SEMI-ANUAL REPORT

June-December 2017

MONITORING PROJECT ON CANAL BIRDS

OF TORTUGUERO NATIONAL PARK

PRODUCED BY:

Thijs Claes – Avian Project Manager -2017– Present

IN COLLABORATION WITH:

FIELD COORDINATOR: Cormac Healy

FIELD STAFF: Megan Brett, Danny Guy, Sara Conlon, Emily Watson, Victoria Hawkins,
Stephany Butera

GVI COSTA RICA COUNTRY DIRECTOR: Cynthia Arochi

JALOVA, COSTA RICA

2017

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About this Report

Global Vision International has conducted this research. The findings and recommendations
made in this report are based upon statistical analysis of data collected during the period of
January to 7th of June 2017. The conclusions and recommendations of this report are based on
the statistical analysis of the data collected in the context of the long-term monitoring effort
(2014-2017) with special attention to the period of 7th June – 7th December 2017.

Cited as
Claes, T., 2018. Semi-annual Report (June-December): Monitoring Project on Canal Birds of
Tortuguero National Park.

Acknowledgements:
This research has been conducted with the help of the following Global Vision International
volunteers:

Bandon Dembs, Corne Slemmer, Zoe McCallum, Jack Glover, Baley Good, Eoin Donohoe,
Jurgen Vincke, Alice Hirons, Emma Wagner, Danielle Small, Peter Lichtenthal, Timothy
Carlson, Brandon Dembs, Zarah Ehlin, Eleanor Green, Emma Brown, Diane Leishman, Amber
Searcy, Rebecca Barber, Tess Nelson, Emily Larmer, Freya Savage, George Buchanan, Amanda
Maretto, Jenna Scherger, Marlena Ryzyk, Emiel Zaandam, Daniela Campama, Lara Lehnen,
Kevin Goulart, Joris Giglio, Ethel Mery, Connor Dupree-Sood, Amanda Schultz, Alice
Douvillez, Tom Panneman, Kieran Bose Rosling, Alex Bartlett, Matt Smith, Elijah Denham,
Michelle Welch, Selina Mellin, Simon Thel, Brian Milne, Willem Van Doorninck, Krijn
Bresser, Matthew Webb, Madison McLatchie, Rachel Hetherington, Mara Ramirez, Lauren
Chappel, Ben Cozens, Alice Palmer, Christine Davison, Erin Gleason, Rob Harris, Ira Epstein,
Lucy Shephard, Leah Cole, Andrew Ujifusa, Jennifer Ujifusa, Christina Coyle, Sofia Hedman,
Karin Jermer, Spencer Kielar, Anna Westwood, Bethany Ball, Alex Willis, Zoe Mathurin,
Marcin Oksinski, Martin Schamberger

GVI Jalova, Costa Rica

E-mail: tortuguero@gviworld.com
Web page: http://www.gviworld.com

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Summary
Tortuguero National Park (TNP) is listed as a Wetland of National Importance and an Important
Bird and Biodiversity Area, and is an important habitat for breeding, wintering and migrating
waterbirds. The park is well known for ecotourism and its canals act as main routes to
Tortuguero village. Therefore, it is important to consider the necessary protection implications
in terms of boat traffic frequency as well as tourism effects on avian diversity, abundance and
richness. After an initial development phase (2010-2013), the data collection methods within
the project have remained constant, allowing a gradually more detailed and precise long-term
analysis of the avifauna on the canals of TNP starting from 2014.

Long-term results show that wider canals are particularly important to support large populations
of migratory species and common resident species. The narrow canals are a haven for many less
abundant species and are extremely important for the regional biodiversity. This study period,
62 surveys were conducted on 5 canals recording species diversity and abundance with special
attention to the 30 target canal bird species. In total, 1949 individuals belonging to 88 species
were recorded, of which 26 are target species. The Shannon-Wiener index for TNP was
calculated to be 3.291 with an evenness of 0.735 considering all species on all canals.

This report concludes with stressing the necessity of consistent methodologies, identifying areas
of interest for further studies and practical suggestions to enhance the management of the park.

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Contents
Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 3
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 General and specific objectives ............................................................................................... 6
1.2 Duration of the project ............................................................................................................ 7
2. Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Study Area..................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Field Survey Method ..................................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 8
3. Results and Discusion ......................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Avifauna from the canals in Tortuguero National Park. ................................................................ 9
3.2 Abundance, Richness and Diversity per Canal ............................................................................ 13
3.3 Abundance, Composition and Frequency of Occurrence of target species per canal ................... 15
3.4 Boat Traffic ................................................................................................................................. 21
4. Recommendations ............................................................................................................................. 24
4.1 Continuity of the project ............................................................................................................. 24
4.2 Recommendations to the management per canal ......................................................................... 25
5. Communication strategy and use of the results ................................................................................. 27
Reference List ....................................................................................................................................... 27
Attachments .......................................................................................................................................... 31

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 1. Introduction
Costa Rica is one of the most biodiverse locations in the world, with various topographical
characteristics, abundant rain and hot temperatures. Precipitation and temperatures are impacted
in the costal lowlands by the inland mountain ranges they surround. This geographical diversity
provides the perfect conditions for a variety of vegetation to thrive, which in turn can support a
multitude of mammalian, reptile, amphibian, and avian species (Stiles and Skutch 1989;
Garrigues and Dean 2014). Approximately 903 species, representing 82 families of birds can be
found in Costa Rica, including resident and migratory species, and those classed as “rarities”
(Garrigues and Dean 2014). In spite of its small landmass size Costa Rica is host to around 4%
of all know species (Valerio 2006).

Birds in general have been widely used as bio-indicators of environmental change (Lower and
Kendall 1992; Kushlan 1993). Kushlan (1993) reviewed the use of colonial water birds as bio-
indicators; the results supported the use of bird behaviour, reproductive performance, presence,
absence, distribution, eggshell quality and other measurable characteristics as suitable factors
for assessing wider ecological conditions. Other studies have also shown that food availability,
hydrological variability, and vegetation composition of habitats can affect bird populations,
providing further evidence supporting the use of birds for the monitoring of biodiversity and
ecosystem health (Kushlan 1993; Alava and Haase 2011; Canepuccia et al. 2007).

