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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 SCOPE
4.1 Earth
4.2 Power System Network
4.3 Grounding Performance of Transmission Line Structures
4.4 Types of Disturbance
5.0 SAFETY
5.1 General
5.2 Earth Surface Potential
5.3 Thresholds of Current
5.4 Ground Potential Mitigating Conductors
10.1 Requirements
10.2 Grounding Resistance Tests
10.3 Grounding Resistance of Driven Rods
10.4 Grounding Resistance of Counterpoise
11.1 General
11.2 Earth Resistivity Test
12.1 General
12.2 Importance of Fault Current Distribution
12.3 Overhead Ground Wire
13.0 CORROSION
15.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.0 SCOPE
This Standard covers the general requirements and methods to be used in the design of
grounding of transmission line structures for the overhead transmission line system of Saudi
Electricity Company (SEC), Saudi Arabia.
2.1 To safeguard a person from electric shock by ensuring that, under fault conditions,
all surfaces including those of metallic equipment and the ground with which he is in
simultaneous contact, remain at safe relative potentials.
2.2 To dissipate both voltages and currents under fault conditions without exceeding
predictable limits or adversely affecting continuity of service.
2.3 To provide a path to dissipate surges induced by lightning or switching surges and to
provide a path to ground from the overhead ground wire.
2.4 To reduce the possibility of static discharge caused by natural electric disturbances in
the atmosphere.
3.1 A grounding system consists of grounding conductors, connecting together all items
to be grounded, and a grounding electrode or electrodes. The grounding electrode
forms the medium of contact with the body of earth and may consist of a single or a
combination of buried conductors/ground rods and may include other elements such
as foundation steel connected to the grounding system.
3.2 Factors influencing the design of the grounding system are as follows:
3.2.1 The magnitude and duration of ground-fault current which can pass
between the fault location and the system neutral point(s) (which will
influence the size of the grounding conductors).
3.2.2 The portion of this current which will pass between the grounding system
and the body of earth.
3.2.4 The degree of exposure to mechanical damage and corrosion (which will
influence the choice of materials and their manner of installation).
The analysis of a power system subject to a phase to ground fault or lightning stroke at a
transmission line structure requires specific data on the following variables which play a
critical role in the grounding performance of transmission lines:
4.1 Earth
Typically earth consists of several layers of soil, each having a different resistivity.
For transmission line grounding purposes, the earth can be reasonably approximated
by a two-layered soil structure. However, for calculation of ground resistance of a
structure, uniform soil resistivity may be assumed.
The layer resistivity and thickness are generally determined by interpreting the
apparent resistivity values measured using the Wenner four electrode method.
The transmission line is assumed to consist of several zones and each zone
comprises of one or more transmission line section.
A transmission line section is defined as: the phase conductors, ground wires
between two grounded transmission line structures and one of these two grounded
structures. Each transmission line zone and consequently any transmission line
section is characterized by the self and mutual impedances of conductors and ground
impedance of transmission line structure. More detalis can be found in the EPRI
Report, EL-2699, “Transmission Line Grounding” (Refernce 4).
The distribution of fault current between a structure and the overhead ground wires
connected to it is greatly dependent on the ground resistance of the structure. A
knowledge of surface potentials around the faulted structure may also be needed to
assess the overall grounding performance of the structure. These earth potentials are
usually calculated for local soil characteristics.
The ground resistance of a structure and the earth potentials around it may be
calculated using simplified analytical expressions under the assumption of uniform
ρ
R= Ohms (Eq.10-1)
2π r
Where: ρ = Soil resistivity in ohm-meter
r = electrode radius in meter
The surface potential ‘V’ at a distance x (meter) from the center of the hemisphere
injecting a current I (amperes) in the earth is:
ρI
V= Volts
2 πx (Eq.10-2)
⎡ ct ⎤
Zs = 60 ln ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ a⎦ (Eq.10-3)
Where: c = velocity of light (3 x 108 m/s)
t = time, in seconds.
a = radius of the equivalent structure, in meters.
