Comparison Between RC and Loadbearing Cost in Khartoum Sudan 2017

‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬
University of Khartoum
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
Final Year Graduation Project
COST COMPARISON BETWEEN LOAD BEARING

AND REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDINGS
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of B.Sc.

Honour Degree in Civil Engineering
Prepared by:
ABDULGHANI MOHAMED ALHAJ ALI 123065

AHMED HUSSEIN ABDELMAGED OSMAN 123010
MOHAMED ABDELMAJEED ALTAIEP MOHAMED 123109
MUTAZ SAYED MOHAMED OSMAN 123133
Supervised by:
Dr. YOUSIF HUMMAIDA AHMED
Ustaz. ASIM ELSANOSI OSMAN
October 2017
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Dedication
To those who gave us their time

Our Parents
To those who gave us their Knowledge

Our Teachers
II | P a g e
Acknowledgment
This work was carried out during the years 2016 -2017 in the department
of Civil Engineering at the University of Khartoum.
We owe our deepest gratitude and acknowledgment to our supervisor Dr.
Yousif Hummaida Ahmed for his patient guidance, enthusiastic
encouragement and useful critiques of this work. It has really been an honor
for us working under his supervision. We also owe a great debt of gratitude
to Engineer Asim Elsanosi Osman for his continuous technical directions
and collaboration.
We also owe sincere and earnest thankfulness to Engineers Abd Elaziz Taj
Elsir, Hani Saad and Nour Elnabi Ahmed for their technical
demonstrations and assistance.
Our special thanks are also extended to the staff of the department of Civil
Engineering at the University of Khartoum for their help in providing
resources and references. We are also obliged to our colleagues who
supported us all over the year.
We are truly indebted and thankful to the help provided by Ghaidaa Gadour
for it assistance and explanations regarding the drawings and detailing
associated to this specific building.
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It is a great pleasure to thank everyone who helped us to write our
dissertation. We believe this work would not have been accomplished
without their continuous help and support.
IV | P a g e
‫المستخلص‬
‫الهدف من المشروع عمل مقارنة بين تكلفة البناء لمبنى سكني من طابقين باستخدام طريقتي‬
‫الحوائط الحاملة والهيكل الخرساني‪.‬‬
‫لتحقيق هذا الهدف جمعت الخرائط المعمارية الخاصة بالمبنى المكون من طابقين‬
‫(ارضي‪+‬اول)‪+‬سطوح من المهندس المقاول ومن ثم عدلت الخرط من طريقة الحوائط الحاملة الى‬
‫الهيكل الخرساني‪.‬‬
‫تم تحليل وتصميم المبنى بالطريقتين اعاله وعقب ذلك حساب للكميات للمبنيين باستخدام برنامج‬
‫( ‪.(Qspro Premium and Plan swift‬‬
‫بعد ان حددت الكميات المطلوبة لتشييد المبنيين وبعد التحصل على االسعار من االسواق المحلية‬
‫تم تحديد التكلفة الكلية بناءا على تلك االسعار وقد تبين ان تكلفة الحوائط الحامله هي االرخص‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫وتمثل حوالي ‪ % 75‬من تكلفه الهيكل الخرساني‬
‫‪V|Page‬‬
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the project is to compare the cost of constructions two-story
residential building using the load-bearing structure and the concrete
structure in the Khartoum area. To achieve this objective, we have
collected the architectural drawings of the building consist of two storeys
consist (ground+1st floor) with Roof from the contractor engineer.
The building was analyzed and designed in these two ways and the
quantities of the building were then calculated using Qspro Premium and
Plan Swift. The quantities required for the construction of the two buildings
were determined, after obtaining the rates for different quantities prices
from the local markets. The total cost determined based on these prices.
revealed that the cost of load bearing is the cheapest costing 75 % from the
R.C building amount.
VI | P a g e
‫االستهالل‬
‫قال هللا سبحانه وتعالي‪:‬‬
‫(وقال فرعون يا أيها المأل ما علمت لكم من اله غيري فأوقد‬
‫لي يا هامان علي الطين فاجعل لي صرحا لعلي أطلع إلي إله‬
‫موسي وأني ألظنه من الكاذبين)‬
‫االيه ‪ 38‬من سورة القصص‬
‫‪VII | P a g e‬‬
Notations:
= area of tension reinforcement
= minimum area of compression reinforcement
= area of tension reinforcement provided
=area of tension reinforcement required
b = width or effective width of the section or flange in the compression

zone.
=effective width of flange
= average web width of a flanged beam.

= breadth of section (for a flanged beam this should be taken as the
average width of the rib below the flange.
D.L = Dead load.
d = effective depth of the tension reinforcement
𝑑 ˊ = Distance between compression and tension.
F= force.
= characteristic strength of concrete.
𝑓𝑘 = Characteristic compressive strength of masonry unit.
= characteristic strength of compression reinforcement.
= characteristic strength of links (not to be taken as more than
H = Total story height.
h = depth of cross-section measured in the plane under consideration.
= thickness of the flange.
I= second moment of area.
K= A factor that relates the depth to the centroid of the rectangular

parabolic stress block.
VIII | P a g e
L.L = Live load.
= clear height between end restraints.
= effective height of a column in the plane of bending considered.
= length of longer side.

= length of shorter side.
M= design ultimate moment at the section considered.
= Ultimate design moment.
m.f= modification factor for tension reinforcement.
=moment resisted by flange.
= design ultimate moment about the x-axis.
= design ultimate moment about the y-axis.
N = design axial force.
= total design ultimate load per unit area.