In the last century there has been a 50% decline of wetlands habitats across the globe due to
human activities (Ma et al. 2010). This is an alarming fact, as well-managed wetlands can
provide alternative habitats for waterbirds by providing feeding, breeding and resting grounds
for these species (Bibi and Ali 2013; Kushlan 1993). In the early 1970’s Tortuguero National
Park (TNP) located on the North-Eastern Caribbean coast, was one of the first protected areas
to be established in Costa Rica (Boza 1993); TNP is now listed as a Wetland of International
Importance (Ramsar site) and an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA) (BirdLife
International 2015; RAMSAR 2010). The park boasts 24 out of 350 wetlands found in Costa
Rica (Alvarado Quesada 2006).

Although water birds in Costa Rica can occur in wide range of humidity and elevations they are
typically specialist in terms of aquatic habitat type. Behind the Caribbean coast’s black sand
beaches and swamp forests lies a series of inland waterways connected by artificial canals, from
North Limón to Nicaragua (Stiles and Skutch 1989). The wetlands found within TNP are
essential for water birds in terms of breeding, wintering and stopover sites (Alvarado Quesada
2006). Considering that 19% (167 species, representing 26 families) of the avian species in
Costa Rica are water birds, many of which are seasonal migrants travelling from North America
(Alvarado Quesada 2006; Garrigues and Dean 2014) these waterways prove to be of vital
importance for not only local, but also regional avifauna. For the overall conservation scheme

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of the habitats used by these migratory birds, the monitoring and conservation of the multiple
habitats used during their migration is of vital importance given that these species rely on
multiple sites as habitats throughout the year (Sodhi et al. 2011). Furthermore, the North
American Waterbird Conservation Plan of 2002 noted 12 waterbird species as High Concern,
and in Costa Rica 6 species were listed as ‘at risk’ in 2006 (Kushlan et al. 2002; Alvarado
Quesada 2006).

Given that Costa Rica has varied landscapes and high species richness it is a well-known
destination for ecotourism. This is one of the biggest industries financially supporting many of
the country’s community. It moreover politically supports protected area agencies and
conservation on public and private land (Buckley 2011). Maintaining Costa Rica’s rich
biodiversity is becoming increasingly important as hospitality to tourists and human pressures
by expansion of agricultural lands increases, mean that protected areas are crucial for the
persistence of Costa Rica’s rich biodiversity (Stiles and Skutch 1989). The management of such
areas can only be undertaken appropriately by maintaining long-term monitoring and
assessments of both the species inhabiting the area and their habitats.

There has been little research into the waterbirds of TNP, especially over the long term. Groom
(2011) listed 265 species of birds, which included the Agami Heron (Agamia agami), a species
listed as vulnerable by the IUCN (Inuternational Union for the Conservation of Nature) redlist.
Previous reports by GVI include those by Coupland et al. (2013), Barreto et al. (2014) and Vaca
(2016) and Claes (2017) who respectively reported 81, 68, 64 and 93 species on the canals of
TNP. In total, 146 species have been recorded since the project began. Appendix B contains a
complete list of the target species in this study. Other studies have also assessed the vegetation
composition in the Tortuguero area, such as that by Myers (1990) and Lewis et al. (2010) in
Caño Palma Biological Station, however no such study has been completed for the canals
monitored for this study.

1.1 General and specific objectives

The general objective of this project is to continue to contribute to a long-term data base about
the birds in the canals in the southern part of Tortuguero National Park (TNP). This report aims
to present summarized data in a way that is comparable to previous results, in addition to
assisting the Ministry of the Environment and Energy of Costa Rica (MINAE) by providing a
complete species list of the birds found on specific canals within TNP, with special attention to
the 30 Canal Bird Target species chosen by GVI.

The specific objective is to perform a valuable analysis of the collected data to allow
comparisons with previous results and conjure recommendations to improve the management
of Tortuguero National Park for the aquatic bird communities. Recommendations regarding boat
traffic within the canals and the health of the aquatic ecosystems, including fish communities,

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vegetation structure and water quality are also included for reference as applicable to the results
obtained in this study.

1.2 Duration of the project

Global Vision International (GVI) began the Monitoring Project for the Canal Birds of
Tortuguero National Park in 2005. The project was relocated to its current location, in the south
end of TNP near the Jalova Biological Research Station, in 2010. Methodologies have since
been updated accordingly to monitor general bird diversity, richness, abundance and habitat use
over the long-term course of the program. Every six months a report summurizing the results
and their analysis was produced including recommendations for the management of Tortuguero
National Park.

2. Methodology
The Monitoring Project for the Canal Birds of Tortuguero National Park has been running for
the last decade, therefore methodologies have remained more or less similar as previous years,
any modifications have been made in compliance with GVI Costa Rica Expedition’s
requirements. The following methodologies are similar to those stated in Barreto et al. (2014)
and Levac (2015), with minor adjustments.

2.1 Study Area

The study area remained identical compared to the previous study period. For a detailed
description see Claes et al. 2017.

2.2 Field Survey Method

We aimed to survey Caño Negro, California and Laguna Jalova three times per month, at 6:00,
15:00 and 20:00. The nocturnal surveys starting at 20:00 were not achievable due to safety and
logistical issues for Rio Sierpe and Rio Sierpe Alto. Survey duration was 1 hour, conducted by
canoe at a rate of 500m per 15 minutes. Since many of the Target species (Appendix A) are
relatively stationary, moving transects were used rather than a point count methodology.
However, given that there is a great abundance of American Crocodiles along the canals an
exception to the execution of the methodology had to be made for our nocturnal surveys, where
a 115hp motorized boat was used instead of a canoe (the same rate of 500m every 15mins was
maintained). During nocturnal surveys we also implemented the use of a spot light, in order to
correctly identify each of the species encountered. In order to minimise our impact on the night

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vision of the species encountered, the spotlight only remained on any species for a maximum of
10 seconds. Species identified solely by vocalizations were also only recorded when believed
to be within 25m of the canal’s edge. Only individuals flying within the canopy line were
recorded as a part of the surveys.

A list of 30 Target bird species from both resident and migratory populations was compiled
according to the species’ varying habitat preferences for both feeding and breeding. Together
they represent the total variation in the vegetation structure of the ecosystem particularly well.
Data was collected on abundance and richness, and when possible information on sex and life
stage (juvenile, adult or breeding phase) was also recorded. All staff and volunteers were trained
before taking part in any survey to ensure all possible information could be recorded on Target
species with 100% accuracy. All other incidental bird species identified on survey were also
recorded.

During the surveys the following information is recorded for all motorized boat traffic:

 Engine size

 Number of people

 Time sighted

 Location

All the information in this report is collected during the standardized surveys, unless mentioned
otherwise.

