Proceedings of the 2009 IFAC Workshop on

Engine and Powertrain Control, Simulation and Modeling

IFP, Rueil-Malmaison, France, Nov 30 - Dec 2, 2009

Control oriented model of a variable geometry turbocharger in an engine with

two EGR loops
Jonathan Chauvin, Olivier Grondin, Philippe Moulin ∗

∗ IFP, 1 et 4, avenue de Bois-Pr´eau, 92852 Rueil-Malmaison Cedex -

France
{jonathan.chauvin,olivier.grondin,philippe.moulin}@ifp.fr

Abstract
In order to make modern Diesel engines cleaner and more fuel efficient, their air systems
architecture become more and more complex. The control strategies of these systems must take
account of the multiple components interactions with minimal calibration effort required. In this
context, model based techniques are very attractive. In this paper we propose a control oriented
model of a variable geometry turbocharger in an architecture with two exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) loops : high pressure (HP) and low pressure (LP). This model is implemented in a basic
control strategy and evaluated experimentally during tests with LP or HP EGR. The results show
that the choice of EGR circuit has a high influence on the turbocharger actuator position, but that
this effect is well taken into account in the model proposed.

Keywords: Engine control, Engine modelling, Model-based control, Turbochargers.

1. INTRODUCTION It describes the design of a control oriented model of the

1.1 Motivation
In the automotive industry, the necessary reduction of pol-
lutant emissions involves drastic evolution of engines, and
in particular Diesel engines. Exhaust Gas Recirculation
(EGR) and turbocharging have been the major evolution of
Diesel engines in the recent past. They allow to increase
the quantity of burned gas in the intake manifold, which
helps reducing the NOx production during the combus-tion.
Two types of EGR systems have been investigated : high
pressure (HP) and low pressure (LP) systems, named after
their position on the air system with respect to the
turbocharger. When both systems are combined, the oper-
ating conditions of the turbochargers are highly dependent
on the use of either of these two systems. This must be
taken into account in the turbocharger control strategy
which determines the Variable Geometry Turbocharger
(VGT) position corresponding to a required pressure at the
outlet of the compressor.
When considering the global system, the problem is multi
variables, highly nonlinear, with a lot of interactions
between the different subsystems. In this kind of issue, an
interesting solution consists in model based techniques
which allow to decouple the subsystems and therefore
simplify the problem. The global control structure used in
our case is described in Grondin et al. [2009] which also
details the strategies for the control of each EGR loop and
for the estimation of the intake manifold composition. The
present paper aims at complementing this work.
⋆ dynam-ics is fast at the price of acting as a
J. Chauvin, O. Grondin and P. Moulin are with the engine control team at
IFP. Corresponding author: Jonathan Chauvin. jonathan.chauvin@ifp.fr
turbocharger adapted to an engine architecture with two
EGR loops. Experimental results are provided to validate
the different assumptions. On this topic, not many
publications can be found. In Shutty [2009] the same
engine setup is considered, but no details are given for the
turbocharger control. The approach proposed here was
used before with simpler air system configurations. In
Moulin et al. [2008] it was applied to gasoline engines fitted
with fixed geometry turbines. The application to variable
geometry turbines was first tried in Youssef et al. [2007]
where it was validated mostly outside the EGR operating
area. The purpose in this paper is to extend this approach,
and to show that the model proposed can easily be
adapted for a system with two EGR circuits.
1.2 System description
The engine considered in this paper is a four cylinder
turbocharged Diesel engine shown in Figure 1. Without
exhaust gas recirculation, fresh air is aspirated in the
engine through the compressor which increases the air
density. The air fuel mixture is burnt in the cylinder where
the combustion results in the production of mechanical
torque. At the exhaust of the system, the turbine converts
part of the gas enthalpy into mechanical power on the
turbocharger shaft, whose dynamics are the consequence
of the balance between the compressor and turbine
powers. Two EGR circuits can be used :
• High Pressure EGR: Gas from the exhaust manifold
are derived to the intake manifold. The EGR
discharge for the turbocharger, i.e. less energy is
provided to the turbocharger.

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2009 IFAC E-CoSM (E-CoSM'09)
Nov 30 - Dec 2, 2009, IFP, Rueil-Malmaison, France.