Zs = surge impedance, in Ohms
5.0 SAFETY
5.1 General
A survey conducted by IEEE (Reference 6) among various utilities around the world
indicates that there have been no fatal accidents due to excessive touch or step
voltages in the vicinity of transmission line structures. Mostly the accidents are
caused by lightning or involve low voltage circuitry and household electrical
devices. A low accident rate is not the result of transmission line structure
grounding design but rather is a consequence of a very low probability of human
exposure to hazardous situations. For an electrocution incident to occur, the
following events must occur simultaneously:
Because of the infrequent presence of people near high voltage transmission line
structures and because a fault at any specific structure is very unlikely, the
electrocution incident is an extremely low probability event. This favorable situation
may not exist at some exposed locations along the transmission line or may change
in future because of joint use of transmission line right of way in populated urban
areas and progressively higher fault current magnitudes. For such conditions it shall
be responsibility of the design engineer to determine the locations which may
present high human exposure risks and if necessary a suitable grounding system to
control hazardous earth surface voltages shall be designed.
0116
.
Ib =
t (Eq.10-4)
Where: Ib = rms current passing through the body, in
amperes.
t= time duration of shock, in seconds.
0.116 = an energy constant for a 50 kg person.
TESP122.10R0/MSO Date of Approval: February 18, 2007 PAGE NO. 7 OF 28
TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING STANDARD TES-P-122.10, Rev. 0
a. Step Potential: the potential difference between any two points on the
ground surface which can be touched simultaneously by the feet.
Using the appropriate circuit constant and the expression for the tolerable
current from equation (10-4), the tolerable potential differences between
the two points which may be touched simultaneously become:
116 + 0.7 ρ s
V Step =
t (Eq.10-5)
116 + 017
. ρs
VTouch =
t (Eq.10-6)
If the usual grounding system of a transmission line and its overhead ground wires
are not sufficient to provide a safe environment at critically located transmission line
structures, the installation of additional ground conductors shall be considered to
reduce step and touch voltages.
A practical and widely used arrangement of such conductors consists of a ring (for
tubular/circular steel structures) or a square loop (for latticed steel structures) buried
at a shallow depth around the structure base. If necessary, several concentric grading
rings or square loops buried at progressively increasing depth can be installed in
difficult cases. These rings are usually designated as ground potential control rings or
loops. Typical rings arrangements are shown in figure TE-2210-0200-00, whereas
the size of control rings shall be determined per Clause 14 of this standard. The
number of control rings or loops will depend on the magnitude of step and touch
potentials to be reduced.
The ring provides beneficial effects on the overall performance of the grounding
system as follows:
5.4.1 It reduces the ground resistance and, in most cases, the potential rise of the
structure.
5.4.2 It reduces the step potential gradients which exist near the buried part of
the structure or structure foundation.
6.1.1 For minimum grounding on single wood pole structures, a 7 No. 10 (7.77
mm diameter & 36.83 mm² cross-section) copper-clad steel conductor shall
be installed 10 meters above ground level and extended to the butt of the
pole and wrapped five (5) complete turns 1100 mm from the pole butt. All
hardware on the wood pole structure shall be bonded to a 9.525 mm (3/8
in.) galvanized steel wire and connected to copper-clad steel grounding
conductor.
6.1.2 When the required structure footing resistance is not attained, additional
grounding shall be required. The most economical system for providing
additional grounding, when required in conjunction with the butt-wrap,
shall be ground rod located 3000 mm from structure footing or foundation.
6.2.2 When the required structure footing resistance is not attained, additional
ground rods shall be added to each pole ground. On three-pole structures,
an additional ground rod is not required on the middle pole.
6.3.1 The reinforcing steel cage of the concrete foundation shall be bonded to the
respective tower stub angle at atleast two points by using a suitable size of
steel wire. The connection of wire to the stub angle shall be preferably
through a mechanical connector (clamp) and buried inside the concrete.
6.3.2 Two opposite legs of lattice steel structures shall be grounded by means of
counterpoise conductors and two exothermic coupled copper clad ground
rods. In case the resistance is more than the required value, deep
grounding or additional counterpoise conductors and ground rods may be
required on the remaining legs of lattice steel structures.
6.3.4 Wherever possible ground rods shall be installed underneath the footing
(spread foundations) to a minimum depth of 3 meter. For other types of
foundations the ground rod shall be placed at a distance of 8 m from the
centre of footing.
6.4.1 The reinforcing steel cage of the concrete foundation shall be bonded to the
anchor bolts (two bolts), as an economical way to lower the structure
footing resistance.
6.4.2 Two exothermic coupled ground rods shall be connected at the base of
steel pole structures. Where greater resistance is encountered, multiple
ground rods may also be required. The spacing between the two rods shall
be in the range of one to two times the length of rod.