2.3 Data Analysis

Microsoft Excel Software (2013) was used to create all the graphs and dynamic pivot tables
were used to summarize all the data. La Frecuencia de Ocurrencia (FO) de todas las especies
objetivo fue calculada dividiendo el número de ocurrencias de cada especie por el número total
de monitorios en cada canal y por el PNT en total. Un índice variando desde (I) a (V) fue
utilizado para definir la FO de cada especie objetivo dentro de cada uno de los cinco canales,
siguiendo las descripciones descritas en Bensizerara et al. (2013) (Apéndice A). To visualize
the long-term trends of the frequency of occurrence the different classifications were scored
from 1 (occasional) to 5 (abundant). The scores from every cell for tables like the one in
Apéndice D were summed up for every study period since 2014.

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3. Results and Discusion
3.1 Avifauna from the canals in Tortuguero National Park.

This study period, 62 surveys were conducted on the 5 canals, recording species diversity and
abundance with special attention to the 30 target canal bird species. In total, 1949 individuals
belonging to 88 species were recorded, of which 26 are target species. The Shannon-Wiener index
for TNP was calculated to be 3.291 with an evenness of 0.735 considering all species on all canals.

Illustration 1: Long term trends of Shannon-Wiener Index and Evenness calculated for every 6 months combining
all the species and their abundance found on all the canals combined.

The Shannon-Wiener Biodiversity Index and Evenness has remained nearly constant since 2014
(Illustration 2). We do observe an extremely subtle pattern in the trendline, indicating that the
Shannon-Wiener Biodiversity Index of the avifauna depends on the study period being in the
beginning or the end of the year. This pattern could result from multiple factors. The consistently
lower sampling effort in December is one of them. Also, the breeding period for many species in
TNP occurs from January until June, increasing their activity and detectability on surveys. The
final explanation, which is the most strongly confirmed by the collected data, is a change in
weather pattern. In general, more rain occurs on survey in the second study period of each year
(Table 1). The influence of migratory species, which would have an important influence on the
biodiversity of the avifauna, is evenly divided between different study periods. Therefore, we

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would expect no influence on the trendline. A change in arrival and departure times of migratory
species would result in a more pronounced pattern.
Eleven new incidental species have been recorded this study period. Three of them were not
recorded according to the protocol (Micrastur semitorquatus, Chondrohierax uncinatus, Parkesia
noveboracensis). Todas las especies incidentales registradas este periodo pueden ser vistas en el
Apéndice C. The slight increase in biodiversity since 2017 is associated with the addition of 34
species to those already recorded up until 2016. Most of those new species are small and/or
inconspicuous members of the Parulidae, Trochilidae, Tyrannidae and Thraupidae families,
supporting the hypothesis that this is the result of an increased sampling effort rather than an
actual biodiversity increase. Thus, increased use of digital cameras is the most likely explanation
for the increase in the Shannon-Wiener Biodiversity index since 2017. In contrast, new
(predatory) species which are more conspicious, like Buteo albonotatus, Falco peregrinus, Celeus
castaneus, Micrastur semitorquatus, Chondrohierax uncinatus, Carpodectes nitidus, are positive
signs for, and do increase our understanding about, the quality of the habitat.
Although summarizing the total avian biodiversity in just one biodiversity index is helpful,
caution must be taking when comparing the results. Apart from its sensitivity to natural variations
caused by weather for example, the value is furthermore influenced by the sampling effort. The
differences in the amount of surveys performed every study period could therefore have a
significant impact on the biodiversity index. Abundance numbers are always corrected for this
bias, but the different amount of surveys on a different time of day could still have an influence.
Occasional sightings of rare species, or species difficult to identify, could also heavily influence
such a biodiversity index. Since our surveys are performed by research assistants with various
expertise, we should not ignore these influences, but the consistency of our results shows the
robustness of the protocols being used.

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Illustration 2: Average abundance per survey of all species for every 6-month study period divided into target and
incidental species in Tortuguero National Park, Limón, Costa Rica

Throughout all the years of this long-term project a period with a lot of migratory birds is overseen
during December and January. We can therefore assume that our averages shown in ilustración 2
are consistently, however slightly, underestimating the true average abundance of birds on the
canals.
The average amount of species seen on a survey did not change considerably since 2014
(Illustration 2). The alternating pattern between study periods has become more obvious during
the last two years. This can partly be explained be the low occurrence of rain during surveys in
the first period as opposed to surveys in the second period of the year. Rain both decreases the
activity of birds and reduces our visibility. The difference in weather pattern is less strong in 2014
also coinciding with a weaker pattern in average bird abundance. We do not find a strong opposite
reaction in 2015 however, with much more surveys in the rain in the first period (Table 1). Some
studies have found no seasonal difference in bird species composition in areas where there is
extensive inundation in both the dry and wet seasons (Aynalem and Bekele 2008). Conversely,
others have shown that species response to habitat changes differed throughout the year (Gonzalez
2009). Our results seem to confirm the latter. Another explanation for the increasingly pronounced
yearly pattern could be the gradual delay in arrival and departure times of migratory species, but
further data collection and analysis are necessary to confirm this hypothesis.

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 Table 1: Percentage of surveys performed with rain compared to without rain for every study period.

Periodo Con lluvia Sin lluvia

2014a 18,00% 82,00%
2014b 27,27% 72,73%
2015a 27,03% 72,97%
2015b 10,91% 89,09%
2016a 9,38% 90,63%
2016b 12,50% 87,50%
2017a 1,67% 98,33%
2017b 25,93% 74,07%

According to Bibi and Ali (2013) and Kushlan (1993), the vegetation structure of an ecosystem
can directly affect the abundance and richness of bird species. The number of habitats, or habitat
heterogeneity, is positively correlated with species richness as well (Gonzalez 2009). Thus,
understanding community composition of both flora and fauna can assist in comparing site quality
over time (Cohn-Haft et al. 1997). Moreover, changes in avian diversity need to be well
understood for adequate ecosystem management (Bibi and Ali 2013).

The availability of food resources is important in determining the carrying capacity of a given
habitat (Ma et al. 2010). Dense vegetation allocates habitat for invertebrates, increasing food
availability for waterbirds (Anderson and Smith 2000; Rehfisch 1994; Wiggins et al. 1980).
Emergent vegetation also provides shelter and improves nest-building conditions for wading birds
(Froneman et al. 2001). Though dense mats of vegetation can cover areas used by diving birds,
such as cormorants and kingfishers, it also provides foraging areas for members of the Jacanidae
and Rallidae families (Ekhande 2012).