• Low Pressure EGR: Gas are taken downstream the
particulate filter and derived to the upstream of the
compressor. On the contrary to the HP EGR, this
dynamics is much slower but the turbocharger
takes all the energy of the exhaust gases.
Control input The turbocharger is equipped with guide
vanes whose angles are adjusted via an actuator that is
noted uvgt. This affects both the angle of the gas flow on
the turbine blades and the turbine effective flow area. By
these means, it is possible to maintain a high boost even
at low engine speed, and to improve the system
dynamics performance.
Measurements The sensors available on the system are
the following :
• Engine speed Ne.
2.1 Turbocharger modeling
The turbocharger is composed by a turbine driven by the
exhaust gas and connected via a common shaft to the
compressor, which compresses the air in the intake. The
rotational speed of the turbocharger shaft Nt can be
derived from a balance between the turbine power P t
and the compressor power Pc
d ( 1 J N 2) = P − P (1)
dt 2 t t t c
where Jt is the inertia of the turbocharger.
Compressor In order to derive an equation for the com-
pressor power, the first law of thermodynamics is applied. It
states that (neglecting heat losses) the compressor power
is related to the mass flow through the compressor Dc and
the total change of enthalpy by Pc = Dccp(Tdc −Tut). The
compressor efficiency is introduced as the ratio between
isentropic and actual compression powers. The
compressor power reads
Pc = DccpTuc ηc

1
Πc γ

γ−1
−1 (2)

• Intake manifold pressure and temperature, Pdc and

T .
dc P the
• Compressor upstream pressure and temperature, where ηc is the compressor efficiency, Πc , dc
P
uc

Puc and Tuc. compressor pressure ratio, and γ the specific heat ratio.
• Manifold air flow Dc.
The compressor speed, flow, pressure ratio and efficiency are
The other variables will be estimated with the measured linked. Different representations can be found in the literature,
variables among which a commonly used one consists in mapping the
pressure ratio and efficiency against flow and speed. These
1.3 Model objective maps are extrapolated from data measured during
characterization tests. Several extrapolation meth-ods have
been proposed (for example Jensen et al. [1991]). In order to
First of all, the objective of the model development de- take the variations of the upstream compressor
scribed here is to provide a basis for the design of a conditions into account, these variables are corrected as
control strategy. The difficulty of this task consists in
keeping the right level of complexity. Two main criteria
follow √
T Nt
uc
will be considered : D D P
c,cor = and Nc,cor = √ Tuc
c uc
• The model has to represent only the main dynamics and
governing the evolution of the system in order to ηc = φηc (Dc,cor , Nc,cor ) (3)
minimize the number of states in the controller. The Π = φ (D ,N )
c Πc c,cor c,cor
fast dynamics are neglected.
• In an engine, the evolution of a turbocharger depends The compressor pressure ratio corresponding to the
on the conditions at its boundaries : pressures and system studied here is represented in Figure 2.
temperatures upstream and downstream the com-
pressor and turbine, gas mass flow through these Turbine Similarly, the turbocharger power is related to
com-ponents. This is very important particularly for the the mass flow through the turbine Dt and the total
architecture with two EGR loops that is considered in change of enthalpy. This results in
Pt = DtcpT utηt γ (4)
1 − Πt γ
1−
this paper. These influences must be represented as
far as possible, using measurements when available
or estimations otherwise. where ηt is the turbine efficiency, Tdt and Pdt are the tem-
As a consequence, some assumptions will have to be perature and pressure after the turbine, Put the exhaust
made. They will be justified by a comparison between manifold pressure, Πt , Put is the turbine pressure ratio
P
dt

experimental test data and the results of the model.
2. TURBOCHARGED ENGINE MODEL
Most of the equations governing the behavior of the tur-
bocompressor can be found in other publications (see for
example Moraal and Kolmanovsky [1999] , Sorenson et al.
[2005] or Eriksson [2006]). The novelty of the approach pre-
sented here lies in the simplification proposed further and the
control strategy designed from the simplified model.
and γ the specific heat ratio. In this case, the corrected
turbine flow Dt,cor and isentropic efficiency ηt are mapped
versus the pressure ratio across the turbine, the corrected
turbocharger shaft speed Nt,cor , and the VGT actuator
position uvgt. As for compressor maps, different methods
have been proposed to obtain these maps from test data
(see Moraal and Kolmanovsky [1999]). This can be rear-
ranged in the following form, for more commodity :
N P
t dt
D
t = Dt
φ
(Πt, √ , uvgt)Πt √ (5)
T T
ut ut

