitrate component will
increase soil pH.
 Mono-potassium phosphate (MKP) 0-32-54. Highly soluble, carries with it a
considerable amount of phosphate that is nutritious to the tree in several
growth stages.
The amount of applied potassium should be determined in combination with nitrogen.
In olive orchards in which no potassium has been used in the past, it is preferable to
add twice as much potassium as nitrogen. For example, if 0.5 kg / tree of N (i.e., 2.5
kg ammonium sulfate) is applied, then 1 kg / tree of K (i.e., 2 kg potassium sulfate)
must be added. Later on, potassium dosage is adjusted to be equal to nitrogen. After
high yield seasons, it is preferable to increase potassium to supplement the amount
that is being removed. Leaf analysis, wherever possible, may give better direction for
potassium fertilization.

Many times, potassium deficiency is due to low soil moisture (drought); potassium is
fixed by clay minerals in the soil and thus trees cannot take it up from the soil. The
problem can be relieved by selecting cultivating techniques that enhance the growth
of the root system and ensure adequate soil moisture. In this case, larger amounts of
fertilizer are added, usually 10 – 15 kg of potassium per tree. Alternatively, half of the
above-mentioned amount can be added in the winter in the form of potassium sulfate,
and the remaining amount in the form of potassium nitrate through the irrigation
system. Potassium nitrate is applied through the irrigation system at a dose of 300 –
500 g / tree after fruit-setting.

Potassium should be applied to the soil at the rate of 2.3 – 4.6 kg (5 – 10 pounds) of
pure potassium per tree, or about 280 – 560 kg / ha (250 – 500 pounds / acre). The
smaller rates correspond to sandy or light-textured soils, while the greater rates apply
to heavier soils. Where there is no fertigation system it is recommended to apply the
potassium fertilizer once a year between December to January (northern hemisphere)
to be washed into the soil by winter rainfall. In such cases, the potassium fertilizer
should be banded alongside the row of trees or in a circle around the tree, where it
would be absorbed by the soil by the drippers / sprinklers/ jet emitters. Broadcasting
of the fertilizers where there is no active root zone will be of no avail. In drip-irrigated
plots, application can be made under the emitters. The best would be to acquire a
fertigation system and the fertilizer should be dissolved and distributed via the
irrigation system (fertigated). Regular K inputs maximize yield and quality.

When potassium is notably deficient, a foliar spray of 1.2% (e.g., 10 pounds per 100
gallons) potassium nitrate, such as Multi-K, can quickly correct the deficiency. The
new vegetation in the spring will absorb it very quickly and results will start to be
obvious within a week.
Potassic fertilizers (e.g., Multi-K), should be applied in irrigated orchards in the
spring and during the entire growing season.

Maintaining soil acidity at the right pH level (in the region of 6.5) is critical for
facilitating the optimal uptake of other nutrients. Multi-K, due to the presence of
nitrate-nitrogen, increases soil pH of acidic soils in the root zone.

Magnesium (Mg)
Functions
Magnesium is a secondary plant-nutrient, absorbed as Mg2 .
The main symptom of magnesium deficiency is the chlorosis of leaves that begins
from the top or the edges of the leaf and spreads gradually to the whole leaf area.
Other symptoms include severe leaf shedding and a poor vegetative cycle.

Magnesium deficiency is best controlled by soil application, or foliar spray of

magnesium sulfate ("Epsom salt") or magnesium nitrate (11-0-0-16MgO), such as
Magnisa.

Sulfur (S)
Functions
Sulfur, also a secondary plant nutrient, is essential for protein formation as a
constituent of the three amino-acids cystine, cysteine and methionine. Sulfur is
required for the formation of chlorophyll and for the activity of ATP-sulfurylase.
These essential functions enable the production of healthy and productive plants,
which are preconditions for high yields and superior quality.

Sulfur is best supplied by ammonium sulfate and potassium sulphate.

Calcium (Ca)
Functions
Calcium is also one of the secondary plant nutrients, absorbed by plant roots as Ca2+.
It is an important element for root development and functioning, a constituent of cell
walls and is required for chromosome flexibility and cell division.

Calcium deficiencies take place only in soils lacking this element, e.g., washed soils
in tropical regions. The main symptom of calcium deficiency is the chlorosis starting
at the tips of the leaves, like in boron deficiency, but in this case the veins in the
chlorotic area of older leaves become white. Other deficiency symptoms are general
poor growth, especially in the roots and shoots there is a lack of young shoots

Calcium deficiency is corrected rather easily by adding 5 – 10 kg of calcium oxide per

tree. To avoid calcium deficiency, soil pH must be determined before planting a new
orchard. The amount of calcium added must be determined after soil analysis.

Calcium nitrate (15.5-0-0-26.5), e.g., Multi-Cal, is an optional calcium fertilizer that,

due to its excellent solubility, can be used in fertigation systems.

Boron (B)
Functions
Boron plays a role in cell wall development and is important in pollination, fruit
development and the translocation of sugars. An adequate supply of boron is
important for flowering. The quality of olive fruit is affected if boron is deficient.

Boron deficiency occurs more commonly in dry weather. Microbial activity in the soil
is reduced, and the movement of boron in the soil solution to plant roots is restricted.
Boron is not very mobile, so deficiency appears in the young leaves.

The main symptoms are:

 Leaves with deficiency contain less than 20 ppm boron, while those from
healthy trees have more than 20 ppm (on a dry basis).
 Leaves around the terminal bud turn light green at their tip and eventually fall
off.
 Gradually, the same symptom appears on leaves near the base of the shoots,
which appear dry at their edges.
 Later growth shows small and distorted leaves that are stunted, fragile and
finally drop off. If a small piece of the stem is cut off with a sharp knife, a
brown discoloration shows due to necrosis of the cambium.
 Chlorosis (yellowing) and death of the growing points.
 Trees suffering from boron deficiency appear chlorotic from a distance and
delay entering the vegetative stage.
 Distortion, thickening and cracking of stems. The stems may be hollow or
brittle.
  Formation of rosettes, growth of auxiliary buds (side shooting), bushy growth
and multiple branching. Shortened internodes and secondary shoot production
at the tree base.
 Thickening, twisting and failure of roots to spread out or develop properly. In
some cases the roots may show excessive branching.
 Dropping of buds or blossom. Poor fruit-set.
 Fruits and seeds may also be affected. Brown sunken areas may develop in
fruit, in a symptom called "Monkey-face".
 Boron deficiency is corrected by broadcasting 113 – 225 g of a 14% – 20%
boron fertilizer per tree, or 28 – 56 kg / ha on the soil surface within the drip
line during winter. One treatment will last for several years, but because of its
mobility in the soil and susceptibility to leaching, annual applications of boron
are recommended in most situations. Frequent applications at low rates also
minimize the risk of toxicity.
 BE VERY CAREFUL not to apply too much since toxicity may occur.
 A fast correction of boron deficiency in a specific season can be achieved by a
foliar spray of 0.05% – 0.1%, (i.e., 7 – 14 ounces per 100 gallon of water) of
Borax. Spray should be applied until runoff is achieved. Such applications
prior to flower bud initiation or immediately prior to flowering significantly
improve fruit-set, even in trees with no visible symptoms and low, but not
deficient leaf boron levels.
Boron fertilizers
 Borax, (11% B) is a fine crystalline product for dry soil application, or by
application in solution to the soil or foliage.