7.1 All metallic facilities such as communication towers, fences and pipelines running in
close proximity to SEC transmission lines shall be grounded by the facility owner to
insure safety to the personnel during steady-state and fault conditions. Guidelines
specified in TES-P-122.09 shall be followed by the facility owner while requesting
SEC approval for allowing such facilities in the vicinity of transmission lines.
7.3 Terminal tower on each end of transmission line shall be connected with substation
grounding grid.
8.2.1 Each element of the grounding system (including connecting ground leads
and electrodes) shall be so designed that it will:
t cα r ρr .104
A=I TCAP (Eq.10-7)
⎡ Tm − Ta ⎤
1n ⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ K o + Ta ⎦
Where:
Ta = Ambient temperature in °C
1 1
K0 = or K 0 = − Tr
αo αr
Where
Tm Ta αr ρr tc TCAP K0
(°C) (°C) @ 20°C @ 20°C (Sec) (J/cm³/°C
(μΩ/m) )
1084 40 0.00378 4.397 0.50 3.846 245
c. The size of wire required where lightning may impinge directly upon
it is considerably greater than that required to conduct the lightning
surge through it. The minimum size selected for fault current shall be
more than adequate for conducting lightning currents. In practice the
requirements on mechanical reliability will set a minimum conductor
size. Since it is impractical to observe or inspect buried portions of
grounding system, the calculated size of ground conductor shall be
enhanced for mechanical ruggedness as well as to account for future
growth of fault current levels and relay malfunctioning and human
errors which can result in fault durations in excess of desired clearing
times.
8.4.1 The grounding conductor shall be guarded from mechanical damage only
in areas where they are readily accessible to the public.
A suitable grounding electrode is the only feasible means of maintaining the various
noncurrent carrying metal structures of a power installation at safe potential levels
and keeping the earth surface potential gradient in the vicinity of the electrode
within tolerable values.
Where made electrodes are used, these shall as far as practical penetrate
into the permanent soil moisture level. Made electrodes shall be of a metal
or combination of metals which do not corrode excessively under existing
conditions for the expected service life. All outer surfaces of made
electrodes shall be conductive that is, not having paint, enamel or other
insulating type covering.
b. Counterpoise
iii. Where rock surfaces are encountered, the rock shall be cut
150 mm deep. The counterpoise shall be laid in the trench
and then filled with concrete.
9.3.3 For concrete encased reinforcing bar electrodes, a steel rod similar to the
reinforcing bar shall be used to join, by welding, a main vertical
reinforcing bar to an anchor bolt or stub angle.
10.1 Requirements
For a distance of more than 1.6km from the substation, the required
structure ground resistance shall be 20 Ohms or less.
10.1.2 For 230 and 380 kV transmission lines, the required structure ground
resistance shall be 3 Ohms or less within a distance of 3 km from the
substation and 10 Ohms or less for a distance of more than 3 km from the
substation for all types of soil except where rock is encountered at shallow
depths for which the requirement shall be 10 ohm or less and 20 ohm or
less for the respective distances of 3 km and more than 3 km.
The fall-of-potential method shall be used to measure the structure ground resistance
along the transmission line route or right-of-way. The detailed description of this
method is given in ANSI/IEEE Std.81.
The megger earth tester (null balance) or clamp-on ground resistance tester shall be
used in making all ground resistance measurements.
ρ ⎡ ⎛ 4L⎞ ⎤
R= 1n⎜ ⎟ − 1 When L > a (Eq.10-8)
2 πL ⎢⎣ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎥⎦
The diameter of the rod is of some significance because it affects the logarithmic
term 4L/a, but the length is more important.
ρ ⎛ 2L ⎞
R= 1n⎜ ⎟ (Eq.10-9)
2 πL ⎝ a ⎠
When the counterpoise is buried close to the surface of a uniform earth, the ground
resistance (in Ohms) is approximately equal to:
ρ ⎡ 2l ⎤
R= ⎢1n − 1⎥ (Eq.10-10)
πl ⎣ 2ae ⎦
11.1 General
Electrical resistivity tests shall be made to determine the earth resistivity along the
transmission line route or right-of-way. These shall be preferably made at a number
of places within the right-of-way and with different probe spacings, to get an
indication of any important variations of resistivity with location and depth.
The Wenner four-electrode method shall be used to measure earth resistivity. Earth
resistivity tests shall be made as part of the geotechnical investigation that is
performed for foundation design information. If earth resistivity tests are not made, a
resistivity of 1000 Ohm-meter shall be assumed.