P = Axial load.
S = spacing between bars.
= spacing of links along the member.
t= Wall thickness.
v = design shear force due to ultimate loads.
= design concrete shear stress.
= design shear stress at a cross-section
Z = lever arm
𝛽𝑥 , 𝛽𝑦 , 𝛽 , ∝ = Coefficients.
𝛾𝑐 = Concrete unit weight.
𝛾𝑚 = Partial safety factor strength of masonry.
IX | P a g e
Table of Contents
Dedication.................................................................................................... II
Acknowledgment .......................................................................................... III
‫ المستخلص‬.................................................................................................... V
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................... VI
‫ االستهالل‬................................................................................................... VII
Notations: ................................................................................................. VIII
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................... XIV
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................ XV
Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................... 1
1.1 Historical background ................................................................................. 2
1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of low rise building construction ........................... 3
1.3 Aim of the research.................................................................................... 4
1.4 Research methodology ............................................................................... 4
1.5 Thesis layout ............................................................................................ 5
Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................... 6
2.1 Philosophy of design .................................................................................. 7
2.1.1 Permissible stress design ....................................................................... 8
2.1.2 Load factor method .............................................................................. 8
2.1.3 Limit state design ................................................................................. 8
2.2 Basic structural concepts ........................................................................... 10
X|Page
2.2.1 Design loads acting on structures ........................................................... 10
2.2.1.1 Dead Loads (D.L) .......................................................................... 11
2.2.1.2 Live Loads (L.L) ............................................................................ 11
2.2.1.3 Wind Loads (W.L) ......................................................................... 11
2.2.2 Design loads acting on elements ............................................................ 11
2.3 Load Bearing .......................................................................................... 13
2.3.1 Structural Unreinforced Masonry ........................................................... 13
2.3.1.1 Structural Units............................................................................ 13
2.3.1.2 Mortar....................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Brickwork and Properties ..................................................................... 21
2.3.2.1 Type of Masonry Walls .................................................................. 22
2.3.2.2 Compressive Strength of brickwork ................................................... 23
2.3.2.4 Shear Strength............................................................................. 25
2.3.3 Axially Loaded Walls ........................................................................... 25
2.3.3.1 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm) .................................... 26
2.3.3.2 Slenderness (heff /teff) .................................................................... 26
2.3.3.3 Eccentricity of Applied Loading ........................................................ 27
2.3.3.4 Additional moments caused by buckling effects ................................... 28
2.4 Reinforced concrete ................................................................................. 29
2.4.1 Definitions ....................................................................................... 29
2.4.2 Materials ......................................................................................... 29
2.4.2.1 Concrete .................................................................................... 29
XI | P a g e
2.4.2.2 Steel ......................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER 3: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF LOAD BEARING AND EQUIVELENT REINFORCED
CONCRETE STRUCTURE ..................................................................................... 31
3.1 Problem Statement .................................................................................. 32
3.2 Analysis and design of load bearing walls ...................................................... 35
3.2.1 Material properties & design data and general dimensions........................... 35
3.2.2 Critical Elements for Design .................................................................. 36
3.3 Analysis and design of reinforced concrete .................................................... 45
3.3.1 Material properties& design data and general dimension............................. 45
3.2.2 Critical Elements ................................................................................ 46
3.2.2 Beams ............................................................................................. 49
3.2.3 Columns .......................................................................................... 60
3.2.4 Foundations ..................................................................................... 72
Chapter 4: BILLS OF QUANTITIES AND DISSCUSION ................................................. 79
4.1 Definition .............................................................................................. 80
4.3 General Principles of Measurement ............................................................. 80
4.4 Standard Methods of Measurement(SMM) .................................................... 81
4.5 Civil Engineering Standard Method of Measurement “CESMM3” ......................... 82
4.6 Bills of Quantities .................................................................................... 85
4.6.1 BoQ for Load Bearing .......................................................................... 85
4.6.1.1 Taking off ................................................................................... 85
4.6.1.2 Priced BoQ ................................................................................. 95
XII | P a g e
4.6.2 BoQ for RC Building ............................................................................ 98
4.6.2.1 Taking off ................................................................................... 98
4.6.2.2 Priced BoQ ................................................................................ 111
4.7 Discussions ........................................................................................... 114
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................... 115
References ................................................................................................ 117
APPENDICES .............................................................................................. 118
XIII | P a g e
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Loads acting on element ...................................................................... 10
Figure 2-2 Sequence of load transfer between elements ........................................... 12
Figure 2-3 Types of Bricks .................................................................................. 15
Figure 2-4 Types of wall .................................................................................... 22
Figure 2-5 Tensile crack with destitution of stresses on brick units mortar beds .............. 24
Figure 2-6 Flexural failure .................................................................................. 24
Figure 2-7 Eccentricity of load............................................................................. 28
Figure 2-8 Buckling effect .................................................................................. 29
Figure 2-9 Total eccentricity ............................................................................... 29
Figure 3-1 Plan for typical Sudanese household (Ground floor) L.B ............................... 32
Figure 3-2 Plan for typical Sudanese household (1st floor) L.B...................................... 33
Figure 3-3 Plan for typical Sudanese household (Ground floor) R.C .............................. 34
Figure 3-4 Critical walls ..................................................................................... 36
Figure 3-5 Critical Elements of R.C ....................................................................... 46
XIV | P a g e
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Comparison of traditional bricks with Sudanese standard S.S 1974 .................. 17
Table 2-2 Comparison of mechanized bricks with B.S 3921 ........................................ 18
Table 2-3 Types of mortars ................................................................................ 21
Table 2-4: Characteristic compressive strength of masonry (𝑓𝑘): ........................... 25
XV | P a g e
Chapter 1:
Introduction
|Page1
1.1 Historical background
Masonry in the form of brickwork, blockwork and natural stone is one of
the most familiar construction materials. Walls have to perform
simultaneously many functions including structure, thermal, sound
insulation, weather protection and partition of space. Each function has its
own criteria all of which have to be met. Additionally, durability, cost and
construction factors have to be considered indeed the masonry wall design
and construction is in fact quite a complex matter. (Khalaf, Hendry, 2001)
In the first half of the previous century brick construction for multistory
buildings were very largely displaced by steel- and reinforced
concrete(RC) frame structures, although these were very often clad in
brick. One of the main reasons for this was that until around 1950
loadbearing walls were proportioned by purely empirical rules. This led to
excessively thick walls that were wasteful of space and material and took
a longer time to build. The situation has changed worldwide in a number
after 1950 with the introduction of structural codes of practice such as
(BS591, 1992).This made it possible to calculate the necessary wall
thickness. And masonry strengths on a more rational basis. These codes of
practice were based on research programs and building experience, and,
although initially limited in scope, they provided a sufficient basis for the
design of buildings of up to 30 stories. A considerable amount of research
|Page2
and practical experience over the past has led to the improvement and
refinement of the various structural codes such as (BS591, 1992). As a
result, the structural design of masonry buildings is approaching a level
similar to that applying to steel and concrete. (McKenzie, 2001)
1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of low rise building
construction
Advantages:
1. A single element can fulfil several functions can include structure, fire
protection, sound insulation thermal insulation, weather exclusion and sup
partition of space
2. Durability of masonry materials which with appropriate selection, can
be expected to remain serviceable for many decades if not century, with
relatively little maintenance.
3. Aesthetically attractive and its repair and maintenance costs are low
5. Significant reduction in the construction cost
Disadvantages:
1. It occupies large size of space, the thickness walls they approached the
foundation increase the loads to which the wall is subjected.
2. It needs precautions to ensure that building does not collapse in case of
architectural alteration such as removing walls or modifying partition.
|Page3
3. Presence of voids in the walls weaken the building, Therefore it should
be reduced especially what was a large offer.
4. Limited permissible height.
1.3 Aim of the research
To design low rise building using two different procedures namely (load
bearing walls and reinforced concrete) and to calculate quantities and
compare the total cost.
1.4 Research methodology
1. Review of literature about load bearing and reinforced concrete designs
in particular design (BS591, 1992)for design of unreinforced masonry,
However the reinforced concrete design according to (BS8110, 1997) will
not be covered in details as it has been taught in courses during our under
graduate student
2. Design a typical Sudanese house hold of two storeys using the above
mentioned methods.
3. To review methods of preparing bills of quantities and to prepare the
(B.O.Q) for both buildings.
4. To survey unit price for different quantities to provide an estimate for
total cost.
5. Analyze cost and conclude about two different methods.
|Page4
1.5 Thesis layout
This thesis comprised from:
Chapter 1: Introduction that contains historical background, define the aim
of the research and research methodology.
Chapter 2: literature review that contains an introduction about materials,
brickwork, axially loaded walls and design philosophy.
Chapter 3: Analysis and Design of building by using load bearing walls
accords to (BS591, 1992) and reinforced concrete accords to (BS8110,
1997)
Chapter 4: Bills of quantities and discussion
Chapter 5: Conclusions and recommendations
Also list of References and appendices provided at the end of the thesis.
|Page5
Chapter 2: Literature
Review
|Page6
2.1 Philosophy of design
The primary aim of design is seen as the need to ensure that at no point in
the structure do the design loads exceed the design strengths of the
materials. This can be achieved by using the permissible stress or load
factor philosophies of design. However, both suffer from drawbacks and it
is more common to design according to limit state principles which involve
considering all the mechanisms by which a structure could become unfit
for its intended purpose during its design life.
Design is a word that means different things to different people. In
dictionaries the word is described as a mental plan, preliminary sketch,
pattern, construction, plot or invention.
To civil and structural engineers, however, design is taken to mean the
entire planning process for a new building structure, bridge, tunnel, road,
etc., from outline concepts and feasibility studies through mathematical
calculations to working drawings which could show every last nut and
bolt in the project. Together with the drawings there will be bills of
quantities, a specification and a contract, which will form the necessary
legal and organizational within which a contractor, under the supervision
of engineers and architects, can construct the scheme.
|Page7
To prevent stress due to loading from exceeding the strength of the material
in order for the structure to be safe use one of three distinct design
philosophies, namely:
1. Permissible stress design
2. Load factor method
3. Limit state design
2.1.1 Permissible stress design
In permissible stress design the stresses in the structure at working loads
are not allowed to exceed a certain proportion of the yield stress of the
construction material.
2.1.2 Load factor method
Load factor was developed to take account of the behavior of the structure
once the yield point of the construction material had been reached. This
approach involved calculating the collapse load of the structure. The
working load was derived by dividing the collapse load by a load factor.
2.1.3 Limit state design
Limit state design can perhaps be seen as a compromise between the
permissible and load factor methods. It is in fact a more comprehensive
approach which takes into account both methods in appropriate ways.
The aim of limit state design is to ensure that a structure will not become
unfit for its intended use, that is, it will not reach a limit state during its
design life.
|Page8
Two categories of limit states are examined in design: ultimate and
serviceability. The former is concerned with overall stability and
determining the collapse load of the structure; the latter examines its
behavior under working loads. Structural design principally involves
ensuring that the loads acting on the structure do not exceed its strength
and the first step in the design process then is to estimate the loads acting
on the structure.
The design strength is obtained by dividing the characteristic strength by
the partial safety factor for strength:
characteristic strength
Design strength =
γm
The design load is obtained by multiplying the characteristic load by the
partial safety factor for load:
Design load = characteristic load × γf
The construction material must be capable of withstanding these forces
otherwise failure of the structure may occur
Design strength ≥ design load
Simplified procedures for calculating the moment, shear and axial load
capacities of structural elements together with acceptable deflection limits
are described in the appropriate codes of practice. (Arya, 2009)
The serviceability limit states are those of excessive deflection, cracking,
vibration and so on. Normally, three limit states only are considered in
|Page9
design: the ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit states of
excessive deflection and cracking under service loads. The structure is
usually designed for the ultimate limit state and checked for the
serviceability limit states. (Arya, 2009).
2.2 Basic structural concepts
Slabs can be regarded for design purposes as a series of transversely
connected beams. Columns may support slabs and beams but columns may
also be supported by (ground bearing) slabs and beams, in which case the
latter are more commonly referred to as foundations as shown in Figure 2-
1. Columns are different in that they are primarily compression members
rather than beams and slabs which predominantly resist bending.
Figure 2-1 Loads acting on element

2.2.1 Design loads acting on structures
The loads acting on a structure are divided into three basic types: dead,
imposed and wind
| P a g e 10
2.2.1.1 Dead Loads (D.L)
Dead loads are all the permanent loads acting on the structure including
self-weight, finishes, and fixture sand partitions.
2.2.1.2 Live Loads (L.L)
Live load, sometimes also referred to as Imposed load represents the load
due to the proposed occupancy and includes the weights of the occupants,
furniture and roof loads including snow.
2.2.1.3 Wind Loads (W.L)
Wind pressure can either add to the other gravitational forces acting on the
structure or, equally well, exert suction or negative pressures on the
structure.
In most of the simple structures the worst possible combination will arise
due to the maximum dead and maximum imposed loads acting on the
structure together. In such cases, the partial safety factors for dead and
imposed loads are 1.4 and 1.6 respectively.
2.2.2 Design loads acting on elements
All structures are composed of a number of interconnected elements such
as slabs, beams, columns, walls and foundations. Collectively, they enable
the internal and external loads acting on the structure to be safely
transmitted down to the ground. It is usually assumed that the reaction from
one element is a load on the next and that the sequence of load transfer
| P a g e 11
between elements occurs in the order: ceiling/floor loads to beams to
columns to foundations to ground as shown in Figure 2-2 below:
Figure 2-2 Sequence of load transfer between elements
Once the design loads acting on the structure have been estimated it is then
possible to calculate the design loads acting on individual elements this
usually requires the designer to make assumptions regarding the support
conditions and how the loads will eventually be transmitted down to the
ground. In design it is common to assume that all the joints in the structure
are pinned and that the sequence of load transfer occurs in the order: slabs
loads to beams to columns to foundations to ground. These assumptions
will considerably simplify calculations and lead to conservative estimates
of the design loads acting on individual elements of the structure.
| P a g e 12
2.3 Load Bearing
2.3.1 Structural Unreinforced Masonry
Masonry can be regarded as an assemblage of structural units, which are
bonded together in a particular pattern by mortar. Masonry may be
unreinforced, reinforced or pre-stressed. Masonry is a non-homogeneous,
composite material which exists in many forms comprising units of varying
shape, size and physical characteristicsInvalid source specified.
2.3.1.1 Structural Units
Brick is defined as a masonry unit with dimensions not exceeding
337.5*225*112.5 (L*w*t) in mm .Any unit with a dimension that exceeds
any one of those specified above is termed as block.
(Mohamed,M.E,Saeed,M.M.B,Hajo,A.B and Eltayeb,E.B, 2013)
Fired clay bricks
Fired clay bricks are extensively used in Sudan. This is because of the
availability of raw material (clay) and it have comparatively low price.
Studies showed that the annual production of fired clay bricks by
traditional method is about 3.7 billion bricks in year 2005, about half this
quantity produced in Khartoum state.
Bricks produced by traditional method are of low quality because they are
irregular in shape, show high variation in dimension and they are not
| P a g e 13
matching with standard. (Mohamed,M.E,Saeed,M.M.B,Hajo,A.B and
Eltayeb,E.B, 2013)
Raw Materials of Clay bricks
1\Raw materials generally:
Basic raw materials are Clayey Soil. Clay is a fine grained material which
develops plasticity when mixed with water and thus can be molded into
any shape and it is retains to its original shape when molding force is
removed.
2\ Raw materials in Sudan:
All clayey soil used in brick making come from rivers and valleys deposits.
About 92% of bricks in Sudan produced from Nile sediment.
Characteristics of fired clay bricks
All properties of bricks are affected by raw material composition and the
manufacturing process.
Most manufacturers blend different clays to achieve the desired properties
of raw material and fired bricks, this improve the overall quality of finish
product. (Mohamed,M.E,Saeed,M.M.B,Hajo,A.B and Eltayeb,E.B, 2013)
Classification of bricks and standards
Classification of bricks
All clay bricks may be classified under the heading of variety, quality and
type as defined in BS3921 site hereunder.
| P a g e 14
Variety
Three varieties are defined:
a. Common: any brick for general building work, but not chosen for
attractive appearance.
b. Facing: any brick specially made or selected for its appearance.
c. Engineering: brick having dense and strong semi-vitreous body
conforming to defined absorption and strength limits, unlike
common or facing bricks which only have minimum strength
requirement and no particular absorption limit.
Types
1. Solid: having holes not exceeding 25% of the brick volume or frogs
not exceeding 20%.
2. Perforated: having holes in excess of 25% of the bricks volume,
provided that holes are less than 20mm wide or 500 mm2 in area.
3. Hollow: having holes in excess of 25% and larger than “perforated”.
4. Cellular: having holes closed at one end that exceed 20% of volume
of the brick.
Figure 2-3 Types of Bricks
| P a g e 15
The compressive strength for ordinary quality bricks or blocks for load
bearing use shall not be less than 5.0 N/mm2 for bricks and 2.7 N/mm2 for
blocks, for non-load bearing partition the compressive strength not be less
than 1.35N/mm2 for both.
According to Sudanese standard for common burnt bricks (S.S1974):
Dimension: Two dimensions are given:
250*70*120 mm
230*110*60 mm
With the following tolerances:
For length and width ± or (3%)
For height ± or (4%)
As shown in Table 2.1.
Compressive strength:
For average of 5 bricks shall not be less than2.45N/mm2, for individual
brick shall not be less than 1.96N/mm2.
Traditional Brickmaking:
1. Processing
2. Shaping
3. Drying
4. Firing
| P a g e 16
Table 0-1 Comparison of traditional bricks with Sudanese standard S.S
1974
Property Grief west Grief east Om- Sedaba Sudanese
durman Standard
1974
Dimension 182*91*46 178*85*50 188*94*49 215*107*60 250*120*
(L*W*H) 70
Mm
Compressive 6.14 7.4 5.97 7.15 Not less
Strength than 2.45
N/mm2
| P a g e 17
Table 0-2 Comparison of mechanized bricks with B.S 3921
Property Soba Adan Tartor B.S.
Standard
3921
Dimension 233*114*63 200*98*68 210*104*65 219*114*63