 Granubor, (15 % B) and Borate Granular, (14.3 % B) are granulated fertilizers,

which makes them more suitable for dry application by machine to the soil.
They can be used on their own or in blends with other fertilizers. Granubor
and Borate Granular do not dissolve, hence are unsuitable for foliar
application.

 Solubor, (20.5 % B) is a fine, soluble powder for application in solution

through a boom-spray to the soil or foliage. Application rate is 1 – 1.5 g / L.
Solubor is more soluble than Borax, especially in cold water, and is the
recommended choice for foliar applications or ground applications in solution.

 The marketplace for boron products also offers high analysis Boron solutions,
designed to rapidly correct boron deficiencies in all crops in both soil and
foliar applications. Some of them allow enhanced foliar and root uptake due to
formulation with organic acids, which assist with assimilating the boron in the
plant. They can be applied as a foliar spray, or by fertigation, .e.g., AgroDex
Boron, (10%). Application rate: 1 – 2 L / ha.

Boron toxicity symptoms

 Olives are classified as "somewhat tolerant" of boron in irrigation water,
accepting water levels of boron of 1 to 2 mg / liter (roughly equivalent to 1 – 2
ppm). Water with 12 ppm will cause problems for olives that are not tolerant
to high levels of boron. A soil analysis would be the only way to determine if
 there is a soil problem. One of the most common causes is over-fertilization
with or poor placement of boron fertilizer.

Toxicity symptoms
 In the early stages, the symptoms of boron toxicity are normally expressed as
marginal and tip chlorosis of the older leaves. Moderate to severe toxicity
produces progressive leaf necrosis, beginning at the tip or margins and
gradually covering the whole leaf, resulting in premature leaf drop.

Zinc (Zn)

Zinc deficiency symptoms

Yellow spots may appear on adult leaves, small pale-green leaves, with interveinal
chlorosis. Otherwise, signs are similar to iron- and manganese-deficiency – reduced
shoot growth resulting in rosette formation

Correcting zinc deficiency

Replenishment of Zn is especially important in early spring. Correction of zinc
deficiency can be done by foliar spray with 0.1% zinc sulfate or by zinc-containing
fungicides if these are planned for actual fungal diseases.

Iron (Fe)
Iron deficiency, known as iron chlorosis, is a nutritional imbalance that can affect
olive orchards growing on very calcareous soils with high pH content. Iron deficiency
symptoms include yellow leaves, small shoot growth and lower yield; fruits tend to be
pale-yellow rather than green-yellow. Fruits for table production lose commercial
value because they tend to be small and to develop a chlorotic appearance. These
symptoms are the means of diagnosing iron deficiency as leaf analysis is of no use in
such cases because iron accumulates in the leaves even when deficiency occurs.
Iron deficiency is also connected with poor soil aeration because this increases the
concentration of the bicarbonate anion in the soil solution, so aggravating iron
chlorosis. This is why water logging has to be avoided in calcareous soils.

Correcting iron deficiency

Iron deficiency can be corrected by foliar spray of iron chelates, e.g., EDTA-Fe,
which contains 12% Fe, and should be applied at 50 g / L of water. Foliar sprays of
iron are quick acting, but are not long lasting. The same product can be applied by
fertigation to the soil for a longer effect. Other treatments are drenching the soil with
iron sulfate (20% iron), and should be applied at 20 g / m2 in water, or injecting iron
sulfate or iron citrate directly into the tree trunks. Other commercial iron chelates are
EDDHA-Fe, (e.g., Multi-micro EDDHA Fe 6%), and DTPA.

Manganese (Mn)
Functions
Manganese is required for the activity of dehydrogenases, decarboxylases, kinases,
oxidases, peroxides, and non-specifically by other divalent cation-activated enzymes.
It is required for photosynthetic evolution of O2, besides involvement in production
of amino acids and proteins. Manganese has equally essential roles in photosynthesis,
chlorophyll formation and nitrate reduction.

The concentration of metallo-enzyme peroxides in the leaf is considered to be the best

marker of Mn deficiency.

Manganese deficiency symptoms

Flower buds often do not fully develop, turn yellow and abort.
In severe deficiency, new growth is yellow in color but, in contrast to iron deficiency,
necrotic spots usually appear in the interveinal tissue.

Correcting manganese deficiency

Manganese is absorbed by the plant roots in the form of Mn2+. Mn deficiency can be
corrected by:
 Application of acidifying fertilizers such as elemental sulfur and ammonium
sulfate.
 Foliar spraying with manganese sulfate at 0.2%, or manganese-containing
fungicides.
 Waterlogging of the soil that depletes soil oxygen, releasing high amounts of
soluble ferrous and manganese cations, could be considered, but excessive
concentrations may be toxic to the roots. Also, olive trees are intolerant to
waterlogged soil, so this method should be ruled out.
Copper (Cu)
Functions
Copper plays an active role in some enzymes performing key functions like
respiration and photosynthesis, e.g., cytochrome oxidase, diamine oxidase, ascorbate
oxidate, phenolase, leccase, ribulose biophosphate oxygenase activity, superoxide
dismutase, plant acyanin and quinol oxidase. Copper is also a constituent of
cytochrome oxidase and heme in equal proportions. Cu-proteins have been implicated
in lignification, anaerobic metabolism, cellular defense mechanism, and hormonal
metabolism. Copper proteins exhibit electron transfer and oxidase activity. It also acts
as a terminal electron acceptor of the mitochondrial oxidative pathway.

Copper deficiency symptoms

Copper deficiency symptoms are often found in sandy soils. This problem is
exacerbated if excessive amounts of phosphorus fertilizers are used. Copper
deficiency symptoms are stunted growth, distorted leaves, leaf rosettes and pale
yellow-white leaves.

Correcting copper deficiency

Application of copper sulfate at 0.25 – 0.5 kg / tree to the soil, or foliar sprays as
Bordeau mixture, or copper sulfate at 0.05%.

Beware of over-application of copper. It can be toxic to the tree and to soil

microorganisms.

Molybdenum (Mo)
Deficiencies are rare but more likely in acid soils due to low bioavailability.
Symptoms often consist of interveinal chlorosis in older leaves. Young leaves may be
severely twisted.