The introduction of plant species can cause loss or alteration of habitats, resulting in changes to
community structure as well as threaten native species of birds (Alava and Haase 2006). The
Raphia palm, Raphia taedigera, is of African origin and was reported in the neotropics over 2000
years ago (Lewis et al. 2010; Carney and Hiraoka 1997). This species is associated with
environments where organic accumulation and nutrient leaching occurs during high water levels.
The canals surveyed in TNP are known for their black water (i.e. Aguas Negras) and also for the
significant amount of Raphia palms along the waterways (Myers 1990). Such habitats are
principally used by some rarer species such as C. amazona (Stiles and Skutch 1989). There has
also been large number of observations of N. violacea using the Raphia palms as perching sites,
which demonstrates how a generalist bird can adapt to invasive species over time.

The presence of the aquatic plant, Eichhornia crassipes is another example of an exotic plant
species. Originally from South America, this floating plant is known for its dominant and invasive
character and causes biodiversity loss and economic loss all over the world. The best defence

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against this threat is early recognition and action, despite high initial costs (Little, 1966). In
general, these plants cause more problems on lakes however and the dynamics of the floating
vegetation in our study area are poorly understood. GVI wants to increase their efforts to monitor
this part of the ecosystem in future study periods. This would assist in fully understanding the
relationship between avian biodiversity in terms of abundance and richness, and also the effects
of introduced plant species and vegetation communities on habitat selection of bird species along
the different canals of TNP. Variables such as water depth, water level fluctuation, concentrations
of toxic chemicals, and salinity could also be studied for an overall view of the monitored habitats’
structures (Ma et al. 2010; Gonzalez 2009).

3.2 Abundance, Richness and Diversity per Canal

Illustration 3 and 4 and table 2 show general information summarizing all the surveys per canal.
The results of the average abundance for every canal shows the same pattern that has been
statistically proven in previous reports (Claes 2017, Vaca 2016), with one big exception. CN
remains the canal with the least abundance, closely followed by RSA. Both have abundant gallery
vegetation and floating debris, available as perches for kingfishers, small herons and anhingas,
but lack big patches of floating vegetation, emergent vegetation and shallow water. The latter are
important feeding habitat for some of the most abundant species like E. thula, E. caerulea and J.
spinosa. The big difference in the amount of boat traffic both canals receive does not seem to
influence the bird abundance recorded on survey significantly (Section 3.5). RS still shows an
average bird abundance which can be related to the variety in habitat. Its’ first two sections are
more like LJ and CAL. Broad canals with emergent vegetation, floating vegetation and shallow
waters. RS gradually develops more into a narrow canal representing the situation described for
RSA and CN, resulting in an average bird abundance. LJ took over AN for the role of canal with
the most abundance. This was to be expected since they share half of the transects. The big decline
in bird abundance on CAL this period is more surprising. Again, the weather could explain this
to some extent. 26,67% of the surveys on CAL were performed in the rain compared to 7,14% in
the previous study period. This alone is unlikely to explain the large decrease however. It is
strongly advised to examine the further development of bird abundance on CAL to determine the
cause of this big decline. Other than this, none of the canals show a consistently increasing or
decreasing trend in average bird abundance (Illustration 3).

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Illustration 3: average abundance of all species per survey for every canal and study period in Tortuguero National
Park, Limón, Costa Rica

In contrary to the bird abundance, the species richness, Shannon-Wiener Biodiversity Index and
Evenness were not or could not be corrected for the number of surveys on the canals, but
general comparisons can still be made.

Table 2: Shannon-Wiener Biodiversity index (H´) and Evenness (E) for all species recorded on the transects during
the period 7th June – 7th December 2017 in Tortuguero National Park, Limón, Costa Rica.

CAL CN LJ RS RSA
Number of
15 11 15 11 10
surveys
H' 2.738 2.907 3.106 2.259 2.981
E 0.737 0.794 0.759 0.686 0.82

CAL has the second lowest value for the Shannon-Wiener Biodiversity index despite the largest
sampling effort made compared to the other canals (Table 2). This represents the same decrease
of the bird abundance but also includes a loss of species richness compared to earlier periods
(Illustration 5). CN and RSA, both with a low amount of sampling effort, again show that despite
the low bird abundance, their different bird communities are an important contribution to the
regional biodiversity. The species only recoded on one of these narrower canals are C. cooperi,
E. virescens, H. barroti, R. magnirostris, T. dominicensis, G. philadelphia, and the target species
E. helias (Apéndice C). The amount of species recorded on LJ this period outreaches the species

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richness of every other canal by far. This stresses the importance of the estuary for regional
biodiversity. It is too early however to draw conclusions about the long-term trends of species
richness on LJ. All other canals do not seem to show any clear long-term trends. RS, RSA and
CN do show a slight increase in species richness, but this is also likely caused by the identification
of smaller inconspicuous species by the increased use of digital cameras.

Illustration 4: Long term trends of richness of all species per canal en el Parque Nacional Tortuguero, Limón, Costa
Rica

3.3 Abundance, Composition and Frequency of Occurrence of target

species per canal
Since roughly 80% of the species observed are target species, it is not surprising that the same
patterns can be found for the target species. All canals stay constant apart from the large decrease
of target species recorded on CAL this study period. The highest abundance of target species
recorded this study period was on LJ, followed by RS, CAL, RSA y CN (Illustration 5).

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 Illustration 5: Average abundance of target species per survey for every canal and study period in Tortuguero
National Park, Limón, Costa Rica.

A summary of the classification of frequency of occurrences of all target species recorded during
this study period can be found in Appendix D. The species E. Caerulea, M. torquata, A. anhinga
y T. mexicanum, M. cayennensis were recorded on all canals. Three species were categorized only
on one canal. E. helias on CN, T. lineatum on RS and B. ibis on LJ. Four target species have not
been observed during the surveys this study period (A. guarauna, C. inda, E. rufescens, I. exilis).

Illustration 6 shows the total value for Frequency of Occurrence for all species on all canals this
study period. This index is mostly sensitive to rare target species since a few sightings could
increase its category from occasional to constant rapidly. It is also very sensitive to a change in
the number of canals where the target species have been seen. It is not a reliable way to visualize
abundances however, since abundant species could still be appointed the same score while their
abundance has in fact halved or doubled.

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 Illustration 6: Long-term trend of the sum of frequency of occurrence scores for all species in every canal per
study period in Tortuguero National Park, Limón, Costa Rica.