4π AR
ρ= (Eq.10-11)
2A A
1+ −
A 2 + 4B 2 A2 + B 2
If "B" is small compared to "A", as in the case of probes penetrating the ground a
short distance only, the above equation can be simplified as follows:
ρ = 2 π AR (Eq.10-12)
12.1 General
The majority of transmission line faults are to ground and generally occur between a
phase conductor and a transmission line structure, as the result of an insulator
flashover. In some cases, the presence of foreign objects between a phase conductor
and the overhead ground wire or a grounded structure may cause a ground fault
somewhere along one span of the transmission line. Occasionally, the ground fault is
caused by a phase conductor in direct contact with the overhead ground wire or the
earth’s surface. In all these cases, the current return paths include earth and,
therefore, present an impedance which at most is equal to the equivalent ground
impedance of the grounded structures which carry the fault current. If in addition to
the earth current, part of the total fault current returns to the generating sources via
metallic return circuits (such as overhead ground wires), the impedance value will
be even less.
The transmission line performance at the faulted structure and/or at other locations
on the transmission line is significantly influenced by the fault current distribution
between the structure and the overhead ground wires connected to the structure.
the structure resistance value R so that the total fault current (≈ V/Zs) is
approximately constant when R varies within a relatively narrow range. Figure TES-
2210-0300-00 leads to the following conclusions:
12.2.2 If in contrast, R is small compared to Zl and Zr, then most of the fault
current flows through the structure, causing a ground potential rise
proportional to the structure ground resistance R.
12.2.3 There are various methods which have been used for calculation of fault
current distribution between the faulted structure and the metallic return
conductors. One of the most suitable method is a double-sided elimination
which is described in “EPRI Report EL-2699, Transmission Line
Grounding”. This method shall be adopted for determining fault current
distribution and consequently the current to be considered for the
calculation of size of grounding conductor. Computer programs such as
SPLIT and GATL may be used for solving complex analytical expressions.
12.2.4 When a ground fault occurs on a transmission line equipped with ground
wires, a significant portion of the fault current is diverted to the structures
on each side of the faulted structure. Consequently both the fault current
and potential rise at the faulted structure are decreased.
Similar survey was also conducted by EPRI, USA among North American
Power Electric Utility Companies regarding grounding practices for
overhead transmission lines. The survey indicates that majority of the
utilities consider 10 to 60% of fault current to flow in the grounding grid.
12.2.5 SEC fault current distribution study indicates that a current of about 25 to
30% of standard maximum system fault current (at the source substation)
flows in the structure when the resistance of the faulted structure is one (1)
ohm and the fault is located with in 3km distance from the substation.
When the resistance of the faulted structures in the range of 3 to 10 ohms,
the maximum current flow in the structure is about 13 to 15% of standard
maximum system fault current..
12.3.3 Overhead ground wires with sufficient mechanical strength shall be located
to shield the line conductors adequately from lightning direct strokes.
13.0 CORROSION
The amount of corrosion by electrolysis depends on the type of soil or air, the
currentand the electrochemical equivalent of the metal. High resistivity soil reduces
corrosion currents and thereby reduces corrosion rates.
Precautions to prevent corrosion shall include, but not be limited to, the following:
13.3.3 Where possible, route the grounding conductor at least 6 meters away from
buried steel work.
13.3.5 If dissimilar metals are used, these shall be bonded together by a bimetal
connector and treated with proper inhibitor to reduce the rate of corrosion.
On the basis of short circuit levels established for various transmission line voltages in the
system of SEC and the approach described in preceding paragraphs, sample calculations
were made to determine the size of grounding conductor to be used for counterpoise
arrangements. While sample calculations are included as an Appendix-I to this Standard,
the recommended sizes for various transmission line voltages are given in Table 10-2. The
various parameters used in the calculations are given below:
15.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX I
Fault current If = 63 kA
t cα r Pr .104
Acmils = 1973.52 I TCAP
⎡ ⎛ Tm − Ta ⎞ ⎤
ln ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ K O + Ta ⎠⎦
216077
.
Acmils = 1973.52 x I
⎡ Tm − 40 ⎤
ln ⎢1 +
⎣ 285 ⎥⎦
216077
.
Acmils = . × 315
197352 .
⎡ 260 ⎤
ln ⎢1 +
⎣ 285 ⎥⎦
216077
.
Acmils = . × 18.9
197352
⎡ 260 ⎤
ln ⎢1 +
⎣ 285 ⎥⎦
= 215,338
Fault Current = 40 kA
on Lines".