Chloride (Cl)
Functions
Chloride is required by all plants in very minute amounts, similar to iron, whose
normal concentration is about 100 ppm.
 Chloride is essential for the proper function of the plant stomata, thus
controlling internal water balance.
 It also functions in photosynthesis, specifically the water splitting system.
 It functions in caution balance and transport within the plant.
 Research has demonstrated that chloride diminishes the effects of fungal
infections in an undefined way.
Although chloride is classified as a micronutrient, it is generally applied in very high
rates by irrigation water. Additionally it is often supplied by commodity fertilizers,
e.g., potassium chloride (MOP) and calcium chloride, resulting in a very marked
uptake that will bring its concentration to the level of a secondary element such as
sulfur, namely ~0.5%, which is about 5,000-fold of the required rate.
It was found in an experiment that increasing the salinity of soil solution results in
accumulation of Na and Cl in leaf, shoot and root tissues of olive trees.
Simultaneously, K and Ca concentration are decreased, but Mg content is not affected
by the salinity stress.

Chloride toxicity
Chloride accumulation to these high rates can develop into a serious problem. The
chloride anion markedly reduces plant vigor and tends to accumulate in the leaf
margins, producing leaf-edge scorching and necrosis (tissue death), that stems from
concentration levels of up to 3%. Such leaves are prone to premature leaf abscission
and reduced photosynthesis activity.

Therefore, the use of high chloride water, especially when there is a Ca / Cl ratio of
less than 2:1 in the irrigation water, is highly risky. A water test is important. For
obvious reasons, don't use fertilizers high in chloride or that contain much muriate of
potash (MOP; potassium chloride) or calcium chloride.

Chloride toxicity symptoms

Typical salt toxicity symptoms are dead leaf edge, leaf drop and necrosis of stem tip.
Toxicity symptoms appear above 50 mM of NaCl, and become more severe at high
salinity levels.

Soil amelioration
Correcting acidic soil pH
As noted above, olive trees are quite tolerant when it comes to soil pH. When soils are
overly acidic, lime is commonly used to correct the pH. The amount required varies
with soil texture. The approximate amount of finely ground limestone needed to raise
the pH of an 18 cm (7 inch) layer of soil by one pH unit from an initial pH of 4.5 or
5.5 ranges from about 2 MT / ha (0.5 short ton / acre) for sandy soil to about 8 MT /
ha (2 short tons / acre) for a clay loam. Usually, only the surface becomes acidic
enough to require liming.

Correcting sodic and alkali soils and sodic irrigation water

Sodic soils can be corrected by the application of gypsum. Application rate can be
determined by a lab analysis. After the gypsum is applied, the displaced sodium must
be leached below the root zone. Organic materials such as manure, cover crop or crop
residues may help improve the soil structure for leaching. In established orchards,
heavy irrigation during the dormant period minimizes the damage to tree roots from
lack of aeration.

There is a close association between the composition and concentration of soil salts
and salts in irrigation water. When used for irrigation, water with high sodium relative
to calcium and magnesium is likely to result in a sodic soil, and therefore needs to be
treated before use, or it may jeopardize the long-term wellbeing of the orchard.

It is advisable to acidify the soil gradually, over several years. Two small applications
of acidifying material a year apart are better than a single, large application. Soil
acidification reactions may take a year or more to complete, so check soil pH annually
to monitor the change. Check pH at the same time each year, as soil pH varies
seasonally.
Acidification before planting
The most effective approach is to add elemental sulfur over a period of years, monitor
soil pH and wait until the desired pH is reached before planting. Add elemental S
according to the clay content of soil. Mix the sulfur into the soil. Examples for
application rate:
 For sandy soil, add 450 – 900 kg of elemental S per 1ha.
 For clayey soil, add 1.8 – 2.25 ton of elemental S per 1ha.
 Soil with high organic matter content also requires more elemental S than
sandy soil, to achieve the same pH decrease.
 Soils with combined high organic matter and medium clay content, need 1.8 –
2.25 ton elemental S per 1ha. A logical approach is to apply S in the fall and
test the soil pH in the spring. The process should be repeated if the desired pH
has not been attained.
Acidification of the soil of an existing orchard
Dig a minimum of 4 holes per tree, (preferably 8 – 12), at least 30 cm deep, and 10 –
20 cm in diameter, near the drip line. Mix ~60 g elemental S with the soil removed
from each hole. Refill the holes with the soil and water sparingly. Keep the soil
around the plant moist, but not wet. This procedure can be performed at any time of
the year, but fall is best.

Fertilization as a means to assure high soil fertility

The fertilization practices in traditional, extensively-cultivated olive orchards are
based mainly on tradition, repeating the same fertilization program every year,
enriched by neighbors' testimonials. This practice leads to arbitrary application of
excessive rates of some fertilizers, mainly N and, at the same time, to a lack of other
nutrients that could be necessary at this growing stage. Also, the excessive application
of non-required fertilizers may cause environmental degradation and negatively affect
productivity and olive oil quality.

From a modern, rational point of view, any amount of a nutrient must be supplied
only when there are solid proofs, such as visual and laboratory test results, showing
that it’s really needed. For this purpose, leaf-nutrient analysis provides an indication
of tree nutritional status, featuring an important tool for determining fertilization
requirements.

Fertilization rate can be estimated by the amount of nutrients taken up by the trees and
removed from the soil by fruits and pruned branches that are taken away from the plot
and by tree mass growth where, although the tree remains in the plot, its nutrients are
not available for further growth. All these nutrients need to be returned to the soil in
order to retain its fertility for further growth and fruit production.

Nutrient demand / uptake / removal in main olive producing countries

g / tree / year

Country N P2O5 K2O

Tunisia 578 67 502

Spain 310 75 560

Italy 276 142 488

Nutrients taken up by the plant and removed by crop (5 ton / ha)

Country Plant nutrient requirements (kg/ha)

Source N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO
Available from recycled
8 2 14 3 3
previous crop
Uptake by whole plant 78 19 98 53 25
Removed by crop 40 7 60 15 4

As is clear potassium is taken up by all tree organs, including wooden parts, leaves
and fruits, in a larger amount than any other plant nutrient.
But, when calculating the needed fertilization, only the amount of plant nutrients
removed from the field should be taken into account, such as fruits and pruned
branches. These nutrients need to be returned to the soil in form of fertilizers in order
to maintain its fertility and so that it should not be continuously exploited.

Application of fertilizers
Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and boron (B) are generally the most
critical nutrients in the mineral nutrition of olive orchards. Concentration of any of
these nutrients can be correctly detected through leaf analysis, which is the best
diagnostic method to determine the nutrient status and to plan fertilizer applications.

N application to Young orchards

Recommended nitrogen application rate for young olive trees
Annual nitrogen application Distribution along the growth
rates season
Year
Per Per hectare* (with Early Late
Spring
tree* (g) > 400 trees) summer summer
100 –
1 50 kg 25% 33% 42%
200
140 –
2 70 kg 27% 36% 37%
280
200 –
3 100 kg 30% 35% 35%
400
Winter Spring Summer
300 –
4 150 kg 30% 33% 37%
600
300 –
5 150 kg 30% 33% 37%
600
800 –
Bearing 200 – 250 kg According to leaf analysis
1,000

Bearing orchards
In traditional, extensively grown and rain-fed orchards, nitrogen is usually applied to
the soil at0.5 – 1.5 kg / tree, once a year, towards the end of the winter, using urea,
ammonium sulfate, or ammonium nitrate; and augmented by foliar spray in the spring,
using urea solution at 4%. Other nutrients are applied on an inconsistent basis.