The most obvious trend we see is that during study periods in the second half of the year the
frequency of occurrence of target species is consistently lower compared to the first half of the
year. This could be caused by the higher activity during breeding season in the first period and
the yearly absence of many surveys in December in the second period. December can be expected
to raise the Frequency of Occurrence because it encompasses a part of the migration season. A
more detailed, monthly analysis would be valuable to identify the importance of breeding and
migration seasons, but it is not possible to perform enough surveys for a representative analysis.
Again, the weather (Table 2) helps to explain this broad pattern as well. There was more rain on
surveys during the first study period compared to the second study period in 2015 likely causing
the zigzag pattern to be inverted in 2015. We can also observe a very slight positive trend
throughout the past 4 years. If this trend continues we can expect the highest value since 2014 in
the next period.

The same tool that is created to make the previous figure (Illustration 6) can also be used to
evaluate every canal separately. Another possibility is to examine the long-term trends of each
species or species guilds in the separate canals or the whole study area. The most interesting
findings are discussed below (Illustration 7-11).

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Since 2014 A. agami has only started to be recorded during surveys since the second study period
of 2015 (Illustration 7). It is perfectly explained by the correlation between the start of night
surveys and the nocturnal behaviour of this species. Although in low abundances, this species has
been recorded almost every night survey on CN. The two individuals recorded during a night
survey on CAL were the first since the standardization of the protocol on this canal. The opposite
pattern can be observed for A. gaurauna (Illustration 7). It has not been recorded on surveys since
the second study period of 2015.

Illustration 7: Long-term trends in the sum of the Frequency of Occurrence for all canals of A. Agami and A.
guarauna in Tortuguero National Park, Limón, Costa Rica.

A clear increase in the recordings of A. Herodias and E. tricolor (Ilustracíon 8) can be observed
since 2017. The same pattern is also observed for P. brasilianus. This is largely the consequence
of the change in the study area. Most recordings of these species are on LJ, the canal included in
the study area since 2017. The large area of shallow water and abundant fish populations
associated with estuaries likely attract these species to LJ. The first sighting of A. herodias was
recorded on RS this study period. No recordings of A. herodias have been made on CAL for the
first time after three consecutive study periods with its presence recorded on this canal.

Illustration 8: Long-term trends in the sum of the Frequency of Occurrence for all canals of A. herodias and E.
tricolor in Tortuguero National Park, Limón, Costa Rica.

Even though E. thulla is one of the most abundant species in the study area, it shows a slowly
decreasing Frequency of Occurrence (Ilustración 9). This is even true for all the canals in the

PAGE18
study area except for LJ where it could still be categorized as constant. The downward trend which
is observed for the solitary heron B. virescens is mainly the result of a decrease and even absence
of sightings on the narrower canals CN and RSA respectively (Ilustración 9). Virtually no
difference can be observed on the wider canals. Both species have large North American migrant
populations. The cause of their decline does therefore not necessarily need to be looked for in
TNP itself. It could be a result of loss of habitat and its quality elsewhere, or less suitable migration
routes.

Illustration 9: Long-term trends in the sum of the Frequency of Occurrence for all canals of E. thulla and B.
virescens in Tortuguero National Park, Limón, Costa Rica.

The two biggest neotropical kingfisher species, M. alcyon and M. torquata, show a distinctly
increased Frequency of Occurrence throughout the whole study (Ilustracíon 10). This could
represent an increased perch availability or a larger prey abundance, but these hypotheses are not
supported by any information. It is particularly interesting that both species show an increase
since they are involved with direct competition for the same food source. M. alcyon is a North
American migrant however, while M. torquata is the most frequently seen resident kingfisher
species (Martín pescador).

Illustration 10: Long-term trends in the sum of the Frequency of Occurrence for all canals of M. alcyon and M.
torquata in Tortuguero National Park, Limón, Costa Rica.

PAGE19
After gradually increasing non-standardized records of E. helias on CN during the last 4 study
periods, the first recording has been made on a survey on CN this period (Ilustración 11). The one
individual was even brooding on a nest. To my knowledge this is the first confirmed breeding
attempt of E. helias in PNT. The nest was unfortunately abandoned after nine days.

Illustration 11: Long-term trend in the sum of the Frequency of Occurrence for all canals of E. helias in Tortuguero
National Park, Limón, Costa Rica.

The numerous target species that show a fairly constant Frequency of Occurrence throughout the
whole study are A. alba, C. Americana, E. caerulae, J. Spinosa, L. albigularis, M. cayannensis,
N. violacea, and T. mexicanum. The same is true for A. anhinga, A. cajanea and C. amazon, but
they showed a decrease in the study periods from 2014b to 2015b for unknown reasons. Species
with a low abundance show a more variable pattern. They include B. ibis, C. aenae, C inda, C.
cohlearius, H. fulica, P. martinicus, T. lineatum. The two other target species, that have only been
recorded on survey once since 2014 apart from E. helias, are E. rufescens and I. exilis.

A few sightings from the most uncommon target species, be it not during a standardized survey
are worth mentioning. During this study period an individual of A. guarauna has been seen once
on CAL, an encouraging sighting considering the lack of recordings since the end 2015. Despite
no recordings on surveys of H. fulica on this canal, one individual was sighted on CN in this
period. On the same canal, one individual of T. lineatum was also identified. So far individuals of
C. inda have only been sighted rarely, and only on CN. During this study period 4 more
individuals have been sighted. Three of these occurrences happened on CN and one on RS.

Future investigation should focus on the continuation of the analysis of long-term trends like the
ones just discussed. More information should be collected about the habitat preferences, diet,
behaviour, and interspecific interactions concerning the thirty target species so they can be used
as bio-indicators to a better extend. It would be especially interesting to extract information about
the fish community and water quality, since there is little information available about these key
components in the canals in the southern part of TNP.

PAGE20
3.4 Boat Traffic
The boats we see during surveys are only a small fraction of the ones actually present on the
canals. A large variability by chance and a bias towards the surveys start times should be expected,
but long-term monitoring could reveal interesting trends about boat traffic quantity and
composition. In the future, boat traffic will immediately be categorized accordingly to reduce the
unknown factors. With these limitations in mind, we find no evidence of a general trend in boat
traffic over the past three years. This period, the most records of motorized boat traffic occurred
on LJ (28) followed by CN (6), CAL (4), RSA (2) y RS (0). This is a considerably less amount
compared to the previous study period, but more in line with earlier study periods (Illustration
12).

Illustration 12: Long-term trend of average amount of boat traffic per 1-hour survey for all canals categorized in
traffic types in Tortuguero National Park, Limón, Costa Rica.