(L*W*H)
Mm
Compressive 11.1 12.2 6.8 5.1
Strength
N/mm2
| P a g e 18
2.3.1.2 Mortar
Mortar is defined as the medium that binds together the individual
structural units to create a continuous structural form e.g. (brickwork,
stonework etc.) Mortar serves a number of functions in masonry
construction, to: (McKenzie, 2001)
a. bind together the individual units
b. distribute the pressures evenly throughout the individual units
c. infill the joints between the units and hence increase the resistance
to moisture penetration
d. maintain the sound characteristics of a wall
e. maintain the thermal characteristics of a wall
Although mortar accounts for as little as 7% of the total volume of
masonry, its influence on the masonry assemblage is far more than
this proportion indicates.
Cement for mortars
The most commonly used cement in mortar is ordinary Portland cement
(OPC) but rapid hardening, white, blast-furnace and pozzolana cements are
also used in particular circumstances. Certain cements, such as masonry
cement, contain additives that impart special properties such as delayed or
accelerated rates of setting, resistance to chemical attack, enhanced
workability or color. OPC is the principal binding ingredient used in most
mortar mixes currently used in Sudan. (Khalaf, Hendry, 2001)
| P a g e 19
Sand for mortars
Mortar sands can originate from sand pits, sand dunes or have been dredged
from rivers or the sea. Crushed brick, stone, clinker or slag may also be
used. Consider- able importance in relation to characteristics of the mortar
resulting from the use of a particular sand is its particle size grading.
The latter comprising a considerably higher percentage of fines or ‘silt’.
Whilst silt improves workability it tends to detract from durability in severe
exposure conditions or may reduce flexural strength. Coarser sands will be
preferable in these conditions although not easily worked. (Khalaf, Hendry,
2001)
Water of mortar
It is essential to use water free from contaminants for mixing mortar as the
presence of impurities may have an adverse effect on the properties of the
hardened material. Drinking water will be of a satisfactory standard and, if
not available, the quality of a proposed source may have to be checked. In
particular, sea water with its high salt content should not be used.Invalid
source specified.
Admixtures used in mortar
An admixture is a material added to fresh mortar to change one or more of
the properties of the fresh or hardened mix. The term ‘admixture’ is used
in preference to ‘additive’ which is used by cement manufacturers to
identify substances incorporated in cement to modify their behavior e.g.
| P a g e 20
gypsum to slow down flash setting. Most admixtures are added to mortar
in very small, carefully controlled quantities. The most commonly used
admixtures are accelerators and frost inhibitors, retarders, air entraining
agents, plasticizers and pigments.Invalid source specified.
Function and requirement of mortar
In deciding the type of mortar the properties needing to be considered
areInvalid source specified.:
• Development of early strength.
• Workability, i.e. ability to spread easily.
• Water retentively.
Table 0-3 Types of mortars
2.3.2 Brickwork and Properties
Brickwork units or Masonry walling units are produced from clay, concrete
or stone bricks joined together by cement or lime mortar or other binding
| P a g e 21
material. There are several external and internal masonry walls of different
kinds for building and civil engineering structures.
All walling unit properties differ in some important aspects depending on
the raw materials used and the method of manufacturing.
2.3.2.1 Type of Masonry Walls
There are two different categories defined as:
• Single leaf walls: It is of the same thickness as the units from which it is
built.
• Cavity walls: Consist of two single leaves with air or another substance,
such as thermal insulation. The leaves are tied together with wall ties to
ensure lateral stability.
Figure 2-4 Types of wall

The parameters which are most significant when considering structural
design relate to strength and elastic properties, e.g. compressive, flexural
| P a g e 22
and shear strength, these are discussed individually below. Tensile strength
is generally ignored in masonry design.
2.3.2.2 Compressive Strength of brickwork
There are many factors that affect compressive strength of brickwork but
research work has shown that the following are the most influential
Brickwork structure is primarily stressed in compression. There are many
factors that affect compressive strength of brickwork but research work
shown that the following are the most influential:
- The mortar strength
- The unit strength
- The aspect ratio of the units (ratio of height to least horizontal dimension)
- The bed-joint thickness.
- Geometry of unit
- Joint thickness
- Brickwork bonding
The failure mode of masonry in compression is usually one in which a
tensile crack propagates through the units and the mortar in the direction
of the applied load as shown in Figure 2.5 This crack is caused by
secondary tensile stresses resulting from the restrained deformation of the
mortar in the bed joints of the brickwork
| P a g e 23
Figure 2-5 Tensile crack with destitution of stresses on brick units mortar
beds
2.3.2.3 Flexural Strength
The non-isotropic nature of masonry results in two principal modes of
flexural failure which must be considered:
♦ Failure in mortar parallel to the bed-joints
♦ Failure in mortar perpendicular to the bed-joints
Figure 2-6 Flexural failure
| P a g e 24
2.3.2.4 Shear Strength
The shear strength of masonry is important when considering wall panels
subject to lateral forces and structural forms such as diaphragm and fin
walls where there is the possibility of vertical shear failure between the
transverse ribs and flanges during bending.
2.3.3 Axially Loaded Walls
Load-bearing walls resisting primarily vertical, in-plane loading, are often
referred to as ‘axially loaded walls’ whilst wall panels resisting wind
loading are known as ‘laterally loaded wall panels.’
The magnitude of loading which can be sustained by a load-bearing wall
dependent on a number of factors such as:Invalid source specified.
1. Characteristic compressive strength of masonry, i.e. combined units
and mortar(fk). (McKenzie, 2001)
Table 0-4: Characteristic compressive strength of masonry (𝑓𝑘 ):
2. Partial safety factor for the material strength (γm)
3. Plan area
4. Thickness of the wall (t)
5. Slenderness of the element (ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑓 ⁄𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑓 )
| P a g e 25
6. Eccentricity of the applied load (ex)
7. Combined slenderness and eccentricity
8. Type of structural unit
9. Laying of structural units
2.3.3.1 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength (γm)
The design compressive strength of masonry is determined by dividing the
characteristic strength (fk), by a partial safety factor (γm), which is given in
Table 4 of BS 5628: Part 1.
The γm factor makes allowance for the inherent differences between the
estimated strength characteristics as determined using laboratory tested.
the actual strength of masonry specimen constructed under site conditions
also, in addition, it allows for variations in the quality of materials
produced during the manufacturing process. The value of γ m adopted is
dependent on the degree of quality control practiced by manufacturers and
the standard of site supervision, testing and workmanship achieved during
construction. There are two categories of control adopted in the code
♦ Normal control and,
♦ Special control
2.3.3.2 Slenderness (heff /teff)
The slenderness of a structural element is a mathematical concept used to
assess the tendency of that element to fail by buckling when subjected to
compressive forces. In many cases this is defined as a ratio of effective
| P a g e 26
buckling length (le) to radius of gyration (r) about the axis of buckling. The
effective buckling length is related to the type and degree of end fixity of
the element and the radius of gyration is related to the cross sectional
geometry. In masonry design, in Clause 3.19 of BS 5628: Part 1: 1992 the
slenderness ratio is defined as ‘The ratio of effective height (heff) or length
to the effective thickness (teff).’ The effective thickness is the actual
thickness.
The slenderness ratio should not exceed 27, except in the case of walls less
than 90 mm thick, in buildings more than two storeys, where it should not
exceed 20.
Effective Height (heff):
(heff) of a wall may be taken as:
(a) 0.75 times the clear distance between lateral supports which provide
enhanced resistance to lateral movement, or
(b) The clear distance between lateral supports which provide simple
resistance to lateral movement
Effective Thickness (teff):
The effective thickness is the actual thickness of the wall.
2.3.3.3 Eccentricity of Applied Loading
In most cases the applied loading on a wall is not concentric. This is due to
factors such as construction details, tolerances and non-uniformity of
materials. The resultant eccentricity may be in the plane of the wall as in
| P a g e 27
the case of masonry shear-walls resisting combined lateral wind loading
and vertical floor/roof loading or it may be perpendicular to the plane of
the wall as in the case of walls supporting floor/roof slabs and/or beams
spanning on to them.
When side-sway of a wall is not permitted it can be assumed that the
eccentricity of the applied load at the top of a wall varies from e x at the top
to zero at the bottom as shown in Figure 2.7
Figure 2-7 Eccentricity of load

2.3.3.4 Additional moments caused by buckling effects
The additional eccentricity (ea) is assumed to vary linearly from zero at the
top and bottom of a wall, to a value over the central fifth of the wall
resulting from tendency for a section to buckle depending on its
slenderness. The lateral movement caused by this effect induces a
secondary bending moment in the cross-section because of the ea of the
applied load.
| P a g e 28
Figure 2-8 Buckling effect
The additions of the two eccentricities result in the total design eccentricity,
et clearly the location of the maximum contribution from ea is 0.4h below
the top as shown in Figure 2-9 below:
Figure 2-9 Total eccentricity
2.4 Reinforced concrete
2.4.1 Definitions
Reinforced concrete is one of the principal materials used in structural
design. It is a composite material, consisting of steel reinforcing bars
embedded in concrete. (Arya, 2009)
2.4.2 Materials
2.4.2.1 Concrete
Concrete, on the one hand, has high compressive strength but low tensile
strength.
| P a g e 29
Concrete is a mixture of water, coarse and fine aggregate and a
cementations binder (normally Portland cement) which hardens to a stone
like mass.
As can be appreciated, it is difficult to produce a homogeneous material
from these components. Furthermore, its strength and other properties may
vary considerably due to operations such as transportation, compaction and
curing.
2.4.2.2 Steel
Steel bars, on the other, can resist high tensile stresses but will buckle when
subjected to comparatively low compressive stresses. Steel is much more
expensive than concrete. By providing steel bars predominantly in those
zones within a concrete member which will be subjected to tensile stresses,
an economical structural material can be produced which is both strong in
compression and strong in tension.
| P a g e 30
CHAPTER 3: ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN OF
LOAD BEARING AND
EQUIVELENT
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
STRUCTURE
| P a g e 31
3.1 Problem Statement
Figure 3-10 Plan for typical Sudanese household (Ground floor) L.B
| P a g e 32
Figure 3-11 Plan for typical Sudanese household (1st floor) L.B
| P a g e 33
Figure 3-12 Plan for typical Sudanese household (Ground floor) R.C
| P a g e 34
3.2 Analysis and design of load bearing walls
Elements (Slabs and beams) reserved by contractor.
3.2.1 Material properties & design data and general dimensions
Material properties:
𝛾𝑐 = 24 kN/𝑚3 𝛾𝑏 = 18 kN/𝑚3
Design data:
L.L = 1.5 kN/𝑚2
Finishes = 2.0 kN/𝑚2
General Dimensions:
Floor height = 3 m Wall thickness = 0.2 m
Slab thickness = 0.15 m
| P a g e 35
3.2.2 Critical Elements for Design
Figure 3-13 Critical walls
Wall 1 (external wall):
Loading:
Load from slab
D.L = self-weight + finishes
| P a g e 36
Self-weight = 𝛾𝑐 * t = 24 * 0.15 = 3.6 kN/𝑚2
Finishes =2.0 kN/m2
D.L = 5.6 kN/𝑚2
Ultimate design load = 1.4 D. L + 1.6 L.L
= (1.4*5.6) + (1.6*1.5) = 10.24 kN/𝑚2