In intensively cultivated orchards, phosphorus, potassium and boron, as well as other

secondary- and micro-nutrients are applied simultaneously throughout the year.
Where Nutrigation (fertigation) systems are available, the use of fully soluble nitrogen
fertilizers is very common and the following fertilizers are in wide use:
 Urea (46% N)
 Ammonium nitrate (34% N
 Potassium nitrate (13% N & 46% K2O)
  Calcium nitrate (15.5%N & 26.5% CaO)
 Mono-ammonium phosphate (12% N & 61% P2O5)

Do’s
1. Determine nutritional requirements by diagnosing the nutritional status of the olive
orchard on the basis of leaf analysis carried out as explained in this text. In some
cases, diagnosis should be supplemented by inspection of visual symptoms and soil
analysis.
2. Collect leaf samples in July in the northern hemisphere. Take fully expanded leaves
with petiole from current-season shoots, as explained in this text.
3. Aim for all the mineral elements to lie within the adequate range for leaves.
4. Only apply a nutrient if its concentration is outside the adequate range and lies
close to deficiency, provided this is not due to the action of another nutrient, in which
case action should concentrate on the latter. Apply potassium when low levels are
detected in the leaves.

Production techniques in olive growing

5. Split nitrogen application, whether to the ground or leaves. When applying it to the
ground, bury the nitrogen or incorporate it with irrigation or rain water. When using
fertigation, apply the corresponding amount each irrigation day. Do not apply
fertilizer after the summer.
6. Split the foliar application of potassium.
7. In the case of ground application, spread the fertilizer across the whole surface, not
just underneath the trees, except in fertigation.

Recommended practices
1. Divide the olive orchard into uniform blocks according to soil, age, varieties,
cultivation system etc.
2. Analyze the soil profile, preferably before planting the orchard, to identify any
limitations to olive growing.
3. Analyze soil fertility every three or five years, depending on the degree of soil
fertility and the intensiveness of cultivation. Perform analyses if high leaf
concentrations of sodium, chlorine or boron are detected.
4. Take soil samples at two depths, normally 0–30 cm and 30–60 cm if the soil depth
so permits, according to the procedure described in this text.
5. If leaf analysis reveals a nitrogen concentration above or on the upper limits of the
adequate range, analyze the irrigation water or find out the reasons for such values.
6. If nutrients are required, begin by applying the tentative doses indicated in this text
and then correct the doses in the light of subsequent leaf analyses.
7. Aim foliar nutrient applications for the spring, when the young leaves are still
tender. Avoid applying the nutrients in the middle of the day; night applications are
advisable in high evaporation conditions. It is recommendable to use wetting agents to
promote leaf absorption of the products.
8. For ground applications, apply potassium close to the roots, particularly in clay
soils.
9. When carrying out regular soil fertility analyses, check the K/Mg ratio is not more
than one to avoid magnesium deficiencies caused by high potassium concentrations.

Don’ts
1. Do not apply nutrients unless justified by leaf diagnosis. The only exception is iron,
because leaf analysis is not effective for diagnosing iron deficiency.
2. Do not apply annual maintenance nitrogen fertilization when leaf nitrogen
concentration lies inside the adequate range.
3. Do not apply more than 150 kg of nitrogen per hectare.
4. Do not apply all the nitrogen in one go.
5. Do not apply nitrogen during winter rest.
6. Do not carry out foliar applications of iron compounds because they are not
effective for remedying this deficiency.
7. Do not inject iron compounds into the vascular system of the trees during the
period of leaf expansion.
8. Do not apply compound fertilizers, except in exceptional cases of deficiencies of
more than one nutrient, taking into account no interactions between the elements.
9. Do not apply boron to olive orchards on calcareous soils with a pH > 8 or to dry-
farmed orchards.

Intensively grown olive trees will greatly benefit from a good nutrition regime.
During the first years of the plantation a premium slow-release fertilizer, such as
Multicote-Agri 17-9-16+2MgO augmented with trace elements, is recommended.

Alternatively, soluble fertilizers may be used with high efficiency, especially by

Nutrigation. If the fertilizers are broadcasted separately, be sure to water very well
after application.

Many growers in Mediterranean countries apply organic fertilizers every other year.
Organically derived fertilizers are available, but they are often markedly more
expensive per nutritive element unit. Top dressing with organic material such as
composted manure or kitchen compost can be done, but the grower should consult
carefully before using it because it is difficult to achieve a good balance of nutritional
elements by this method. It is environmentally responsible but requires more study
and understanding by the grower. Always avoid placing compost or any fertilizer next
to the trunk of the tree.

Whatever type of fertilizer is used, it is best to feed lightly and often during the
growing season. Avoid heavy applications of soluble fertilizers that could damage
plants and leach or run-off into groundwater.

Application rate of mineral fertilizers should be based on the target yield, nutrient
uptake, soil nutrient analysis, leaf nutrient analysis, leaf deficiency symptoms, results
of fertilizer experiment, and nutrient recycling.

Disease and Pests Control

We cover basic concepts about pest, weed, and disease control in olive trees. We offer
information about the most common diseases as well as links to relevant information.

Diseases
Olive leaf spot / Aïn Taous (Arabic)

This disease is caused by the fungus Spilocaea oleagina which develops and forms
colonies under the upper cuticle of the leaves.

Symptoms
The symptoms of this disease are generally lesions on the leaf blade, petiole, fruit
peduncle and fruit. These occur on the upper surface of the leaves in the form of small
round blotches with a grey or muddy spot in the centre 6–10 mm in diameter.

Control Measure
Cultural measures
 Preventive cultural measures include the following chief recommendations:
Avoid planting the trees in damp hollows and keep a good distance between
them
 Prune the trees properly to let air in
 Take cuttings from healthy trees
 Propagate and place the plants in a healthy, disinfected rooting medium (free
from diseased leaves)
 Avoid applying nitrogen fertilizers, which tend to make the plant tissue thinner
and less resistant to the disease.
 If possible, collect and burn fallen leaves in infested areas
 Strengthen the resistance of the olive trees through balanced fertilization
 Grow varieties which are more resistant to the disease, particularly varieties
with thick cuticles.
 Prevent potassium deficiencies which are conducive to the development of the
disease.

Chemical control

 As a preventive measure (in early spring and autumn), apply a copper-based

fungicide or Bordeaux mixture (copper sulphate + hydrated lime) to the whole
canopy once or twice.
 Repeat the application if there is more than 20-25 mm of rainfall (in one go or
cumulative).

Verticillium wilt / Maradth dhouboul Azzaitoun (Arabic)

Verticillium is a highly polyphagous fungus which survives in the soil for many years
(up to 14) as microsclerotia.