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2009 IFAC E-CoSM (E-CoSM'09)
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D
egr,lp LP EGR valve LP EGR Cooler

Variable Geometry
Turbocharger uvgt Exhaust
D
in Oxydation CatalystParticulate Filter Throttle
Dt
P T X D
P , T ut, ut,
out
Puc, Tuc dt dt exh
Exhaust Manifold

Dc
HP EGR
Water−Cooled
Cooler
Air Cooler
HP EGRValve

Degr,hp

Intake Throttle Intake Manifold

X
Pdc, Tdc, int

Figure 1. Dual mode Diesel-LTC engine architecture including a variable geometry turbocharger, a cooled high-
pressure EGR loop and a cooled low-pressure EGR loop. Sensors are the engine speed, the intake manifold
pressure and temperature (Pdc and Tdc), the compressor upstream pressure and temperature, (Puc and Tuc),
the manifold air flow (Dc).

and Vcyl is the cylinder volume. ηv is the volumetric

efficiency. Classically, it is experimentally derived and,
MAP
HP EGR data
eventually, given by a look-up table ηv (Pdc, Ne).
5 LP EGR data

4
2.3 Intake and exhaust modelling
3
Π [−]

We consider the exhaust and intake manifolds as a fixed

volume for which the thermodynamics states (pressure,
c

1
temperature, and composition) are assumed to be
homo-geneous. The entire volume between the
0 compressor and the engine can be lumped into a single
0.2
0.15 2.5
volume. The mass balance in this volume and in the
0.1 1.5
2 exhaust manifold leads to
1
0.05 0.5 x 10
5
dPut = RTut (Dasp + Df − Dt − Degr,hp)
0 0 dt Vut (7)

Dc,cor [ kg/h ] N2 [ rpm ] D D D

t,cor = ( t − out − egr,lp)
dPdt dt
RTdt
Vdt

Figure 2. Compressor map. Pressure ratio Πc at the com-

pressor w.r.t. the corrected flow through the compres-
sor Dc,cor and the corrected turbine crankshaft speed
Nc,cor . The blue crosses show the characterization
measurements in both the HP and LP EGR loops. dPuc = RTuc (Din + Degr,lp − Dc)
dt Vuc (8)

D D D
= ( c + egr,hp − asp)
2.2 Engine modelling dPdc RTdc
dt Vdc

Conventionally (see Heywood [1988] for example), we

assume that the aspirated flow Dasp can be computed as
Dasp = ηv ΠcΨ (6)
2.4 Summary
where
V P N
Ψ, cyl uc e Gathering equations (1)-(8) leads to the following
RTint 120 dynam-ics

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d 1 2 Nt To ensure the validity of the simplification, we can check

φ , ,u P cT η
J
dt (2 t t N ) = D t (Πt √ ut
T vgt ) dt p ut t T ut t t the uniform stability of the Jacobian of ψas shown in
φ (Π )
−D c T 1 φ (Π ) p Koko-tovi´c et al. [1999][Assumption 3.2 p11]. These
c p uc c c dynamics are stable as shown in Moulin et al. [2008].
η The reduced dynamics writes
c
dt ut
=

V
ηv ΠcΨ + Df − D egr, hp ˙ = h(¯z1) (11) 2
z¯

z¯1 = φ(¯z1, h(¯z1), u)

dP RT
Nt Pdt
ut ut

,u From Khalil [1992][Th 11.1], the following proposition

−φD (Πt, √ vgt)Πt √ holds
t
Tut Tut Proposition 1. Consider the singularly perturbated sys-tem
(10) and z2 = h(z1) the isolated root of ψ(z1, z2) = 0. There
Pdt exists a positive constant ǫ⋆ > ǫ > 0 such that (10)
dP dt RT dt Nt
dt = Vdt φDt (Πt, √T ut , uvgt)Πt √Tut possesses a unique trajectory z1(t, ǫ), z2(t, ǫ), and
D D −D) z1(t, ǫ) − z¯1(t) = O(ǫ)
−Dout − Degr,lp
dPuc
dt
RTuc
Vuc

z2(t, ǫ) − h(¯z1(t)) = O(ǫ)