1
Area of triangular = *3.6*1.8 = 3.24 𝑚2
2
10.24∗3.24
Load from triangular area = = 9.216 kN/m
3.6
Total design load:
For the wall at 1st floor
Total = self-weight of wall + load from slab +load from parapet
Self-weight of wall = 1.4*(0.4*3*18*0.2)=6.05kN/m
Load from slab =9.216 kN/m
Load from parapet = 1.4(18*0.2*1)=5.04 kN/m
Total Design load =20.3
| P a g e 37
For the wall at G.F floor:
Total = load from above + self-weight of wall + load from slab
Load of wall at 1st floor:
(1.4*3*18*0.2) = 15.12 kN/m
Load from above = 15.12+9.216+5.04 = 29.4kN/m
Total = 29.4+6.05+9.216 = 44.67 kN/m
Design of wall 1st floor:
| P a g e 38
By taking moment about center:
𝑡
ex *14.256=9.216 * +5.04*0
6
ex = 0.107t
1 ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑓 2
ea = t{ ( ) -0.015 }
2400 𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑓
ea = 0.01875t
et = 0.6ex+ea
et = 0.6*0.107t +0.01875t = 0.083t
em = 0.107t
2𝑒𝑚 2∗0.107𝑡
β = 1.1(1 − ) = 1.1(1 − )
𝑡 𝑡
β =0.865
𝛽∗𝑓𝑘 ∗𝑡
≥ Total design load
𝛾𝑚
20.3∗3.5
𝑓𝑘 ≥ = 0.41 N/mm2
0.2∗0.865
| P a g e 39
Use mortar type III
For wall at Ground floor:
𝑡
38.616 x ex =9.216 x +29.4
6
∴ ex = 0.04t
1 ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑓 2
ea = t( –( ) - 0.015) ∴ ea = 0.01875t
et = 0.6 ex +0.01875t et = 0.6*0.04t+0.01875t = 0.04275
em = et = 0.04275t
2𝑒𝑚
β = 1.1(1 − ) 𝛽 = 1.1(1-2×0.04275) = 1
𝑡
𝛽 𝑓𝑘 𝑡
𝛾𝑚
44.67∗3.5
fk ≥ ∴ fk ≥ 0.78 N/mm2
1∗0.2
∴ use mortar type III
| P a g e 40
Wall 2(Internal):
Loading:
Load from slab
D.L = self-weight + finishes
Self-weight = 𝛾𝑐 * t = 24 * 0.15 = 3.6 kN/𝑚2
Finishes = 2 kN /m2
D.L = 5.6 kN/𝑚2
Ultimate design load = 1.4 D. L + 1.6 L.L
= (1.4*5.6) + (1.6*1.5) = 10.24 kN/𝑚2
0.5+3.6
Area of trapezoidal = *1.55 = 3.178 𝑚2
2
Area of triangular = 0.5*3.6*1.8= 3.24 𝑚2

11.84∗3.178
Load from trapezoid area = = 10.45 kN/m
3.6
11.84∗3.24
Load from triangular area = = 10.65 kN/m
3.6
| P a g e 41
Total design load:
For the wall at 1st floor
Total = self-weight of wall + load from slab
Self -weight of wall = 1.4*(0.4*3*18*0.25) =7.56 kN/m
Load from slab = (10.45+10.65) =21.1
Total = 28.66 kN/m
For the wall at Ground Floor:
Total = load from above + self-weight of wall + load from slab
Load of wall at 1st floor:
(1.4*3*18*0.25) = 18.9 kN/m
Load from above = 18.9+21.1 = 40 kN/m
Total = 68.7 kN/m
| P a g e 42
Design of wall at 1st floor:
𝑡 𝑡
ex = (10.65* )-(10.45* )
3 3
ex = zero
1 ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑓 2
ea = t{ ( ) -0.015 }
ea = 0.01875t
et = 0.6ex+ea
et = 0.01875t
em = 0.01875t
2𝑒𝑚 2∗0.01875𝑡
β = 1.1(1 − ) = 1.1(1 − )
𝑡 𝑡
β≈1
𝛾𝑚
28.66∗3.5
𝑓𝑘 ≥ = 0.4 N/mm2
1∗0.25
| P a g e 43
Use mortar type III
Design of wall at Ground Floor:
𝑡 𝑡
61.1ex = (10.65* )-(10.45* )+40*0
3 3
ex = zero
1 ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑓 2
ea = t{ ( ) -0.015 }
ea = 0.01875t
et = 0.6ex+ea
et = 0.01875t
em = 0.01875t
2𝑒𝑚 2∗0.01875𝑡
β = 1.1(1 − ) = 1.1(1 − )
𝑡 𝑡
β≈1
𝛾𝑚
68.7∗3.5
𝑓𝑘 ≥ = 0.962 N/mm2
1∗0.25
| P a g e 44
3.3 Analysis and design of reinforced concrete
3.3.1 Material properties& design data and general dimension
Material Properties:
𝛾𝑐 = 24 kN/𝑚3 𝛾𝑏 = 18 kN/𝑚3 fy=460 N/mm2
Design Data:
L.L=1.5 kN/m2 Finishes =2 kN/m2 Wall Load =5.2
General Dimensions:
Floor height = 3 m Wall thickness = 0.2 m
Slab thickness = 0.15 m
| P a g e 45
3.2.2 Critical Elements
Figure 3-14 Critical Elements of R.C
Design of one-way slab (Ground floor):
Loading:
Dead load:
Slab own weight =24×0.15 = 3.6kN/𝑚2
Finishing =2 kN\m2
Wall load =5.2kN/m2
| P a g e 46
Total D. L =10.8 kN/m2
Live load (L.L) =1.5kN/𝑚2
Ultimate load (N) = 1.4DL+1.6LL =1.4×10.8+1.6×1.5 = 17.52kN/𝑚2
𝑛𝑢 = 17.52𝑘𝑁/𝑚
Design:
MAX/MIN reinforcement:
Min Reinforcement:
100𝐴𝑠 0.13𝐴𝑐 0.13∗1000∗150
= 0.13 , 𝐴𝑠 = = = 195𝑚𝑚2 \m
𝐴𝑐 100 100
Design of negative reinforcement:
The outer support:
𝑀𝑢 = 31.5𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
h =150 mm Bar diameter =12mm Cover =20mm 𝐾′ =
0.156
ɸ
𝑑 = ℎ − 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 − = 124 𝑚𝑚
2
𝑀 31.5 ∗ 106
𝐾= = = 0.08
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 25 ∗ 1000 ∗ 1242
𝐾 < 𝐾′
Compression reinforcement is not required
𝐾
𝑍 = 𝑑[0.5 + √0.25 − ]
0.9
| P a g e 47
0.08
𝑍 = 124 ∗ [0.5 + √0.25 − ] = 116.8𝑚𝑚 < 0.95d
0.9
𝑍 = 111.77𝑚𝑚
𝑀 31.5 ∗ 106
𝐴𝑠 = = = 704.22𝑚𝑚2
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑍 0.87 ∗ 460 ∗ 111.77
𝐴_𝑠 460 1000

Number of bars = =𝜋 = 4.06 => spacing = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟 ×122 5
4
200𝑚𝑚
Provide: T 12 @ 200 mm c/c ,𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 = 565.5𝑚𝑚2
Design of positive reinforcement [At Bottom]:
Near middle of end span:
𝑀𝑢 = 16.7𝐾𝑁. 𝑚
𝑀 16.7 ∗ 106
𝐾= = = 0.043
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 25 ∗ 1000 ∗ 1242
𝐾 < 𝐾′
K<0.05 (z=0.95d)
Z=0.95d=0.95*124=117.8
𝑀 16.7 ∗ 106
𝐴𝑠 = = = 354.23𝑚𝑚2 /𝑚
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑍 0.87 ∗ 460 ∗ 117.8
T 12@ 250 mm c/c is adequate (𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 = 452.4𝑚𝑚2 /𝑚)
Provide: T 12 @ 250mm c/c , 𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 = 452.38𝑚𝑚2 (For deflection
requirements)
| P a g e 48
On the other direction provide nominal reinforcement: T 12 @ 300 mm
c/c
Deflection check:
𝑀𝑢 = 16.7𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
=26
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
100𝐴′𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣
𝑏𝑑
𝑚𝑓𝑐 = [1 + 100𝐴′𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣
] ≤ 1.5 , take 𝑚𝑓𝑐 = 1.0
3+
𝑏𝑑
5𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑞 1 5×460×257 1