Symptoms and damage

On coming into contact with a root, the fungus sends out a filament which enters the
vascular system of the tree. It develops by branching towards the aerial parts where it
impedes sap circulation and causes withering of the part infested. Symptoms are
sectorial, i.e. they are seen on the branches,or merely on a few shoots. Verticillium
wilt causes the unilateral decline of the infested parts, and the symptoms then become
general.
.
The leaves on infested shoots roll inwards and turn light brown. They become brittle
and can fall off. The olive fruits are heavily mummified but continue to hang from the
diseased shoots.The bark of the affected branches is often a violet brown colour,
which progresses from the apex towards the base.

Control Measure
Cultural Control
 Avoid intercropping market garden crops sensitive to verticillium wilt .
 Avoid growing olives in soils in which crops conducive to the disease have
been cultivated.
 Reduce tillage, keeping it superficial to avoid injury to roots.
 Apply balanced fertilization and irrigation.
 Remove and burn all withered shoots and branches during winter pruning and
protect pruning wounds with a systemic fungicide.
 Carefully disinfect pruning implements after pruning each tree.
 Solarize the infested plots during the hottest part of summer to reduce the
extent of the verticillium wilt inoculum in the soil.
Chemical Control
 Trunk injections of carbendazime (fungicide) appear to stop attacks for five
months.

Cercospora cladosporioides SACC

This disease is caused by the fungus Cercospora cladosporioides Sacc. Attacks by

this fungus are normally associated with attacks of olive leaf spot.

Symptoms and damage

Characteristic damage is observed primarily in the leaves in the form of a brownish
coloring on the upper surface and lead-grey, irregularly shaped spots on the under
surface. The infested leaves eventually drop off.
Prematurely fallen leaves turn brown on the upper surface and grey on the under
surface with darker patches where the fungal fruiting is located. This disease has also
been observed in olive fruits, although less frequently, where the symptoms are round,
reddish brown blotches between 3 and 15mm in size. The main damage is abundant
leaf drop, which causes pronounced debilitation of the tree. The aerial part of the tree
can be seriously injured, leading to decreased crop production.

Control Measure
Chemical control
 This disease has been controlled by spraying infested plots with Bordeaux
mixture (2%) in early spring and late summer.

Olive Anthracnose
Gloesporium olivarum ALM. is a mitospore fungus belonging to the coelomycetes
group. The conidia remain viable for one year inside the mummifi ed fruits at low
temperature and probably act as the primary inoculum source. It is spread by rain
which facilitates separation of the conidia from the fruiting body and their dispersion
in the raindrops. The conidia always need free water to germinate. In natural
conditions, infection takes place at between 15 and 25 °C, although the optimum
appears to be 23 °C at which the typical symptoms of the disease and the acervuli
appear at 2-3 days and 5-6 days of inoculation, respectively.
Symptoms and damage
This disease generally affects the olive fruits, causing 40-50% weight loss, premature
fruit drop and acidification of the resultant oil.

When ripe, the olive fruits have brown, roundish or irregularly shaped spots, which
grow larger and may even join up. Attacks frequently start at the apex of the fruit
where raindrops and dew accumulate. The progress of necrosis causes complete or
partial rotting of the infected fruit, which dries up, shrivels and becomes mummified.
The mesocarp becomes hard and leathery and does not take long to fall off.

At high ambient humidity, numerous acervuli develop on the infected parts of the fruit
with the accompanying formation of a pink mucilaginous substance
containing numerous conidia. The olive fruit looks soapy, which gives it its name in
other languages (soapy olive).

Control Measure
 Collect and burn fallen leaves and fruits.
 Prune infested branches before the first rains.
 In endemic areas, apply preventive copper-based fungicides at the end of the
summer or mixtures of copper oxychloride, Zineb (0.4%) and Bordeaux
mixture (2%).
 Control Bactrocera oleae to reduce the development of the disease to the
maximum.

Macrophoma DALMATICA
Sphaeropsis dalmatica THÜM. is a mitospore fungus belonging to the Coelomycetes
group. In conditions of high humidity, the pycnidia ripen and then the cirri emerge.
The conidia are spread to the fruit by rain, wind and insects.

Symptoms and damage

This disease solely affects the olive fruits when they are still green. Roundish, ochre
colored lesions develop on the fruits, 3–6 mm in diameter; the centre looks dented and
the edges clearly stick above the epidermis of the fruit.
The disease sometimes spreads over the fruit, which becomes mummified.
The development of this disease is closely correlated with attacks of olive fruit fly and
Prolasioptera berlesiana in that the conidia released by the pycnidia penetrate
primarily through the entry and exit holes of these insects.

This disease is of little importance as it affect the quality of olive oil and table olives.

Control Measure
 Copper-based treatments for olive leaf spot are not effective against
Sphaeropsis dalmatica THÜM. Hence, to avoid attacks from this fungus, steps
should be taken to control olive fruit fly and Prolasioptera berlesiana because
their entry and exit holes have an incidence on the development of this
disease.
  To decrease the primary inoculum rate, growers are strongly recommended to
collect and burn the olives that drop to the ground.

Root Rot Fungi

Several soil-borne fungi are the cause of root rot. These fungi remain in the soil in
various forms for several years.

Symptoms and damage

The fungi infect the roots of the olive after penetration of the mycelium either directly
or through injuries. From the root, the mycelium reaches and obstructs the xylem
vessels. This attack causes either general tree decline or solely withering of shoots.
Young trees are generally vulnerable.

Certain fungi such as Fusarium oxysporum and Rhizoctonia bataticola cause

withering of new shoots on young nursery plants.

Control Measure
Cultural Control
 Avoid intercropping market garden crops sensitive to soil-borne fungi
(Solanaceae, Cucurbitaceae).
 Avoid growing olives in soils in which crops conducive to attacks by soil-
borne fungi have been cultivated.
 Reduce tillage, keeping it superficial to avoid injury to roots.
 Apply balanced fertilization and irrigation.
 Use double basins to avoid water stagnation around the tree trunk (furrow
irrigation).
 During winter pruning, remove and burn all withered shoots and branches.
 Protect pruning wounds with a systemic fungicide.
 Carefully disinfect pruning implements after pruning each tree.

Direct management (remedial)
 Pull out and burn plants that are totally debilitated.
 Renew the soil in the planting holes before replanting.
 At the beginning of infection (start of yellowing), treat trees by applying a
systemic fungicide (active matter: benomyl, metalaxyl, thiophanate-methyl,
etc.) in the irrigation water

Olive knot / Maradh essoul (Arabic).

Olive knot occurs in all the olive-growing countries and attacks other plants as well.

Symptoms
Olive knot appears as rough galls or swellings (the “knots”). At first, they are soft,
green and smooth. As the disease progresses they grow larger becoming darker and
ligneous. The galls usually develop on twigs, branches and scaffold branches. They
can also be found on the trunks of young trees. The severity of damage is closely
 linked to the number of galls on each tree. When infection is heavy, the infected
shoots may lose their leaves and wither.

Control Measure
The most effective means of control is to select varieties that are resistant to or
tolerant of the disease. However, prophylactic measures from tree planting to pruning
are effective in helping to control this disease by affecting the initial bacterial
inoculums. Hence, it is essential to:

 Choose pathogen-free plant stock.