hold when ǫ < ǫ⋆.
= (Dc + Degr,hp − ηv ΠcΨ)
=
V ( in +

dt
egr,lp c

dc
dPdc RTdc

1−γ γ−1
Thus, the new reference system writes
d 1 2 Nt
,u cP
(9) dt ( 2 JtNt ) = φDt (Πt, √ Tut vgt) p dt Tutηtφt(Πt)
where φt(Π) , Π(1 − Π γ ) and φc(Π) , Π γ − 1. This −(η Π Ψ − D )c T
1
φ
p
(Π )
model takes account of parameters external to the tur- v c egr,hp p uc c c
bocharger itself : temperatures upstream the compressor ηc
and turbine, pressure downstream the turbine. However, it
contains five states. Since the ultimate purpose of this work Nt P dt
η Π Ψ=φ (Π ,√ ,u ) √
is to design a model based control law, further D Dt D t T T
v c ut vgt ut
simplifications have to be undertaken. Different types of +
− f egr,hp
assumptions will be made and verified experimentally.
(12)
3. MODEL REDUCTION The simplified dynamics write now as a first order nonlin-
ear dynamics with an algebraic equation, the steady state
The first type of assumptions concerns the dynamics. solution of the intake and exhaust dynamics
The second type concerns the steady state
dependencies. The purpose is to keep only the relevant 3.2 Steady state assumptions
dynamics of the system, and parameters that can be
measured or estimated from the available sensors.
High pressure flow simplification
3.1 Dynamic simplification : Model simplification by singular Contrary to the tur-
perturbation bocharger, the high pressure EGR loop has a direct con-
trol, i.e. the EGR valve controls directly this flow. Again,
The fifth order nonlinear system (9) accurately describes simplification is made in order to substitute the high
the dynamics of the system. However, one can notice pressure EGR flow by its reference value that is directly
that the turbocharger speed is much slower than the linked to the intake pressure. We introduce variable δHP
pressure dynamics. Indeed, typically we have ≃
V
ut to characterize the choice of EGR circuit : when HP EGR
V
dc
RTut
is used δHP is equal to 1, it is equal to 0 otherwise. With
5e − 9, RTdc ≃ 5e − 8 and Jt = 3e − 5. This suggests this notation, we have :
to simplify these dynamics with a singular perturbation X δ
V
ut D int HP
η
method Khalil [1992]. Let ǫ , RT be a scalar that ut egr,hp = Xexh vol ΠcΨ
represents all the small parameters to be neglected. The where Xint (resp Xexh) is the intake (resp. exhaust)
reference dynamics (9) has the form of the standard
burned gas ratio.
singularly perturbed system
z˙1 = φ(z1, z2, u) Turbine flow simplification The turbine can be consid-
ǫz˙2 = ψ(z1, z2, ǫ) (10) ered as a restriction on the exhaust gas flow. However, the
T standard equation for compressible flow across an orifice
where z1 , Nt, z2 , [ Puc Pdc Put Pdt ] . In other words, cannot be applied in this case. Modified versions of this
we split the slow z1-dynamics (the power balance) and the equation have been proposed which fit better the experi-
z2-fast dynamics (mass balances). mental results, based on various assumptions (see Eriksson
The equation ψ(z1, z2, 0) = 0 has a unique root of interest [2006]). Most of them neglect the influence of the turbine
z2 = h(z1). In details, it is speed. The formula kept in the present case is given below,
P the justification being that it shows a good correlation with
Nt dt the characterization data (see Figure 4).
T T P
ηv ΠcΨ + Df − Degr,hp = φDt (Πt, √ ut , uvgt)Πt √ ut dt
N P
D D φ
out + egr,lp = D (Πt, √ t , uvgt)Πt √ dt Dt = √ φ ψ u
turb(Πt) vgt( vgt)

T
t ut
T T
ut ut
D D D
in + egr,lp = c where ψvgt(uvgt) is equivalent to an effective area (repre-
c + Degr,hp = η v ΠcΨ
D
sented in Figure 3) and

67
2009 IFAC E-CoSM (E-CoSM'09)
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3
−2 −γ−1 shows experimental measurements. As experimentally rep-
Πt
2
2γ γ γ
φturb(Πt) , √ R
s
γ−1 Πt − Πt

x 1010
4.5

4
1.6
3.5

1.5 HP EGR data

3
LP EGR data

N [2t rpm 2 ]
1.4 Linear fit
2.5

1.3 2
ψ vgt

1.2 1.5

1.1 1

0.5
1
0
0.9 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Πc [ − ]
0.8

0.7
Figure 5. Experimental results at steady state. Variation
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 of the turbocharger speed square Nt2 w.r.t. the
VGT [%]
com-pressor pressure ratio Πc.