𝑓𝑠 = × = ∗ = 235.3
8𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 𝛽𝑏 8×314 1
(477−𝑓𝑠 ) (477−235.3)
𝑚𝑓𝑡 = [0.55+ 𝑀 ≤ 2.0] = [0.55 + 12.2×106
] = 1.748
120(0.9+ 2 ) 120(0.9+ )
𝑏𝑑 1000×1252
Allowable deflection = Basic span/effective depth ratio ×𝑀𝐹𝐶 × 𝑀𝐹𝑇 =
26 × 1 × 1.748 = 45.44𝑚𝑚
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 3600
Actual deflection = = = 28.8𝑚𝑚
𝑑 125
Actual deflection < allowable deflection
Deflection check is Ok
3.2.2 Beams
Design of Beams:-
Beam one (L section)
Dimensions of Beam
Depth of flange (ℎ𝑓 ) =150mm
| P a g e 49
Total depth of beam (h) = 450mm
Width of beam rib (𝑏𝑤 ) = 200mm
Effective width of beam (𝐵𝑒 ) = 487
Loading:
Beam Self weigh = 𝛾𝑐 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ ℎ
= 24*0.2*(0.45-0.15) =1.44 kN/m
From Slab = Dead load +Finishes +wall self-weight
D.L= 𝛾𝑐 ∗ 𝑡= 24 *0.15 =3.6 kN/m2
Finishes =2 kN/m2
Wall self-weight =5.2 kN/m2
Total Dead load from slab = 10.8kN/m2
=10.8*1.9=20.52 kN/m
From partition = 18*0.25*3=13.5 kN/m
Total dead load = 34.02 kN/m
Life load = 1.5*1.9 = 2.85kN/m
analysis of beam:
Design of beam:
Moment at mid span:
Take:
Bar size (ɸ) =16 mm
Link size (ɸ𝑙 ) = 8 mm
| P a g e 50
Concrete cover (c) = 25mm
Effective depth of beam (d) =h-c-ɸ𝑙 -ɸ/2 = 450-25-8-8 = 409mm
Span -1:
M = 72. 6kN.m
Mf ˃ M (N.A is lies within the flange)
𝑀 72.6∗106
𝑘= = = 0.086
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 25∗200∗4092
K<0.156
K>0.05
𝐾
𝑍 = 𝑑 [0.5 + √0.25 − ]
0.9
Z = 365.23mm
𝑀 72.6∗106
𝐴= = = 496.7𝑚𝑚2 /𝑚
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑍 0.87∗460∗365.23
𝐴_𝑠 496.7
Number of bars = =𝜋 = 2.47
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟 ×162
4
Use 3 bars T16
𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 = 603𝑚𝑚2
Minimum reinforcement:
100𝐴𝑠
= 0.13
𝑏𝑤 ℎ
𝐴𝑠 =117𝑚𝑚2
| P a g e 51
Moment at support: -
Take:
Bar size (ɸ) = 16mm
Link size (ɸ𝑙 ) = 8mm
Concrete cover (c) = 25mm
𝑘 ′ = 0.156
𝑑 ′ = 50𝑚𝑚
Effective depth of beam (d) =h-c-ɸL-ɸ/2 = 450-25-8-8 = 409mm
Support:
M =74.23 kN.m
𝑀 74.23∗106
𝑘= = = 0.088
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 25∗200∗4092
K<0.156
𝐾
𝑍 = 𝑑 [0.5 + √0.25 −
0.9
] ≤ 0.95d
Z = 364.1mm
𝑀 74.23∗106
𝐴= = = 509.4𝑚𝑚2 /𝑚
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑍 0.87∗460∗364.1
𝐴_𝑠 509.4
Number of bars = = = 2.53
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟 201
Use 3 bars T16
𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 = 603.185𝑚𝑚2
Percentage of steel:
| P a g e 52
100𝐴𝑠
0.13< <4.0
𝑏ℎ
100𝐴𝑠
=1.64
𝑏ℎ
Deflection:
At span-1 the maximum span positive moment
𝑀𝑢 = 72.6𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝑏𝑤
= 0.41
𝐵𝑒
Basic span/effective depth ratio =26
Modification factor for compression reinforcement (M.F.C) =
100𝐴′𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 100𝐴′𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣
[1+ /(3 + )] ≤ 1.5
𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑
=1.197
2𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑞 1 2∗460∗509.4 1

𝑓𝑠 = ∗ = ∗ =259
3𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 𝛽𝑏 3∗603.135 1
Modification factor for tension reinforcement (M.F.T) =
(477−𝑓𝑠 ) (477−259)
[0.55+ 𝑀 ≤ 2.0] = [0.55+ 72.6∗106
] =1.14
120(0.9+ 2 ) 120(0.9+ )
𝑏𝑑 200∗4092
Allowable deflection = Basic span/effective depth ratio *M.F.C*M.F. T
=26*1.19*1.14 =35.3mm
𝑑 409
Ok
Shear check:
| P a g e 53
Maximum shear force (V) =206.6kN
(a)Check maximum shear stress
At face of support shear (𝑉𝑠 )
𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 0.3

= V -𝑤𝑢 * = 206.6 − 52.2 ∗ =198.77kN
2 2
𝑉𝑠 198.77∗1000
Shear stress 𝑣 = = = 2.43𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 < 0.8√𝑓𝑐𝑢
𝑏𝑑 200∗409
(b) Shear links
Distant d from face of support
Shear (𝑉𝑑 ) =𝑉𝑠 − 𝑤𝑢 𝑑
= 198.77 − 52.2 ∗ 0.409 = 177.4𝑘𝑁

𝑉𝑑 177.4∗1000
Shear stress 𝑣 = = = 2.168𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑏𝑑 200∗409
Determination of (𝑣𝑐 )
100𝐴𝑠
≤3
𝑏𝑑
100𝐴𝑠
= 1.77
𝑏𝑑
400 1
[ ]4 ≥ 1
𝑑
= 1.0
0.79 100𝐴𝑠 1 400 1 𝑓𝑐𝑢 1 0.79

𝑣𝑐 = [ ]3 [ ]4 [ ]3 = ∗ 1.21 ∗ 1 ∗ 1 = 0.765𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝛾𝑚 𝑏𝑑 𝑑 25 1.25
(𝑣𝑐 + 0.4) < 𝑣 < 0.8√𝑓𝑐𝑢
𝐴𝑠𝑣 𝑏𝑣 (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 ) 250(1.65 − 0.765)

= = = 0.553
𝑠𝑣 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑣 0.87 ∗ 460
𝐴𝑠𝑣
Provide R8 link @150mm centers, = 1.0
𝑠𝑣
| P a g e 54
(c) Nominal links
𝐴𝑠𝑣 0.4𝑏 0.4∗250
= = = 0.25
𝑠𝑣 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑣 0.87∗460
𝐴𝑠𝑣
Provide R8 link @300mm, centers = 0.335
𝑠𝑣
Maximum spacing = 0.75𝑑 = 0.75 ∗ 554.5 = 432.51𝑚
Beam two (T section)
Dimensions of Beam
Depth of flange (ℎ𝑓 ) =150mm
Total depth of beam (h) = 450mm
Width of beam rib (𝑏𝑤 ) = 250mm
Effective width of beam (𝐵𝑒 ) = 824mm
Loading:
Beam Self weigh = 𝛾𝑐 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ ℎ
= 24*0.2*(0.45-0.15) =1.44 kN/m
From Slab = Dead load +Finishes +wall self-weight
D.L= 𝛾𝑐 ∗ 𝑡= 24 *0.15=3.6 kN/m2
Finishes =2kN/m2
Wall self-weight =5.2kN/m2
Total Dead load from slab=10.8 kN/m2
= 10.8*4.075=44kN/m
From partition = 18*0.25*3 =13.5 kN//m
Total dead load = 57.6 kN/m
| P a g e 55
Life load = 1.5*4.075 = 6.11kN/m
Design of beam:
Moment at mid span:
Take:
Concrete cover (c) = 25 mm
Effective depth of beam (d) =h-c-ɸ𝑙 -ɸ/2 = 450-25-8-8 = 409mm
Span -1:
M = 108.05 kN.m
Mf ˃ M (N.A is lies within the flange)
𝑀 108.05∗106
𝑘= = = 0.033
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 25∗774∗4092
K<0.156
K<0.05
Z =0.95d
Z=388.55
𝑀 108.05∗106
𝐴= = = 695𝑚𝑚2
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑍 0.87∗460∗388.55
Use 4 bars T16
Area of steel provided (𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 ) = 804.24𝑚𝑚2
| P a g e 56
100𝐴𝑠
= 0.13
𝑏𝑤 ℎ
Moment at support: -
Take:
Concrete cover (c) = 25 mm
𝑘 ′ = 0.156
𝑑 ′ = 50𝑚𝑚
Effective depth of beam (d) =h-c- ɸL-ɸ/2 = 450-25-8-8 = 409mm
Support-1:
M = 155kN.m
𝑀 155∗106
𝑘= = = 0.148
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 25∗250∗4092
K<0.156
K>0.05
𝐾
𝑍 = 𝑑 [0.5 + √0.25 − ]
0.9
| P a g e 57
Z=324.1
𝑀 155∗106
𝐴= = = 1195𝑚𝑚2
0.87𝑓𝑦 𝑍 0.87∗460∗324.1
Use 6 T16
Area of steel provided (𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 ) =1206𝑚𝑚2
Percentage of steel:
100𝐴𝑠
0.13< <4.0
𝑏ℎ
100𝐴𝑠
= 0.13
𝑏𝑤 ℎ
Maximum reinforcement:
100𝐴𝑠
= 4.0
𝑏𝑤 ℎ
𝐴𝑠 =6000𝑚𝑚2
Deflection:
At span-1 the maximum span positive moment
𝑀𝑢 = 108.05𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝑏𝑤
= 0.258
𝐵𝑒
Basic span/effective depth ratio =24
Modification factor for compression reinforcement (M.F.C) =
100𝐴′𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 100𝐴′𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣
[1+ /(3 + )] ≤ 1.5
𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑
| P a g e 58
=1.0
2𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑞 1 2∗460∗1195 1

𝑓𝑠 = ∗ = ∗ =303.8
3𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 𝛽𝑏 3∗1206 1
Modification factor for tension reinforcement (M.F.T) =
(477−𝑓𝑠 ) (477−303.8)
[0.55+ 𝑀 ≤ 2.0] = [0.55+ 108.05∗106
] =1.05
120(0.9+ 2 ) 120(0.9+ )
𝑏𝑑 250∗4092
Allowable deflection = Basic span/effective depth ratio *M.F.C*M.F. T
=24*1.0*1.05 =25.2mm
𝑑 416
Ok
Shear check:
Support-1
Maximum shear force (V) =368.7kN
(a)Check maximum shear stress
𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 0.3

At face of support shear (𝑉𝑠 ) = V-𝑤𝑢 * =368.7 − 90.2 ∗
2 2
357.4=kN
𝑉𝑠 357.4∗1000
Shear stress 𝑣 = = = 3.4𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 < 0.8√𝑓𝑐𝑢
𝑏𝑑 250∗409
(b) Shear links
Distant d from face of support
𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
Shear (𝑉𝑑 ) =𝑉𝑠 − 𝑤𝑢 (𝑑 + ) =357.4 − 90.2 ∗ (0.409 +
2
0.125) = 309.2𝑘𝑁
| P a g e 59
𝑉𝑑 309.2∗1000
Shear stress 𝑣 = = = 3.02𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑏𝑑 250∗409
Determination of (𝑣𝑐 )
100𝐴𝑠
≤3
𝑏𝑑
100𝐴𝑠
= 1.16
𝑏𝑑
400 1
[ ]4 ≥ 1
𝑑
= 1.0
0.79 100𝐴𝑠 1 400 1 𝑓𝑐𝑢 1 0.79

𝑣𝑐 = [ ]3 [ ]4 [ ]3 = ∗ 1.11 ∗ 1 ∗ 1 = 0.664𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝛾𝑚 𝑏𝑑 𝑑 25 1.25
(𝑣𝑐 + 0.4) < 𝑣 < 0.8√𝑓𝑐𝑢
𝐴𝑠𝑣 𝑏𝑣 (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 ) 250(3.4 − 0.664)

= = = 1.7
𝑠𝑣 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑣 0.87 ∗ 460
𝐴𝑠𝑣
Provide R8 link @100mm centers, = 1.0
𝑠𝑣
(c) Nominal links

𝐴𝑠𝑣 0.4𝑏 0.4∗200
= = = 0.2
𝑠𝑣 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑣 0.87∗460
𝐴𝑠𝑣
Provide R8 link @300mm, centers = 0.335
𝑠𝑣
Maximum spacing = 0.75𝑑 = 0.75 ∗ 414 = 310.5𝑚m
Minimum spacing = 80mm
3.2.3 Columns
Columns Design:
Design procedures:
| P a g e 60
‒ Classification of columns:
For braced columns:
𝐿𝑒⁄ℎ ≤ 15 → 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝐿𝑒⁄ℎ ≥ 15 → 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝐿𝑒 = 𝛽 ∗ 𝐿𝑜
● Axially loaded column:
𝑁 = 0.35 𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝐴𝑐 + 0.67𝐴𝑠𝑐𝑓𝑦
● Uni-axial bending:
𝑀 𝑁
Calculate and to find the percentage of steel area from charts
𝑏ℎ 2 𝑏ℎ
in (BS 8110-3)
● Biaxial bending:
If Mx/h' ≥ My/b' → 𝑀𝑥′ = 𝑀𝑥 + ∗ 𝑀𝑦
If Mx/h' ≤ My/b' → 𝑀𝑦′ = 𝑀𝑦 + ∗ 𝑀𝑥
Where:
β is the coefficient obtained from BS 8110-1 table 3.22.
Mdesign is the greater of Mx' or My' and N*emin
emin is the lesser of h/20 and 20 mm (according to each axis of bending)