It is clear that most boat traffic originates for ecotourism, followed by local fishermen and the
park rangers. The addition of LJ in the study area has resulted in a large increase in boat traffic
resulting from local communities and ecotourism. The numbers on the graph do not include the
boat journeys undertaken to complete GVI’s surveys. For all surveys on RS y RSA, respectively
eleven and ten boat journeys were needed. For CAL, CN y LJ, 41 journeys were undertaken from
the river mouth to the Jalova Ranger Station.

PAGE21
The boat traffic on separate canals does not show distinctive long-term trends either (Illustration
13). As to be expected, LJ and CN receive by far the most boat traffic. All the other canals have
virtually no motorized boat traffic. This is encouraging since park regulations seem to be adhered
to. Some illegal fishing is however still sporadically observed.

Illustration 13: Long-term trend of average amount of boat traffic per 1-hour survey categorized per canal in
Tortuguero National Park, Limón, Costa Rica.

Throughout 2017 we have started gathering more detailed information about the possible
influence motorized boat traffic has on the amount of birds we see during the surveys. The first
results show that there is no correlation between these two factors. However, further collection of
data allowing a comparison of these factors in more similar weather conditions will be more
adequate to rule this correlation out. Up until now, the twelve suitable comparisons indicate that
we could find a correlation when more data is collected however.

The effects of human disturbances on bird populations have been widely studied for many years.
Specifically, motorized boat traffic can be detrimental to aquatic habitats and their communities.
Mathews (1982) ranked noise and rapid water movements due to power boats as the activities
having the highest impacts on bird populations, and shore-based activities having the lowest.
According to Rodgers and Smith (2007) and Loong (2002) flushing or fleeing of individuals due
to noise, with the addition of shoreline erosion are some of the main direct impacts of boat traffic.
Some studies argue that birds can adjust to noise disturbance (Loong 2002). Regardless, this is an
altered natural behaviour and thus physiological stress may still be a factor. Continued disturbance

PAGE22
acts to increase energy expenditure when birds continually flee in flight (Hockin et al. 1992). This
is especially important when considering migratory species. During the pre-migration period,
birds should spend more time feeding and foraging than flying in order to increase fat reserves.
By increasing disturbances, energy use increases, and birds may change feeding site preferences
to less suitable ones. It could potentially even change migration routes (Loong 2002; Hockin et
al. 1992). Flushing of birds would be interesting to formally record during future GVI canal bird
monitoring surveys to assess the impact of various boat sizes on bird behaviour. These changes
in behaviour of birds reduces reproductive success and abundance, which can lead to an alteration
in community composition and lower diversity, factors to which ecosystem stability is directly
correlated (Bibi and Ali 2013; Sabine et al. 2008; Rodgers and Smith 2007; Loong 2002; Asplund
2000).

Herbivorous and wading species are especially vulnerable to the excessive use of waterways by
motorized boats, as they require prolonged feeding times in more open habitats (Rodgers and
Smith 2007; Hockin et al. 1992). Motorized boats can alter habitats by shore erosion and
consequently the destruction of vegetation along the banks. In turn nesting cover and food
availability are reduced as well. The abundance of waders is low across CN in comparison to that
of perchers, particularly in comparison to all other canals whose composition mostly consisted of
wading species. A trend which could be directly caused by the high boat traffic on this canal.
Interestingly the A. agami, a sensitive wader species, has only been recorded in CN during the
night surveys when there is virtually no impact from boat traffic. Additionally, we know that
historically the canal had a large amount of floating vegetation. With the large amount of boat
traffic in this canal it’s banks have undoubtedly been subject to erosion caused by the activity,
resulting in the present lack of floating or emergent vegetation.

Habitat quality can also be affected by motor emissions and exhaust; the resulting turbulence can
severely impact the bottom substrate of canals, especially in shallower canals (Loong 2002;
Asplund 2000). Contaminants and potential oil spills lower food quality and can directly affect
birds in the case of ingestion or coating of feathers, reducing their water-repellent quality.
Alternatively, an increase in nutrients from a mixing of the substrate can cause eutrophication,
further leading to algal or floral blooms, a change in vegetation and aquatic fauna community
structure (Asplund 2000). The severity of the latter impact is of course dependent on the boat and
engine size, as well as the depth of the canals.

PAGE23
4. Recommendations
4.1 Continuity of the project
GVI has delivered one report explaining the development of the project from 2010 to 2016 (Vaca
2016). From this report it is clear that our methods constantly developed until 2014. Since then,
the methods have been standardized and remained constant apart from the addition of night
surveys and the change of AN to LJ. So far, despite consistency in the survey methods, reports
were still mainly focused on 6-month study periods. The main conclusions did not change much
for every period but showed the most important patterns of avian biodiversity on the canals of the
southern part of TNP. Wider canals are particularly important to support large populations of
migratory species and common resident species. The narrow canals are a haven for many less
abundant species and are extremely important for the regional biodiversity (Claes 2017). The
Shannon-Wiener Biodiversity Indices calculated every study period show that all the canals and
the whole study area contain a large avian biodiversity with a moderate evenness (Bibi y Ali 2013,
Claes 2017).

Apart from intending to present the current local and regional avian diversity in the southern part
of TNP, this report explores the evolution of motorized boat traffic and the dynamics of the bird
populations and communities since 2014. It is designed to facilitate the addition of results from
every upcoming study period. This will allow the early detection of long-term trends which can
be acted upon accordingly. It is extremely important that this methodology remains consistent to
ensure efficiency with this approach. Any addition or changes to the study area or protocol must
therefore be carefully examined.

The authors and readers of these reports should be aware of the following important factors. First,
night surveys performed on LJ, CN and CAL generally influence average bird abundance per
survey negatively because of their typically low amount of bird recordings. Total species richness
and biodiversity for these canals and for the whole study can be expected to be positively
influenced because of these surveys. This influence is too big not to mention, but not big enough
to change the main results of this report. Conducting surveys after sunset has allowed us to
increase our understanding of the target species and their behaviour within our study area in TNP
throughout the entire day. Secondly, an equal number of surveys in the morning and afternoon
for every canal on every month would reduce variation by sampling effort. This should be strived
towards every study period to increase the likelihood of discovering long-term trends.

Upon the detection of long-term trends, evaluation of their causes and effects should be the next
form of action. This could be achieved by actively stimulating research projects with the data
collected by GVI. The most cost-effective and therefore interesting partners to perform these
studies are students from local universities. The conclusions of these studies based on scientific

PAGE24
data can then be used develop new approaches for the management of the national park. Both
increasing habitat quality by mitigating practises that harm it and encouraging ones that endorse
it.