Figure 3. Function ψvgt with respect to the control input

u resented on Figure 5, we can estimate the turbocharger
vgt. speed square Nt2 linearly w.r.t. the compressor pressure
ratio Πc, i.e.
0.08 Nt2 = aΠc + b
0.075
Steady state assumptions The system dynamics depend on
0.07
a lot of different variables that physically are related to the
Measure
0.065
Model
engine operating conditions (engine speed, volumet-ric
d

efficiency) or the environment (compressor upstream

t

0.06
D Tt )t.5 P

pressure and temperature, turbine downstream pressure).

( u /

0.055 Since they are external to the turbocharger, we will make

0.05 the assumption that they depend on the operating point of
the engine. They can either be measured or estimated
0.045 based on steady state maps.
0.04
The only remaining unknown terms in the system of
0.035 equations (12) are ηc and ηt. Since they vary in small
0.03 proportions on the engine operating points, we will also
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 consider that they can be mapped as functions of the
Pit [−]
engine operating conditions. It is difficult to validate it in
transient since it is not possible to measure the
Figure 4. Comparison between the measured corrected √
efficiencies in this case. The correct behavior of the
turbine flow Dt T
ut and its simplified modelling for control law designed from these assumptions will
P
dt validate them a posteriori.
several value of the VGT position.

3.3 Reference system

Correlation between the turbocharger speed and the
intake pressure For given engine operating conditions, The linear correlation between compressor pressure ratio
the tur-bocharger speed and the intake pressure are and turbocharger kinetic energy considerably simplifies the
very corre-lated. It is therefore interesting to consider the studied system. The state variable can be chosen as the
combina-tion of (3) and (6). The corrected compressor compressor pressure ratio, and the turbocharger speed
flow depends on the compressor pressure ratio, the does not appear any more in the model equations.
engine speed and the operating conditions, and :
N
Πc = φΠ,c(ηv (ΠcPuc, Ne)ΠcΨ, √ t
T
) (13) The reference system writes
uc ˙
Πc = α1 (βΠc + Df )ψt(Πt) − α2βψc(Πc)
This expression is remarkable since it shows a direct de- (14)
pendency between the compressor pressure ratio and the Πc = α3 (φturb(Πt)ψvgt(uvgt) − α4)
engine speed. The influence of the intake temperature is where {αi}i∈[1, 4] depend on the engine operating condi-
of second order and will be neglected. The following graph tions :

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X δ
int HP δ
HP
β = (1 − Xexh )ηv Ψ
α1 = cpTutηt 2 and α2 = cpTuc 1 2