 Avoid transporting plants and cuttings from diseased orchards.
 Avoid harvesting and pruning in damp conditions (rain, dew).
 Harvest healthy trees first, avoiding injuries as much as possible. Pole
harvesting causes wounds and is conducive to the installation of the bacteria
and the dissemination of the disease.
 Prune healthy trees first, and then sick trees to avoid spreading the disease.
Pruned wood from sick trees must be burned on the spot.
 Remove as many galls as possible.
 Apply copper-based products to pruning wounds and leaf scars, which will
reduce the bacterial population considerably.

Crown gall

Crown gall basically attacks fruit trees. It has only recently been reported in olive in
Jordan and Australia in galls formed on roots and the crown of young olive plants.
The bacterium can stay in the soil for years. When the host plants are cultivated in
infected soils, the bacterium penetrates the roots and/or base of the stem (or trunk)
through wound sites caused by cultural practices or insects. Once inside the tissue, it
develops intercellular, then inducing the formation of the galls through its plasmid
tumor-inducing (Ti) intermediary.

Symptoms
Symptoms take the form of spherical, whitish galls which are spongy to firm, with an
irregular surface reminiscent of the inflorescence. As they develop, the galls rapidly
grow larger, the surface becomes nippled and hardens and becomes cracked along the
edges, and they turn darker.

Control Measure
All controls should be preventive in the nursery, because by the time the disease
reaches the orchard it is too late. Nurseries should be established on soils that are not
infected by the bacteria, and in the event of attack all the infected plants should be
removed and burned. At the time of planting in
the orchard, it is advisable to soak the roots of the plant in a suspension of the
bacterial strain K1026 of Agrobacterium radiobacter which is antagonistic to
phytopathogenic strains.

Insect Pests
Olive Fruit Fly / Dhoubabet azzaitoun (Arabic)

This species is found throughout the Mediterranean region. It has a major economic
impact in the majority of the olive producing countries.
Adult: 5 mm long, brown abdomen with black markings along the sides although the
colouring varies greatly. Females have an ovipositor.
Several generations (4-5) occur through the year. The actual number is closely linked
to the climate and to the availability of olive fruits.
Adults and larvae (maggots) overwinter in fruit on the tree while the pupae do so in
the soil.
– The start of the first summer generation depends on fruit susceptibility and
temperature conditions. It is early (June) in hot coastal areas (southern Mediterranean)
and later (July–August) in northern Mediterranean and mountainous regions.
– Between three and four generations can occur from early autumn until winter.

Symptoms and damage

 Puncture marks or ‘stings’ on the olive fruits
 Premature drop of olive fruits attacked by the summer generation(s) or later in
autumn.
 Loss of fruit weight (part of the flesh eaten by the larvae) and consequently of
oil yield (later attacks in autumn and/or winter.
 Deterioration of oil quality.
Regulatory factors
Climate
Excessively high summer temperatures (above 35 °C) and low winter temperatures
curb the fly ovipositional (egg-laying) activity.
Fruit susceptibility
Large, fleshy olive fruits (with a high fruit-to-stone ratio) are more susceptible and are
the first to be infested.

Control Measure
Cultural practices
 Turning over the soil under the canopies (to a depth of 15-20 cm) in autumn
and winter, and even in early spring to bury the pupae.
 Speeding up olive harvesting if autumn attacks break out.

Biotechnical methods
Mass adult trapping at the start of the season: one trap every one or two trees (this is
effective above all when the populations are small to moderate).
Types of trap
 McPhail trap baited with protein hydrolyzate, ammonium bicarbonate or
diammonium phosphate (DAP).
 sticky plastic panel or wooden board (25 x 17 cm) impregnated with Decis
(Deltamethrine) and baited with a sachet of ammonium bicarbonate or DAP
and a pheromone capsule (80 mg of spiroacetate).
 Ecotrap which gives fairly satisfactory results; water or milk bottles baited
with an attractant (3% DAP) and punctured at the top to let the flies in.

Chemical control
  Localized treatment with poisoned bait to kill the adults before or on the
appearance of the first punctures.
 Mixture of insecticide (0.3–0.6 liters of Decis-dimethoate) and one liter of
protein hydrolyzate in 100 liters of water. The hydrolyzate can be replaced by
olive fruit fly pheromone.
 Application to a number of trees in the olive orchard or to part of the trees at a
rate of 250 cc–2 liters/tree (according to canopy volume).
 Localized application of Bordeaux mixture to kill the adults (tested in Italy):
mixture of 1 kg of copper sulphate with 2.5 kg of lime in 100 liters of water,
Spinosad or tracer 240.
 Control of larvae and adults.
 Treatment threshold: 10–15% fruit infested with eggs and/or larvae when the
olives are intended for oil production and 1–2% when they are intended for
table olive production.
 Products: systemic organophosphorus products.
 Ground spraying of the entire tree.

Olive Leaf Gall Midge / Dhoubabet Aourak azzaitoun (Arabic)

This species is found mainly in the Eastern Mediterranean region.

Adult: 2.25–2.50 mm long, yellow in color with reddish abdomen (females); very
short-lived.
Two generations occur annually. Adult emergence: end of February–May.

Symptoms and damage

 Appearance of galls on the leaves and inflorescences.
 Leaf and inflorescence deformation and inflorescence drop.

Control Measure
Generally, the insect does not cause sufficient damage to merit treatment.
Nevertheless, in the event of heavy infestations of flower clusters (this has occurred in
Syria), it may be necessary to apply low doses of systemic products to control the first
larval instars in the spring.

OLIVE BARK MIDGE / Dhoubabet Kichrat Azzaitoun (Arabic)

This species has been reported in most of the Mediterranean olive-growing countries.
Although the larvae only develop on the bark of the olive tree, they can also live
under the bark of other genera of the Oleaceae family.
Adult: 3 mm long, black, with orange (female) and greyish (male) abdominal
segments. Two generations occur annually in spring and summer,
High relative humidity, abundant rainfall and irrigation are conducive to the
development of this insect.
Bark injuries of any type (caused by man, wind, insects, frost, hail, etc.) are
favourable for midge ovipositional activity.
Symptoms and damage
Attacks are often observed at the base of young shoots growing from old trees or in
young, irrigated olive orchards.
Symptoms
  Necrosis of the bark around the ovipositional site, with the formation of
hollows or cracks, and change in colour to reddish yellow.
 Withering of the part of the twig above the ovipositional site.

Control Measure
 Application of cicatrizants to pruning wounds and removal of parts injured by
the wind or harvesting.
 Prevention of machinery damage.
 Direct control by removing and burning infested twigs and branches.

Olive moth / Al Itha (Arabic).