𝑀 𝑁
Find steel area using charts in ( BS 8110-3) by : and
𝑏ℎ2 𝑏ℎ
| P a g e 61
Column C1
Classification
Column properties:
ℎ = 250 𝑚𝑚 𝑏 = 250 𝑚𝑚
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 = 150 𝑚𝑚
βx:-
(BS 8110-1:1997 table 3.19)
End Condition at top = 3
End condition at bottom = 1
| P a g e 62
βy:-
End condition at top = 3
∴ βx = βy =0.9
Lx=3m
Ly=2.7m
Lex/h = βx×Lx/h = 0.9×2.7/0.25 =9.7 <15
Ley/b = βy×Ly/b = 0.9×2.7/0.25 =9.7 <15
∴ (𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛)
● 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛:
‒ Column properties:
b =250 mm. h=250 mm. . Links= 6 mm.
ℎ′ = 0.8×h=200 mm
𝑏′ =0.8×b= 200 𝑚𝑚
𝐵𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (∅)=16𝑚𝑚
Load from main beam = 107 kN
Load from secondary beam = 3.6 kN
Self weight of column = 025*0.25*24*6 = 9 kN
Total load = 2(107+3.6)+9 = 230.2 kN
𝑁 = 230.2 𝐾𝑁
𝑀x = 17.6 k𝑁.𝑚
𝑀y = 17 k𝑁.𝑚
| P a g e 63
(Obtained from ETABS, Appendix (X), Column Axial Forces and
moment)
Mx design is the greater of Mx or N× emin
Mx=17.6 kN.m
emin is the lesser of h/20 and 20 mm , in this case = 12.5mm
N× emin= 230.2×0.0125 =2.88 kN.m
My design is the greater of My or N× emin
My=17 KN.m
N× emin = 0.0125x230.2 =2.88 kN.m
∴ design moments :
Mx = 17.6 kN.m
My= 17 kN.m
𝑀𝑥/ℎ′ = 17.6/0.2 = 88
𝑀𝑦/𝑏′ = 17/0.2= 85
Mx My
>
h′ b′
ℎ′
∴ 𝑀𝑥 ′ = 𝑀𝑥 + 𝛽 ∗ ′ ∗ 𝑀𝑦
𝑏
𝑁 230.2∗103
= = 0.147
𝑓𝑐𝑢 ∗𝑏∗ℎ 25×250×250
β = 0.88
200
∴ 𝑀𝑥 ′= 17.6 + 0.88 * *17 = 32.4 kN.m
200
𝑁 230.2∗103
= = 3.7
𝑏ℎ 250×250
| P a g e 64
𝑀 32.4∗ 106
2
= = 2.1
𝑏ℎ 250∗2502
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑡 (𝐵𝑆 8110−3: 1985)
100 𝐴𝑠𝑡
= 0.7
𝑏ℎ
0.7∗250∗250 2
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = = 438 𝑚𝑚 .
100
Provide 4 T 16 bars .
∅𝑚𝑎𝑥
∅ of link >
4
∅𝑚𝑎𝑥
=16/4 = 4
4
Take ∅ = 8mm
Space <12 ∅𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 12*16 = 192 mm
Take space = 150 mm
Column C2 (internal column)
Classification
Column properties:
| P a g e 65
ℎ = 250 𝑚𝑚 𝑏 = 250 𝑚𝑚
βx:-
(BS 8110-1:1997 table 3.19)
βy:-
∴ βx =0.75
∴ βy =0.9
Lx=3m
Ly=2.7m
Lex/h = βx×Lox/h = 0.75×3/0.25=9 >15
Ley/b = βy×Loy/b = 0.9×2.7/0.25 = 9.7 <15
b= 250mm. h=250 mm. Links= 6 mm.
ℎ′ = 0.8×h= 200 mm
𝑏′ =0.8×b=200 𝑚𝑚
| P a g e 66
3.1
Load from main beam 1 =90.4* =140.1 kN
2
4.05
Load from main beam 2 = 90.4* = 183.06 kN
2
Self weight of column = 0.25*0.25*24*6 = 9 kN
∴ 𝑛𝑢 = 2(140.1 + 183.06) + 9 = 655.32 kN
𝑁 = 655.32 k𝑁
𝑀x = 4 k𝑁.𝑚
𝑀y = 15 k𝑁.𝑚
(Obtained from ETABS, Appendix (X), Column Axial Forces and
moment)
Mx=4 kN.m
N× emin= 655.32×0.0125 =8.2 kN.m
My=15 kN.m
N× emin = 392×0.0125=8.2 kN.m
Mx = 8.2 kN.m
My= 15 kN.m
𝑀𝑥/ℎ′ = 5.2/0.2 = 41
𝑀𝑦/𝑏′ = 15/0.2= 75
| P a g e 67
My Mx
>
b′ h′
𝑏′
∴ 𝑀𝑦 ′ = 𝑀y + 𝛽 ∗ ′∗ 𝑀x
ℎ
𝑁 655.32∗103
= = 0.42
𝑓𝑐𝑢 ∗𝑏∗ℎ 25×250×250
β = 0.7
200
∴ 𝑀𝑦 ′ = 15 + 0.7 * *8.2 =20.74 kN.m
200
𝑁 655.32∗103
= = 10.5
𝑏ℎ 250𝑥250
𝑀 20.74∗ 106
2
= = 1.3
𝑏ℎ 250∗2502
100 𝐴𝑠𝑡
= 0.6
𝑏ℎ
0.6∗250∗250
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = = 375 𝑚𝑚2 .
100
∅𝑚𝑎𝑥
∅ of link >
4
∅𝑚𝑎𝑥
=16/4 = 4
4
Take ∅ = 8mm
= 12*16 = 192 mm
Take space = 150 mm
| P a g e 68
Column C3 (edge column):
Classification
Column properties:
ℎ = 250 𝑚𝑚 𝑏 = 250 𝑚𝑚
βx:-
(BS 8110-1:1997 table 3.19)
βy:-
∴ βx0.75 = βy =0.9
Lx=3m
Ly=2.7m
| P a g e 69
Lex/h = βx×Lx/h = 0.75×3/0.25 =7.5 <15
Ley/b = βy×Ly/b = 0.9×2.7/0.25 =9.72 <15
b =250mm. h=250 mm. . Links= 6 mm.
ℎ′ = 0.8×h=200 mm
𝑏′ =0.8×b= 200 𝑚𝑚

4.1
load from beam(1)=52.88* = 107𝑘𝑁
2
4.05
load from main beam (2)=52.88* = 81𝑘𝑁
2
load on beam=2(107+81)=376k
self weight of column=
0.25*0.25*24*6=9kN
Nu= (9+376)=385kN
𝑀x = 4 k𝑁.𝑚
𝑀y = -15 k𝑁.𝑚
Mx=4 kN.m
| P a g e 70
N× emin= 385× 0.0125=4.8kN.m
My=15 kN.m
N× emin = 0.0125*385 =4.8 kN.m
Mx = 4.8 kN.m
My= 15 kN.m
𝑀𝑥/ℎ′ = 4.8/0.2= 24
𝑀𝑦/𝑏′ = 15/0.2= 75
Mx My
< ∴
h′ b′
𝑏′
𝑀𝑦 ′ = 𝑀y + 𝛽 ∗ ′∗ Mx
ℎ
𝑁 385∗103
= = 0.24
𝑓𝑐𝑢 ∗𝑏∗ℎ 25×250×250
β = 0.7
200
∴ 𝑀𝑦 ′ = 15 + 0.7 * *4.8 = 18.36 kN.m
200
𝑁 385∗103
= = 6.1
𝑏ℎ 250∗250
𝑀 18.36∗ 106
2
= = 0.7
𝑏ℎ 250∗2502

100 𝐴𝑠𝑡
= 0.4
𝑏ℎ
| P a g e 71
0.7∗250∗250
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = = 437mm2
100
∅𝑚𝑎𝑥
∅ of link >
4
∅𝑚𝑎𝑥
=16/4 = 4
4
Take ∅ = 8mm
= 12*16 = 192 mm
Take space = 150 mm
3.2.4 Foundations
D.L = 57.6 kN/m2
L.L = 6.1 kN/m2
Self weight of column = 0.25*0.25*24*6 = 9 kN/m

3.1 4.05
N = (136.4* ) + (136.4 * ) = 487.63 kN
2 2
Assume bearing capacity of soil = 180 kN/m2
Service load = 1.15*487.63 = 560.8 kN
N = 655.32 kN
nult =1.15*655.32 = 753.6 kN

𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑡 560.8
Area= = = 3.1m2
𝐵.𝐶 180
Assume square footing (L*L)
| P a g e 72
L=√3.1 =1.76m take it 1.8m
Area=1.8*1.8=3.24m2
𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑀𝑦
Qcontact= ±
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐼
1.8∗1.83
I= = 0.87𝑚4
12
483 15∗0.9
Q= ±
3.24 0.87
Qmin= 232.6-15.6= 217.4 kN/m2
Qmax= 232.6+15.6=248.2 kN/m2
| P a g e 73
Assume thickNess of footing (t)=500mm
𝜙
D=t-cover-ϕ- d=500 -50-16-8=426mm
2
Shear @ column face:

𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑡 753.6∗1000
Shear stress (ν) = = (4∗250)∗426 =1.77 N/mm2
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟∗𝑑
1.77 N/mm2< 0.8 √𝑓𝑐𝑢 O.K
𝑥 1.025
= = 17.5 kN/mm2
30.8 1.8
Y= 234.4 kN/mm2
| P a g e 74
0.775 2
M=(234.4*1.8*0.775* ) +(13.3*1.8*0.5*0.775* *0.775)
2 3
M= 131.6 KN.m
𝑀 131.6∗106
K= 2
= =0.016 <0.156 ( compression reinforcement is
𝑓𝑐𝑢∗𝑏∗𝑑 25∗1800∗4262
not required)
K<0.05 (z = 0.95d = 404.7mm)
𝑀 131,6∗106
As= = =
744.11mm2
0.95 𝑓𝑦∗𝑧 0.95∗460∗404.7
0.13∗𝑏∗ℎ 0.13∗1800∗500
Asmin= = =1170mm2
100 100
1170
No.of bars = =5.8
201
Use T16@150 mm c/c Asprovide= 1206 mm2