Jta √
ηc Jta
P T D
α3 = √
dt and α4 = P
ut f Πc,sp
M −1
β Tut dt

The first equation of system (14) represents the balance Sensors

between compressor and turbine mechanical power,
giving the dynamics of the system. The second equation
repre-sents the mass conservation in the exhaust Πc
manifold, the dynamics being neglected. Σ
The functions φturb, ψvgt, ψc and ψt are nonlinear but
invertible. This property is very important and will be
used when designing the control law. Figure 6. Turbocharger control structure
4.2 Experimental results
The coefficients αi can be computed from sensors available
on the engine. Variable β represents the gas mass flow Load transient tests at constant speed have been per-
through the compressor and through the turbine. Only this
formed in HP or LP EGR configurations. The results are
variable depends on the EGR loop choice.
reported in Figures 7, 8, 9 and 10 which show respec-tively
the intake manifold pressure, the intake manifold burned
4. ONLINE MODEL VALIDATION gas rate, the turbocharger actuator (VGT) and the controller
output compared to the feedforward term. On each figure a
The purpose of this paper is not to describe the design of a test performed with HP EGR is com-pared with a test in LP
control strategy. However, since model (14) is intended for EGR mode. The intake manifold conditions (composition
control, the validation can be made online after imple- and pressure) are controlled to the same values (figures 7
menting it in a control structure. In this section we briefly and 8), but the VGT has to be actuated at very different
describe the control structure chosen for the validation, and positions (figure 9) due to the differences in mass flow
then we show the experimental results. through turbine and compressor. However, the correction
necessary from controller C is similar in each mode and
stays at low levels compared to the feedforward term
4.1 Control implementation (figure 10). The operating conditions of the turbocharger
highly depends on the flow through the compressor and
Model (14) was inverted and implemented in a control turbine, and hence on the choice of EGR circuit. This is
strategy. A possible implementation structure was pro- why the VGT is positioned at very different levels. However,
posed in Youssef et al. [2007]. Other solutions would be the feedforward term takes well account of these effects.
possible. The model validity does not depend on the This validates the model and the assumptions made in its
con-trol structure, but we chose in this work to keep a design.
similar implementation. The basic structure of the
strategy is represented in figure 6. Controller C consists The model provides a feedforward structure that takes
in a linear PI controller. Its output is added to a into account the interaction of the turbocharger with
feedforward term and transformed into an actuator other components, in particular the EGR circuit. The
setpoint in M −1. Controller C is built so that calibration of the turbocharger controller is independent
Πc,sp ˙− Π c = −µp(Πc,sp − Πc) − µi Z (Πc,sp − Πc) of the choice of EGR loop, which reduces dramatically
the calibration effort required.
z }|{
5. CONCLUSION
Where µp and µi are proportional and integral gains.
The actuator setpoint is computed by : This paper describes the development of a turbocharger
z˙= Πc,sp − Πc model in a Diesel engine fitted with LP and HP EGR
Πt,sp
C = µp(Πc,sp − Πc) + µiz
= ψt−1((C + α2βψc(Πc ,sp)) 1

α1(βΠc,sp + Df )
)

loops, and its reduction in order to provide a control

oriented model. This work complements previous works
already published or submitted ( Moulin et al. [2008],
−1 Πc,sp 1 Youssef et al. [2007] and Grondin et al. [2009]).
uvgt,sp = ψvgt(( α3 + α4) φturb(Πt) )

Experimental validation results are presented, justifying

the assumptions made in the model reduction process.
(15)
where subscript sp stands for set-point. Controller C The turbocharger control strategies designed from this
follows from the two first lines, whereas the last two model combined with an adequate EGR control and esti-
lines are the inversion of (14). Variable z is the state of mation provide a solid basis for the management of modern
the controller. In steady state when the intake manifold Diesel engines. In particular, the calibration of a complex
pressure is controlled to the setpoint, an indication of the air system could be a daunting task. In the proposed
accuracy of model 14 is given by the relative importance structure the effort required is greatly reduced thanks to an
of C with respect to the feedforward term α 2βψc(Πc,sp). adequate physical representation of the system.

69
2009 IFAC E-CoSM (E-CoSM'09)
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1.8 70
HP EGR
1.7 60 LP EGR
Manifold Pressure[bar]

1.6
50

1.5

VGT [%]
40

1.4

1.3
Intak

30

1.2
e

20

1.1 HP EGR
LP EGR 10
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0
Time [s] 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time [s]

Figure 7. Intake manifold pressure with HP or LP EGR Figure 9. Turbocharger actuator with HP or LP EGR

6000
0.3
HP EGR ff HP EGR
LP EGR 5000 ff LP EGR
0.25 I HP EGR
4000 I LP EGR

0.2 3000
BGR

2000

0.15

1000

0.1
0

0.05
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
−1000
Time [s] 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time [s]
Figure 8. Estimated intake manifold BGR with HP or LP
EGR Figure 10. Controller terms with HP or LP EGR. I : inte-
gral term represented by C in (15) , ff : feedforward
term equal to α2βψc(Πc,sp) in (15)
REFERENCES . Note that the presented controller terms are in the unit
of the power balance (in Watt).
Eriksson, L. (2006). Modelling and control of turbocharger
si and di engines. In Proceedings of ECOSM conference. of the SAE Conference, 1999-01-0908.
Grondin, O., Moulin, P., and Chauvin, J. (2009). Control Moulin, P., Chauvin, J., and Youssef, B. (2008). Modelling
of a turbocharged engine fitted with high pressure and and control of the air system of a turbocharged gasoline
low pressure exhaust gas recirculation systems. In engine. In Proc. of the IFAC World Conference.
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