4.2 Recommendations to the management per canal

Healthy estuaries maintain sufficiently large populations which contribute to the regional
diversity in TNP by serving source-populations. Any actions taken here would not only greatly
increase habitat quality for resident birds, since estuaries like LJ also make TNP an invaluable
feeding and resting place for a high diversity and abundance of migratory species. Since LJ is
located at the border of the national park, extra efforts should be made to ensure the enforcement
of the guidelines protecting the environment. Irregular patrols and effective, direct consequences
such as fines or restriction of area access should be in stall in case actions not in line with park
regulations are observed. Clear communication to all actors and a transition period with a warning
system preceding actual penalties is recommended for every change in law enforcement.
Awareness of the general public on sustainable management and the importance of wildlife are
vital to sustainable management practices (Bibi and Ali 2013). The large fish populations on this
border of the national park do not only attract abundant and diverse bird populations, but also
make the socially and economically important fishing culture possible. I strongly encourage
awareness campaigns and informative sessions available to local communities about the
importance of estuaries and their fish community for migratory and resident aquatic birds. These
awareness campaigns could include a yearly, large-scale beach clean on the southern part of TNP.
This action would not only support shore and seabird populations but also directly improve the
habitat quality of endangered sea turtles. GVI, local communities and even ecotourism lodges
could be valuable partners to participate or even organize in such an event.

CAL is also located at the border of the national park. However unlikely to have had a large
influence on our results, the few infringements observed during surveys on this canal are
discouraging in the light of the large decrease in avian biodiversity and abundance since the last
study period. The presence of the aquatic plant, Eichhornia crassipes is another issue that should
be mentioned when discussing LJ and CAL. The best defense against this invasive threat is early
recognition and action, despite high costs (Little, 1966). Up until this moment however, not
enough information about the dynamics of floating vegetation in the canals of TNP is available
to recommend action. GVI will increase their efforts to monitor this part of the ecosystem in future
study periods to fill this knowledge gap. Protocols have been developed to perform a basic but
achievable assessment of the vegetation structure on the canals. This includes recording
absence/presence data of vegetation types such as floating vegetation, floating debris and
emergent vegetation. The method requires little extra effort as it can be executed after the regular
surveys. There will be no increase in the use of motorized boat traffic in TNP using this approach.

PAGE25
CN contributes to the regional biodiversity of the southern tip of TNP not only with its own high
diversity, but also with the differences in the community compared to other canals. CN is also the
main traffic route from Caño Blanco and Parismina to Tortuguero however. Finding a good
balance between these two important functions is a hard challenge, especially with the varying
reports of the possible impact motorized boat traffic has on the avian biodiversity. CN is
especially rich in perching kingfishers and solitary target species. Trees and vines falling in the
water increase microhabitat and perch availability for these species. Due to safety concerns, they
are often removed for motorized boat traffic. These actions should be carefully considered on a
case to case basis and certainly not be used to increase this canals’ capacity for boat traffic. The
discovery of a nest of E. helias highlighted the difficult situation on CN. Even though this was
probably the first confirmed breeding attempt of this species in TNP, no action was taken to ensure
the success of this attempt. Quick Reaction Protocols can be developed and distributed to ensure
a more effective reaction in similar circumstances, especially when it concerns endangered
species. These protocols can include a communication plan towards local communities,
temporary speed and noise limits, buffer zones and increased patrols. Research protocols which
minimize disturbance could result in new information to increase the efficiency of those Quick
Reaction Protocols.
RS and RSA are currently well protected. With less boat traffic, these canals with diverse habitats
could provide space for species that are sensitive to disturbance. The abundant vegetation on these
canals means we are probably underestimating the true biodiversity of these canals. The presence
of less abundant species may be overlooked, especially in a habitat with the aforementioned
qualities (Slaheddine and Boulinier 2004). Protection of a diversity of different canals is to be
encouraged. Some small streams, narrow and wide canals should all receive maximal protection
to ensure conservation and recovery of the regional biodiversity. All studies canals, regardless of
abundance or richness, show important habitat structures for some or many of the bird species.

Establishing no-go zones will be the best mitigation method for reducing human impacts on the
ecosystems in TNP. As demonstrated, some of the canals monitored are in fact located in Absolute
Protection zones. This is not viable for all of the canals though, some are main traffic routes or an
important part of the ecotourism industry as well as biological research (Morales and Meléndez
2014). Touristic activities should however consider boat and motor size when embarking on
canals. A smaller boat and engine size should be considered before entering any canal. This could
encourage a more naturalist approach, all while increasing the tourists’ possibilities of observing
wildlife without disturbance. GVI’s canal bird monitoring project causes disturbance as well. This
is taken into consideration and is one of the reasons why surveys are based from a slow-moving,
silent canoe. GVI recognizes a possibility to reduce the amount of motorized boat traffic in
Laguna Jalova a considerable amount. Because the canoe is stored at the Jalova Ranger Station,
over 80 boat journeys are required on LJ every year. If GVI could store the canoe in a safe manner
at the river mouth, this disturbance and costs for the ranger station would be reduced. Rangers
would also have extra time to perform the sporadic patrols recommended above.

PAGE26
5. Communication strategy and use of the
results
Once this report is presented to the authorities of MINAE and ACTO, it will be published on the
social media canals of GVI with the goal of educating the general public about the fauna in TNP.
We also hope that this report will be published on the website of MINEA and ACTO as a way to
communicate our results with the general public. The results of this report will also be used as a
part of the yearly presentation to the guides of Tortuguero. A presentation with a summary of the
results will also be presented to the research assistants of GVI to strengthen the importance and
impact of the ecological studies performed by GVI. Finally, the results of this report are also
intended to stimulate further research by students of local universities

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Attachments
Appendix A. Categorization of Frequency of Occurrence according to Bensizerara et al. (2013).

Clasificación FO (%)

I Occasional <20
II Rare 20-39
III Common 40-59
IV Constant 60-79
V Abundant ≥80

Appendix B. Migratory status and Guild association of target species.