4∗𝑏∗ℎ 4∗1800∗500
Asmax = = =36000 mm2
100 100
1
Vc =0.79 * 100𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 400 1 𝑓𝑐𝑢 1
( ) 3 *( )4 *( )3
𝛾𝑚 𝑏∗𝑑 𝑑 25
=0.34N/mm2
Punching shear @ column face:
| P a g e 75
Load=q*(L*0.775)
234.4+248.2
q= = 241.5kN/m2
2
load=241.5*(1.8*0.775)= 336.8kN
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 336.8∗103
v= = =0.43 N/mm2
𝑙∗𝑑 1800∗426
v=0.441 N/mm2<vc=0.43 N/mm2
v<5 N/mm2
v<0.8√𝑓cu =4N/mm2
punching shear@ d from column face:
𝑥 1.451
=
30.8 1.8
∴ x=24.8
| P a g e 76
Y =25.2 + 217.4 = 242.2 kN/m2
242.2+248.2
q= = 245.2 kN/m2
2
Load = 245.2 (1.8x(0.775 – 0.426)) = 154 kN
154×103
V= =0.2 N/mm2<0.441 N/mm2
1800 ×426
∴ok
-Punching @ 1.5d from column :
Critical perimeter = (4x250) + 12x426 = 611 mm
| P a g e 77
Area with in perimeter = (250 + 3𝑑)2 = 2334784 mm2
𝑥 1.64
=
30.8 1.8
X=28.4 kN/m2
Y= 28.4+217.4=245.8 kN/m2
245.8+248.2
q= = 247 kN/m2
2
load = 247 (1.82 - (2334784×10−6 )) = 233.5 kN
233.5∗103
V= = 0.128 N/mm2< 0.441 N/mm2
6112∗426
| P a g e 78
Chapter 4: BILLS OF
QUANTITIES AND
DISSCUSION
| P a g e 79
4.1 Definition
The term Bills of Quantities (BoQ) is defined in the Standard method of
measurement (SMM) as a list of items giving brief identifying descriptions
and estimated quantities of the works to be performed. The BoQ forms a
part of the contract documents. And is the basis of payment to the
contractor.
4.2 Objectives
To ensure that the BQ are prepared correctly, it is important during
preparation to always bear in mind the three main objectives of the
document. These are:
(a) To enable tenders to be obtained from tenderers and to form the basis
for tender comparison,
(b) To provide a means of valuing the works, and
(c) To form a basis for fixing any rates not included in the BQ, or valuing
any variations.
4.3 General Principles of Measurement
 Taking off: measuring from the drawings and entering the on to
specially ruled dimension paper.
 Squaring: calculating and totaling the lengths, areas and volumes of
the dimensions.
| P a g e 80
 Abstracting: collecting the totals from the dimension paper on to an
abstract to produce a final total for each individual description.
 Billing: reproducing the items from the abstract on to bill paper in
draft form ready for typing. (Spain, 2005)
4.4 Standard Methods of Measurement(SMM)
 The Standard Method of Measurement, 7th Edition, (SMM7) set out
rules for the measurement and description of building work
 The SMM is a document which provides a uniform basis for
measuring building work and embodies the essentials of good
practice.
 If all BoQ are prepared in accordance with these rules, then all
parties concerned are aware of what is included and what is to be
assumed. Without the use of such a set of rules the quality of BoQ
may vary widely (Spain, 2005)
SMM DIVISIONS:
SECTION DESCRIPTION
•A Preliminaries/General conditions
•C Demolition/Alteration/Renovation
•D Groundwork
•E In situ concrete/Large precast concrete
| P a g e 81
•F Masonry
•G Structural/Carcassing metal/timber
•H Cladding/Covering
•J Waterproofing
•K Linings/Sheathing/Dry partitioning
L Windows/Doors/Stairs
•M Surface finishes
•N Furniture/Equipment
•P Building fabric sundries
•Q Paving/Planting/Fencing/Site furniture
•R Disposal systems
•S Piped supply systems
•T Mechanical heating/cooling/refrigeration
•U Ventilation/Air conditioning systems
•V Electrical supply/power/lighting systems
•W Communications/Security/Control systems
4.5 Civil Engineering Standard Method of Measurement
“CESMM3”
“CESMM3” provides for simple building works incidental to civil
engineering works. It does not deal with the preparation of Bills of
| P a g e 82
Quantities for complex mechanical or electrical engineering work, or
complex building work or work which is seldom encountered in civil
engineering contracts.
The object of CESMM3 is to set forth the procedure according to which
the Bill of Quantities shall be prepared and priced and the quantities of
work expressed and measured.
CESMM3 seeks to attain these objects principally by the use of the Work
Classification. This defines
(a) how work is to be divided into separate items in the Bill of quantities
(b) the information to be given in item descriptions
(e) the units in which the quantities against each item are to be expressed
(d) how the work is to be measured for the purpose of calculating
quantities.
Work classification:
Class A: General items
Class B: Ground investigation
Class C: Geotechnical and other specialist processes
Class D: Demolition and site clearance
Class E: Earthworks
Class F: In situ concrete
Class G: Concrete ancillaries
Class H: Precast concrete
| P a g e 83
Class I: Pipework – pipes,
Class J: Pipework – fittings and valves
Class K: Pipework – manholes and pipework ancillaries
Class L: Pipework – supports and protection, ancillaries to laying and
excavation
Class M: Structural metalwork.
Class N: Miscellaneous metalwork.
Class O: Timber.
Class P: Piles.
Class Q: Piling ancillaries.
Class R: Roads and pavings.
Class S: Rail track.
Class T: Tunnels.
Class U: Brickwork, blockwork and masonry.
Class V: Painting.
Class W: Waterproofing.
Class X: Miscellaneous work.
Class Y: Sewer and water main renovation and ancillary works.
Class Z: Simple building works incidental to civil engineering works.
| P a g e 84
4.6 Bills of Quantities
4.6.1 BoQ for Load Bearing
4.6.1.1 Taking off
Primary Description
Code Times In Dimensions Total Notes Qty Unit
Demolition and site
clearance
D1 General clearance
1 JOB
1 1
1
1 1.000
1.000
Earthworks
Excavation for foundations
Material other than topsoil,
rock or artificial hard
material
E3.020.040 maximum depth: 0.5-1m
71 m3
1 142
0.5
1 71.000
71.000
| P a g e 85
Excavation ancillaries
Disposal of excavated
material
Material other than topsoil,
rock or artificial hard
E5.030.020 material
71 m3
1 142
0.5
1 71.000
71.000
Filling
To structures
Imported natural material
E6.010.050 other than topsoil or rock
7 m3
1 142
0.5
0.1 7.100
7.100
E6.010.070 Imported rock
71 m3
1 142
0.5
1 71.000
71.000
Filling ancillaries
Trimming of filled surfaces
| P a g e 86
E7.010.010 Topsoil
71 m²
1 142
0.5 71.000
71.000
In Situ Concrete
Provision of concrete -
Designed mix
Grade: C25
20 mm aggregate
F2.050.030 (Cement OPC )
91 m3
grade
1 142 beam
0.3
0.4 17.040
1 106.6 ring beam for ground floor
0.2
0.2 4.264
1 106.6 beam for ground floor
0.2
0.3 6.396
1 15 slab for ground floor
11.5
0.15 25.875
1 117 1st floor beam
0.2
0.3 7.020
1 15 1st floor slab
| P a g e 87
11.5
0.15 25.875
1 117 ring beam for 1st floor
0.2
0.2 4.680
91.150
Grade: C25
Placing of concrete -
Reinforced
Suspended slabs
thickness: not exceeding
F6.030.010 150 mm (for ground floor)
26 m3
1 15
11.5
0.15 25.875
25.875
thickness: not exceeding
F6.030.015 150 mm (for 1st floor)
26 m3
1 15
11.5
0.15 25.875
25.875
Beams
cross-sectional area: 0.03-
F6.060.020 0.1 m2
6 m3
| P a g e 88
1 106.6 beam for ground floor
0.2
0.3 6.396
6.396
F6.060.025 0.1 m2
7 m3
1 117 beam for 1st floor
0.2
0.3 7.020
7.020
F6.060.030 0.25 m2
17 m3
1 142 grad beam
0.3
0.4 17.040
17.040
F6.060.035 0.1 m2
4 m3
1 106.6 ring beam for ground floor
0.2
0.2 4.264
4.264
F6.060.040 0.1 m2
5 m3
| P a g e 89
1 117 ring beam for 1st floor
0.2
0.2 4.680
4.680
Concrete Ancillaries
Formwork: rough finish
Plane vertical
G1.040.030 width: 0.2-0.4 m
337 m²
2 142 form for grad beam
0.4 113.600
2 106.6 form for ground floor ring beam
0.2 42.640
2 106.6 form for ground floor beam
0.3 63.960
2 117 form for 1st floor ring beam
0.2 46.800
2 117 form for 1st floor beam
0.3 70.200
337.200
Formwork: fair finish
Plane horizontal
G2.010.050 width:exceeding 1.22 m
319 m²
1 14.5 form for slab of ground floor
11 159.500
1 14.5 form of slab of 1st floor
11 159.500
| P a g e 90
319.000
Reinforcement
Plain round steel bars to
BS 4449
G5.010.020.1 nominal size: 8 mm
1 ton
947*8^2/162*1.1*10^-3 1.08 STR for grad beam
1
1 0.444
535*8^2/162*1.1*10^-3 0.6 STR for ground floor ring beam
1
1 0.139
536*8^2/162*1.1*10^-3 0.8 STR for ground floor beam
1
1 0.186
586*8^2/162*1.1*10^-3 0.6 STR for 1st fioor ring beam
1
1 0.153
586*8^2/162*1.1*10^-3 0.8 STR for 1st floor beam
1
1 0.204
1.127
Deformed high yield steel
bars to BS 4449
G5.020.040.1 nominal size: 12 mm
7 ton
Grade
6*12^2/162*1.1*10^-3 142 beam
1
| P a g e 91
1 0.833
6*12^2/162*1.1*10^-3 106.6 ring beam for ground floor
1
1 0.625
6*12^2/162*1.1*10^-3 106.6 beam of ground floor
1
1 0.625
100*12^2/162*1.1*10^-
3 11.25 slab for ground floor(in short span)
1
1 1.100
57*12^2/162*1.1*10^-3 14.75 slab for ground floor(in long span)
1
1 0.822
6*12^2/162*1.1*10^-3 117 ring beam 1st floor
1
1 0.686
6*12^2/162*1.1*10^-3 117 beam of 1st floor
1
1 0.686
100*12^2/162*1.1*10^-
3 11.25 slab for 1st floor(short span)
1
1 1.100
57*12^2/162*1.1*10^-3 14.75 slab for 1st floor(long span)
1
1 0.822
7.301
| P a g e 92
Brickwork, Blockwork and
Masonry
Engineering brickwork
Thickness: 200 mm
U3.020.020 Vertical curved walls
315 m²
1 142 brick work of ground floor
2.5 355.000
-9 2.2 area of doors of ground floor
1 -19.800
-9 1.2 area of windows of ground floor
1 -10.800
-1 2.2 area of Gate 1
2.7 -5.940
-1 2 area of Gate 2
1.5 -3.000
315.460
269 m²
1 117 brick work of 1st floor
2.5 292.500
-7 1 area of doors of 1st floor
2.2 -15.400
-7 1 area of windows of 1st floor
1.2 -8.400
268.700
52 m²
1 52 brick work of parapet
| P a g e 93
1 52.000
52.000
Thickness: 300 mm
92 m²
1 142 brickwork for grade beam
0.65 92.300
92.300
| P a g e 94
4.6.1.2 Priced BoQ
Priced BoQ of Load Bearing 14/10/2017