Olive Moth spread throughout the Mediterranean region. Adult: micro-lepidopteran,
6-7 mm long with a wingspan of 13-14 mm. Three generations occur annually.
First generation (anthophagous): Adult fly occurs in early March (hot regions) and
early April.
Second generation (carpophagous): Adult fly takes place in early May-early June
Third generation (phyllophagous): The fly of the 2ndgeneration
adults starts in September–October

Symptoms and damage

This generation can destroy a fairly large proportion of the flower buds, causing
decreased fruit set
 This generation causes summer fruit drop (larval penetration), which can be
mistaken for natural fruit drop.
 It causes autumn fruit drop (larval exit), which causes the real damage

Control Measure
Cultural measures

 Keep Delta pheromone traps 2-3 traps/ha (50-70 m between traps).

The traps are placed at shoulder height.
 Suitable pruning at the end of winter to reduce the phyllophagous generations.
 Turning over of the soil under the tree canopies in autumn to reduce the adult
populations of the 2nd generation.

Management methods:
 Microbiological control by spraying the trees with Bacillus thuringiensis or
Saccharopolyspora spinosa (Spinosad-Tracer) to combat the first generation
as soon as the first flowers open. The same methods may be applied
exceptionally to the third generation in the event of heavy larval density on the
leaves.
 Chemical control of the 2nd generation by employing a systemic product
(dimethoate) when the egg hatching rate exceeds 50% and approaches 75%.

Leopard moth / Hoffar essak (Arabic)

The leopard moth is spread across Europe and Mediterranean countries. The leopard
moth is highly polyphagous and attacks numerous species of tree and shrub, notably
apple, pear, plum, cherry, fig, olive and even pomegranate.
Adult: wingspan of 50-70 mm for the female and 40-50 mm for the male. White,
sprinkled with numerous large dark blue spots on the fore wings and lighter dots on
the hind wings. The female is larger than male.
The life cycle is annual. It runs from May until the end of August, and even until
November with one or two peaks in June and August.

Symptoms and damage

The leopard moth is considered a primary pest in the Middle East where it can cause
significant damage to young orchards and mature trees. The larval
gallery weakens and may wither the part of the plant above the entry hole

Control methods
Cultural methods:
 Frequent pruning of young twigs showing signs of infestation by young larvae.
 Removal and burning of debilitated, heavily infested branches to eliminate
larvae.
 Maintenance of suckers and waterspouts during the autumn–winter period as
preferential sites for the first larval migration and subsequent removal and
burning
Mechanical methods:
 Light traps or pheromone traps (10-20 traps/ha) are employed to catch adult
leopard moths.
 Insertion of wires in the galleries to kill the mature larvae
 Plugging of the larval galleries with modelling clay or cotton wool
impregnated with toxic products.
 Collection of the females during the flight period

Chemical Control:
Injection of microbiological products (Bacillus huringiensis,Saccharopolyspora
spinosa) into the galleriesand plugging of the holes to combat the young larvae
migrating to shoots and twigs or mature larvae in winter-early spring.

Pyralid moth / Farachet Kelf Azzaitoun (Arabic)

Pyralid moth present throughout the Mediterranean region and most of Europe.
Adult: moth 12-14 mm long with a wingspan of 20-25 mm, beige to dark brown in
color. Forewings are marked with two pale zig zag lines . There are two generations a
year. The first is in the spring–summer and lasts approximately four months and the
second is in the autumn-winter and lasts seven months.
Symptoms and damage
The pyralid moth is a primary pest which attacks vigorous trees. The galleries
burrowed by the caterpillars at the base of the trunk or in crotches of the scaffold
branches hinder sap circulation and lead to debilitation of the part of the plant located
above the infestation site.
In young orchards, the presence of a few larvae can cause the death of the tree
Control methods
Light traps: These are very effective in determining whether adults are present.

Cultural measures:
 Plugging of pruning wounds and injuries,which attract females in search of
laying sites and are easy for young larvae to penetrate.
  Good tree care (tillage, pruning, irrigation, fertilization,etc.) to avoid
debilitation induced by moth attacks.

Chemical Control
 If necessary (major outbreak sites or infestation of young trees), treatment can
be applied to the young larvae and possibly to the adults in the springtime by
using a mix of organophosphorus products and mineral oil (1.5 L insecticide +
2L mineral oil in 100 L water) or microbiological product (Spinosad),
particularly in the case of organic growing.
 Products should be applied to the trunk and branches displaying symptoms of
infestation.
 If spring treatment does not prove to be sufficient it should be repeated or else
resumed for the autumn–winter generation (September-October).

Jasmine moth Farachat alyassamine

This species of Mediterranean origin is widely distributed in the subtropical and
tropical regions of all five continents. It is becoming more extensive in nurseries and
in intensive orchards, particularly in hot regions
Adult: moth with a wingspan of 30 mm, satiny white color. Adult fly: The first adults
emerge in March-April and the last ones in October-November. There can be a
succession of several, overlapping generations

Symptoms and damage

Larvae do not cause major damage to young shoots and leaves in mature orchards. On
the other hand, they can have an economic impact on nurseries and young orchards,
especially when they attack the fruit.

Control Measure
In general, infestations of jasmine moth do not require treatment except in the case of
severe attacks of young plants or fruits in which case the following is recommended:
 Application of a microbiological product (Bacillus thuringiensis,
Saccharopolyspora spinosa) as soon as the fi rst signs of attack appear in the
spring.
 Mass release of Trichogramma parasites such as Trichogramma bourarachae
or Trichogrammacordubensis in several batches.

BLACK SCALE/ Ennemcha Essaouda (Arabic)

This species is widespread throughout the Mediterranean region. Black scale is very
polyphagous, attacking numerous cultivated and ornamental species
Adult: female black scales, 2-5 mm long and 1-4 mm wide. Light brown when young,
gradually turning dark brown and almost black when adult. Generally, there is one
generation of black scale a year; however, a second, partial generation can develop if
the climatic conditions are favorable.

Symptoms and damage

Direct damage: The larvae and adults suck the sap, which debilitates the tree when
the population density is high.
Indirect damage: The secretion of honeydew and the development of a black fungal
complex on the leaves known as sooty mould hinders photosynthesis and leads to leaf
drop

Control Measure
Cultural measures:
 Suitable pruning to aerate canopies and to remove heavily infested shoots and
small branches.
 Balanced fertilization avoiding excessive application of nitrogen and
irrigation.

Chemical control:
Chemical control is only envisaged in cases of extreme necessity to manage the young
stages, preferably after checking the effect of high summer temperatures and the
extent of the impact of auxiliary fauna (September-October). Contact products alone
or combined with mineral oils are recommended. Care should be taken to wet the tree
well.

OLEANDER SCALE / Ennemcha el baidha (Arabic)

This species is very common throughout the Mediterranean region, Middle East
&Spain. Very polyphagous species which attacks many cultivated and spontaneous
plants.
Adult: female scale, circular or subcircular, slightly domed. Pale blackish brown in
color. Male scale, oval, matt white; offcentre larval exuviae. There are three
generations a year.
The first generation begins in February / March
The second generation begins in June and ends in August–September, coinciding
with the olive fruits
The third generation is observed from September until February of the next year
The developmental duration of each generation depends on the ambient temperature
conditions.