Scientific name Common Name Migratory status Guild

Agamia agami Agami Heron Resident Wader
Anhinga anhinga Anhinga Resident Swimmer
Aramides cajanea Gray-necked Wood-Rail Resident Wader
Aramus guarauna Limpkin Resident Wader
Ardea alba Great Egret North American Wader
Migrant
Ardea Herodias Great Blue Heron North American Wader
Migrant
Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Resident Percher
Butorides virescens Green Heron Resident & North Wader
American Migrant

Chloroceryle aenea American-pygmy Kingfisher Resident Percher

Chloroceryle amazona Amazon Kingfisher Resident Percher
Chloroceryle americana Green Kingfisher Resident Percher
Chloroceryle inda Green and Rufous Kingfisher Resident Percher
Cochlearius cochlearius Boat-billed Heron Resident Wader
Egretta caerulea Little Blue Heron North American Wader
Migrant

PAGE31
 Egretta rufescens Reddish Egret North American Wader
Migrant
Egretta thula Snowy Egret North American Wader
Migrant
Egretta tricolor Tricolored Heron North American Wader
Migrant
Eurypyga helias Sunbittern Resident Wader
Heliornis fulcia Sungrebe Resident Swimmer
Ixobrychus exilis Least Bittern Resident Wader
Jacana spinosa Northern Jacana Resident Wader
Laterallus albigularis White-Throated Crake Resident Wader
Megaceryle alcyon Belted Kingfisher North American Percher
Migrant
Megaceryle torquata Ringed Kingfisher Resident Percher
Mesembrinibis cayennensis Green Ibis Resident Wader

Nyctanassa violacea Yellow-crowned night heron Resident & North Wader

American Migrant
Phalacrocorax brasilianus Neotropic Cormorant Resident Swimmer
Porphyrio martinica Purple Gallinule Resident Wader
Tigrisoma lineatum Rufescent Tiger-Heron Resident Wader
Tigrisoma mexicanum Bare-throated Tiger-Heron Resident Wader

Appendix C. List of incidental species per canal. New recordings for this period marked in red

CAL CN LJ RS RSA
Actitis macularius X X X X
Amazona autumnalis X X X X X
Amazona farinosa X X X X X
Aratinga nana X X
Attila spadiceus X X X X
Buteogallus anthracinus X X
Cairina moschata X
Campephilus
guatemalensis X X
Cathartes aura X X
Ceratopipra mentalis X
Chlorophanes spiza X X
Contopus cinereus X X X X X
Contopus cooperi X
Coragyps atratus X X X

PAGE32
Crax rubra X X
Crotophaga sulcirostris X
Dendrocolaptes
sanctithomae X
Dendroica pensylvanica X
Empidonax virescens X
Falco rufigularis X
Florisuga mellivora X
Geothlypis philadelphia X
Geothlypis semiflava X X
Glaucis aeneus X
Harpagus bidentatus X
Heliothryx barroti X
Herpetotheres cachinnans X
Hirundo rustica X X X X
Leptodon cayanensis X X X
Leucopternis
semiplumbeus X
Manacus candei X X
Myiarchus critinus X X X X
Myiozetetes granadensis X
Myiozetetes similis X
Myrmeciza exsul X X
Notharchus macrorhynchos X X
Pandion haliaetus X X
Patagioenas nigrirostris X X X X X
Penelope purpurascens X X
Phaethornis longirostris X X
Piaya cayana X X X
Pionus senilis X
Piranga rubra X
Pitangus sulphuratus X X
Platalea ajaja X
Protonotaria citrea X X X X X
Psarocolius montezuma X X X X X
Pteroglossus torquatus X X X X
Ramphastos sulfuratus X X X
Ramphastos swainsonii X X X
Riparia riparia X
Rupornis magnirostris X
Stelgidopteryx ruficollis X
Stelgidopteryx serripennis X
Tachycineta albilinea X X

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 Thamnophilus atrinucha X X X X X
Thryothorus nigricapillus X X X X X
Trogon massena X X X X
Trogon rufus X X X
Tyrannus dominicensis X
Tyrannus melancholicus X X
Tyrannus Tyrannus X X

Appendix D. Summary of the composition and classification of the frequency of Occurrence for all target
species per canal for the whole study.

Cal CN LJ RS RSA Todos canales

Cuantidad de muestras 15 11 15 11 10 62
Agamia agami Occasional Occasional - - - Occasional
Anhinga anhinga Abundante Raro Abundante Abundante Abundante Abundante
Aramides cajanea Occasional - - - Occasional Occasional
Aramus guarauna - - - - - -
Ardea alba - - Comun Occasional - Occasional
Ardea herodias - - Raro Occasional - Occasional
Bubulcus ibis - - Raro - - Occasional
Butorides virescens Constante Occasional Abundante Constante - Comun
Chloroceryle aenea Occasional Occasional - Occasional Raro Occasional
Chloroceryle amazona Occasional - Comun - Raro Occasional
Chloroceryle
americana Comun - Comun Occasional - Raro
Chloroceryle inda - - - - - -
Cochlearius
cochlearius Occasional - Occasional - Occasional Occasional
Egretta caerulea Constante Occasional Abundante Abundante Constante Constante
Egretta rufescens - - - - - -
Egretta thula Occasional - Constante Occasional - Raro
Egretta tricolor Raro - Abundante - - Raro
Eurypyga helias - Occasional - - - Occasional
Heliornis fulica Occasional - - - - Occasional
Ixobrychus exilis - - - - - -
Jacana spinosa Abundante - Abundante Abundante Abundante Constante
Laterallus albigularis - - Raro Abundante Comun Raro
Megaceryle alcyon Occasional - Occasional - Raro Occasional
Megaceryle torquata Comun Comun Raro Constante Constante Comun
Mesembrinibis
cayennensis Raro Occasional Raro Occasional Occasional Occasional
Nyctanassa violacea Constante Occasional Constante - Occasional Raro

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Phalacrocorax
brasilianus - Occasional Constante - - Raro
Porphyrio martinicus - - - Occasional Comun Occasional
Tigrisoma lineatum - - - Occasional - Occasional
Tigrisoma mexicanum Constante Raro Constante Comun Comun Comun

Appendix E. Start and End GPS-Coordinates for all canals. Laguna Jalova (LJ), California (CAL),
Caño Negro (CN), Rio Sierpe (RS), Rio Sierpe Alto (RSA), Tortuguero National Park, Limon,
Costa Rica.

Start End

LJ N 10°20.742' 10°20.614'
W 083°23'.917'' 083°24'085''

CAL N 10°20'.312'' 10°20'103''

W 083°23'826'' 083°24'461''

CN N 10°21'437'' 10°21'959''
W 083°24'230'' 083°24'681''

RS N 10°23'018'' 10°22'540''
W 083°25'658'' 083°26'328''

RSA N 10°22'726'' 10°23'181''

W 083°26'633'' 083°27'165''

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