Symptoms and damage

As a rule, the presence of the oleander scale on the leaves is tolerable except at very
high densities which could debilitate or wither the shoots.
Second-generation attacks of the olive fruits are more serious because they cause fruit
deformation, weight loss and a reduction in oil yield as well as deterioration of the
quality of the oil.

Control methods
Cultural measures:
 Removal and burning of heavily infested shoots.

Chemical control:
 Chemical control can be envisaged as a last resort to combat the first-instar
crawlers by usingmineral oils, organophosphorus products or pyrethroids.

Olive psyllid / Psylla azzaitoun (Arabic)

This species is present in all the Mediterranean olive-growing areas. Psyllid activity is
closely linked to plant growth status and climatic conditions.
Adult: chubby, 2.4–2.8 mm long, wings folded roof-like at rest. Pale green when
young, later turning darker hazelnut green when older. The number of generations
each year therefore tends to vary according to country.

Symptoms and damage

Direct: Inflorescence abortion or withering and drop, leading to lower fruit set
rates.
Indirect: Plant debilitation owing to the growth of sooty mould after larval secretion
of honeydew.

Control methods
Cultural measures:
 Suitable pruning to let air into the tree, particularly into the flower clusters.
 Removal of suckers and water sprouts in summer and autumn–winter.

Chemical control:
If necessary, chemical control can be envisaged to combat the young larval stages of
the first and second spring generations, with the aid of organophosphorus products or
deltamethrine. Such treatment generally coincides with treatment for the first
generation of the olive moth.

OLIVE BORER / Hilzinus azzaitoun (Arabic)

This species is distributed throughout the Mediterranean region as far as the Near and
Middle East.
Adult: squat (males 2.5-3 mm long and females 3.5-3.7 mm long), blackish. Easily
distinguished from the olive beetle owing to its slightly larger size and clubbed
antennae. The number of generations varies.
First generation :This varies according to the region and year from late March–early
April or until early May.
Symptoms and damage
This primary insect pest attacks young, vigorous trees. When it settles on the trees and
digs the mother and larval galleries in the trunk and branches, it hinders sap
circulation and debilitates the part located above the patches, which eventually lose
their leaves and become withered.

Olive borer behaviour is influenced by tree age and variety. In young trees (under six
years old), the insect is located principally on the trunk. In older trees it tends to
spread to the scaffold branches, preferably to branches with a 5–8 cm

Control Measure
Cultural measures:

 Proper orchard care (tillage, pruning) and irrigation (in intensive orchards) to
stimulate good plant growth, which limits olive borer development.
 The sedentary behavior of the insect and the aggregative nature of infestation
make it necessary to ensure stringent monitoring from the time the orchard is
 established and to systematically eradicate outbreak sites, including by
mechanical means (scraping the bark).

Chemical Control
when the insect is firmly established in the orchard and the threshold is exceeded. In
such conditions, one single treatment can be envisaged to control the adults prior to
oviposition from two to three weeks before it starts to fly, with the aid of
deltamethrine or a mixture of deltamethrine and
dimethoate. Application should be confined to the infested trunk and branches.

Olive beetle / Sous hatab azzaitoun (Arabic)

Spread throughout the Mediterranean region and the Middle East. This species is of
major economic importance. The olive beetle can only develop on cut wood or on
debilitated, dying trees. For this reason it is considered a secondary pest.
Adult: smaller than the olive borer (2-2.4 mm long), rounded and stocky, blackish;
antennae with three trident-like lamellae.There can be several generations a year. The
exact number varies according to the agri-ecological conditions.

Symptoms and damage

 Olive beetle damage is much more serious on debilitated trees because it can
lead to the death of the infested plant after the development of the larval
galleries and the emergence of the adults, especially in the case of young trees
undergoing the successive development of several generations.
 When pruning wood is stored near the orchards, the adults which emerge from
the wood and move to neighboring trees cause direct damage to flower-
bearing and fruit-bearing clusters during the feeding stage Feeding chambers
on young shoots are also responsible for causing indirect damage by stopping
sap circulation, which makes the shoots wither and drop off at harvesting.

Control Measure

Normal conditions:
 Take good care of the orchard (tillage, pruning, fertilization) to keep the trees
good vigour.
 Leave bundles of wood under the trees for one month, then remove or burn.
 Keep pruning wood away from the orchards. If this is not possible, treat at the
start of adult entry or exit by treating with insecticides (deltamethrine,
oleoparathion).
Drought conditions:
 Prune withered parts of the tree in winter. Immediately install bundles of wood
as bait and burn after one month; repeat this exercise if necessary.
 As a last resort, apply chemical treatment – decis-dimethoate – preferably
upon the appearance of the adult entry holes (presence of sawdust) or upon
their emergence.

‘A’ Weevils / Soussat aourak azzaitoun (Arabic)

This species is distributed throughout the Mediterranean region. Besides attacking the
olive tree, this polyphagous weevil attacks several other plant species.
Adult: 6-9 mm long, oblong, shiny dark brown, with short, thickset rostrum. There is
one generation a year.

Symptoms and damage

The only damage is caused by the adults to the canopy, particularly to young shoots in
young orchards. Damage usually goes unnoticed on mature trees.
Adult emergence begins in late spring. The adults are very active at night when they
climb up the tree trunks and feed on the leaves producing characteristic notched bites

Control Measure
 Tillage or hoeing at the base of the tree trunks to turn the soil and destroy
weeds and part of the larvae and nymphs they house.
 Placement of strips (sticky/non-sticky) around the trunks of the trees to
capture the adults and stop them from reaching the foliage.

ERIOPHYID MITES / Oxycenus maxwelli

Mediterranean olive orchards are home to several species of plant-eating mites
belonging to different families. The most important from the economic point of view
are the Eriophyidae. They considered secondary pests. However, extensive damage in
some olive-growing areas.

Symptoms and damage

 Eriophyids can cause substantial damage affecting both plant growth and the
volume and quality of olives and oil. Damage is worse when they attack young
nursery plants.
 Light or yellowish green hollows on the lower surface of leaves and
corresponding bumps on the upper surface in the case of attack by Aceria
oleae and vice versa in the case of attack by Oxycenus maxwelli.
 Deformation of the leaf edges which become irregular.
 Bud abortion and poor growth with weak shoots displaying short internodes.
 Darkening and drop of flower clusters.
 Deformation of young set fruits, which may even affect the stone and produce
deformed fruits, which lowers the market value of table olives.
 Lastly, eriophyid attacks lead to a decrease in oil yields (by up to 46%) and oil
quality.

Control Measure
 Timing of treatment: generally the middle of spring.
 Products: various sulphur formulations, notably calcium sulphide (authorized
in organic growing),various organic synthesis products (carbofenthion,
vamidothion, carbaryl,keltane, dimethoat), specific, selective acaricides (e.g.
acrinathrin, organic sulphate and tin-based compounds, etc.) which have a
limited action on auxiliary fauna, and fungicides to control eriophyids.