Rate Total
Item Description Qty Unit
SDG SDG
Demolition and site clearance
D100 General clearance 1 JOB
Earthworks
Material other than topsoil, rock or artificial

hard material
E324 maximum depth: 0.5-1m 3

71 m 100 7,100.00
Disposal of excavated material
E532 Material other than topsoil, rock or artificial

material 71 m3 20 1,420.00
Filling
To structures
E615 Imported natural material other than topsoil or

rock 7 m3 55 385.00
E617 Imported rock 71 m3 100 7,100.00
Filling ancillaries
Trimming of filled surfaces
E711 Topsoil 71 m² 10 710.00
To Collection 16,715.00
Page 1 / 1
| P a g e 95
Rate Total
SDG SDG
In Situ Concrete
Provision of concrete - Designed mix
Grade: C25
F253.01 20 mm aggregate (Cement OPC ) 91 m3 1100 100,100.00
Grade: C25
Placing of concrete - Reinforced
Suspended slabs
F631.01 thickness: not exceeding 150 mm (for ground

floor) 26 m3 200 5,200.00
F631.02 thickness: not exceeding 150 mm (for 1st

floor) 26 m3 220 5,720.00
Beams
F662.02 cross-sectional area: 0.03-0.1 m2 3

13 m 200 2,600.00
F663 cross-sectional area: 0.1-0.25 m2 17 m3 200 3,400.00
F662.05 cross-sectional area: 0.03-0.1 m2 9 m3 200 1,800.00
Plane vertical
G143 width: 0.2-0.4 m 337 m² 130 43,810.00
Page 1 / 2
| P a g e 96
Rate Total
SDG SDG
Plane horizontal
G215.01 width:exceeding 1.22 m 319 m² 130 41,470.00
Reinforcement
Plain round steel bars to BS 4449
G512.01 nominal size: 8 mm 1 ton 19800 19,800.00
Deformed high yield steel bars to BS 4449

Masonry
Engineering brickwork
Thickness: 200 mm
U322.01 Vertical curved walls 636 m² 200 127,200.00
Thickness: 300 mm
U332.01 Vertical curved walls 92 m² 220 20,240.00
Page 1 / 3
Total
SDG
Collection From
1/1 16,715.00
1/2 162,630.00
1/3 334,710.00
Bill Carried to Summary 514,055.00
| P a g e 97
4.6.2 BoQ for RC Building
4.6.2.1 Taking off
Primary Description
Code Times In Dimensions Total Notes Qty UoM
Demolition and site
clearance
D1 General clearance
1 JOB
1 1
1
1 1.000
1.000
Earthworks
Material other than
topsoil, rock or artificial
hard material
E3.020.050 maximum depth: 1-2m
97 m3
20 1.8 for isolated footing
1.8
1.5 97.200
97.200
| P a g e 98
Preparing of excavated
surfaces
Material other than
E5.020.020 hard material
65 m²
20 1.8
1.8 64.800
64.800
Disposal of excavated
material
Material other than
E5.030.020 hard material
41 m3
20 1.8 Volume of R.C of footing
1.8
0.5 32.400
20 1.8 Volume of p.c
1.8
0.1 6.480
20 0.3 Volume of column
0.3
0.9 1.620
40.500
Filling
To structures
| P a g e 99
Non-selected excavated
material other than topsoil
E6.010.030 or rock
56 m3
97 1 volume of excavation
1
1 97.000
-41 1 volume of diposial
1
1 -41.000
56.000
To stated depth or
thickness (1m)
Imported natural material
E6.040.050 other than topsoil or rock
173 m²
1 15
11.5 172.500
172.500
In Situ Concrete
Provision of concrete -
Designed mix
Grade: C25
20 mm aggregate (Cement
F2.050.030 to BS 12 or BS 146)
127 m3
20 1.8 plane concrete
1.8
| P a g e 100
0.1 6.480
20 1.8 footing
1.8
0.5 32.400
20 0.25 short column
0.25
2.5 3.125
grade
1 142 beam
0.25
0.3 10.650
20 0.25 ground floor column
0.25
2.7 3.375
1 106.6 ground floor tie beam
0.3
0.25 7.995
1 15 ground floor slab
11.5
0.15 25.875
20 0.25 1st floor column
0.25
2.7 3.375
1 106.6 1st tie beam
0.25
0.3 7.995
1 15 1st slab
11.5
| P a g e 101
0.15 25.875
127.145
Placing of concrete - Mass
for footings
thickness:not exceeding
F5.020.010 150 mm
6 m3
20 1.8
1.8
0.1 6.480
6.480
Placing of concrete -
Reinforced
footings
F6.020.030 thickness: 300-500 mm
32 m3
20 1.8
1.8
0.5 32.400
32.400
Suspended slabs
thickness:150 mm (ground
F6.030.010 floor)
26 m3
1 15
11.5
0.15 25.875
25.875
| P a g e 102
thickness:150 mm (1st
F6.030.015 floor)
26 m3
1 15
11.5
0.15 25.875
25.875
Columns
cross-sectional area:
F6.050.020 (0.25*0.25) m²
10 m3
20 0.25 short coulmn
0.25
2.5 3.125
20 0.25 ground floor coulmn
0.25
2.7 3.375
20 0.25 1st floor column
0.25
2.7 3.375
9.875
Beams
cross-sectional area:
F6.060.020 (0.25*0.3) m²
28 m3
grade
1 142 beam
0.25
| P a g e 103
0.3 10.650
0.25
0.3 8.745
1 116.6 1st floor tie beam
0.25
0.3 8.745
28.140
Plane horizontal
G1.010.020 width:0.2 m
375 m
grade
1 142 142.000 beam
1 116.6 116.600 ground floor tie beam
1 116.6 116.600 1st floor tie beam
375.200
Plane vertical
G1.040.030 width: 0.3 m
371 m²
20*4 2.5 short column
0.25 50.000
grade
2 142 beam
0.3 85.200
20*4 2.7 ground floor column
0.25 54.000
| P a g e 104
0.3 63.960
20*4 2.7 1st floor column
0.25 54.000
2 106.6 1st floor tie beam
0.3 63.960
371.120
Plane horizontal
G2.010.050 width:exceeding 1.22 m
345 m²
1 15 ground floor slab
11.5 172.500
1 15 1st floor slab
11.5 172.500
345.000
Plane vertical
G2.040.020 width: 0.1-0.2 m
106 m
2*(15+11.5) 1 53.000 ground floor slab
2*(15+11.5) 1 53.000 1st floor slab
106.000
Reinforcement
Plain round steel bars to BS
4449
G5.010.020 nominal size: 8 mm
1 ton
| P a g e 105
grade
474*8^2/162*1.1*10^-3 0.78 beam
1
1 0.161
356*8^2/162*1.1*10^-3 0.9 tie beam for ground floor
1
1 0.139
390*8^2/162*1.1*10^-3 0.9 tie beam foor 1st floor
1
1 0.153
20*17*8^2/162*1.1*10^-
3 0.8 shor column
1
1 0.118
20*20*8^2/162*1.1*10^-
3 0.8 column for ground floor
1
1 0.139
20*20*8^2/162*1.1*10^-
3 0.8 column for 1st floor
1
1 0.139
0.849
Deformed high yield steel
bars to BS 4449
4 ton
100*12^2/162*1.1*10^- slab for ground floor(in short
3 11.25 span)bottom
| P a g e 106
1
1 1.100
slab for ground floor(in long
39*12^2/162*1.1*10^-3 14.75 span)bottom
1
1 0.562
100*12^2/162*1.1*10^-
3 2.4 slab for ground floor(in short span)top
1
1 0.235
39*12^2/162*1.1*10^-3 2.4 slab for ground floor(in long span)top
1
1 0.092
100*12^2/162*1.1*10^-
3 11.25 slab for 1st floor(in short span)bottom
1
1 1.100
60*12^2/162*1.1*10^-3 14.75 slab for 1st floor(in long span)bottom
1
1 0.865
100*12^2/162*1.1*10^-
3 2.4 slab for 1st floor(in short span)top
1
1 0.235
60*10^2/162*1.1*10^-3 2.4 slab for 1st floor(in long span)top
1
1 0.098
4.286
| P a g e 107
7 ton
10*16^2/162 *1.1*10^-3 142 Grade beam
1
1 2.468
10*16^2 /162 *1.1*10^-3 92 tie beam of ground floor
1
1 1.599
10*16^2 /162 *1.1*10^-3 100.5 tie beam of first floor
1
1 1.747
20*4 *16^2 /162
*1.1*10^-3 2.5 short column
1
1 0.348
20*4 *16^2 /162
*1.1*10^-3 2.7 column of ground floor
1
1 0.375
20*4 *16^2 /162
*1.1*10^-3 2.7 column of first floor
1
1 0.375
2*(12*16^2 /162
*1.1)*10^-3 1.8 for isolated footing
1
1 0.075
6.988
| P a g e 108
Masonry
Common brickwork
Thickness: 150 - 250 mm
U1.020.010 Vertical straight walls
53 m²
(15*2)+(11.5*2) 1 brickwork under grade beam
1 53.000
53.000
344 m²
1 142 Brickwork for ground floor
2.7 383.400
-9 1.2 area of windows
1 -10.800
-9 2.2 area of doors
1 -19.800
-1 2.2 area of Gate 1
2.7 -5.940
-1 2 area of Gate 2
1.5 -3.000
343.860
285 m²
1 117 for first floor
2.7 315.900
-9 1.2 area of windows
1 -10.800
| P a g e 109
-9 2.2 area of doors
1 -19.800
285.300
53 m²
(15*2)+(11.5*2) 1 brick work for parapet
1 53.000
53.000
| P a g e 110
4.6.2.2 Priced BoQ
Priced BoQ of Reinforced concrete 14/10/2017

Rate Total
SDG SDG
Demolition and site clearance
D100 General clearance 1 JOB
Earthworks
Material other than topsoil, rock or artificial

hard material
E325 maximum depth: 1-2m 97 m3 100 9,700.00
Preparing of excavated surfaces
E522 Material other than topsoil, rock or artificial hard

material 65 m² 10 650.00
Disposal of excavated material
E532 Material other than topsoil, rock or artificial hard

material 41 m3 20 820.00
Filling
To structures
E613 Non-selected excavated material other than

topsoil or rock 3
56 m 30 1,680.00
To stated depth or thickness (1m)
E645 Imported natural material other than topsoil or

rock 173 m² 55 9,515.00
In Situ Concrete
Provision of concrete - Designed mix
Grade: C25
F253 20 mm aggregate (Cement to BS 12 or BS

146) 127 m3 1100 139,700.00
Page 1 / 1
| P a g e 111
Rate Total
SDG SDG
Placing of concrete - Mass
for footings
F521 thickness:not exceeding 150 mm 6 m3 100 600.00
Placing of concrete - Reinforced
footings
F623 thickness: 300-500 mm 32 m3 200 6,400.00
Suspended slabs
F631.02 thickness:150 mm (ground floor) 26 m3 200 5,200.00
F631.03 thickness:150 mm (1st floor) 26 m3 220 5,720.00
Columns
F652 cross-sectional area: (0.25*0.25) m² 10 m3 200 2,000.00
Beams
F662 cross-sectional area: (0.25*0.3) m² 28 m3 200 5,600.00
Plane horizontal
G112 width:0.2 m 375 m 100 37,500.00
Plane vertical
G143 width: 0.3 m 371 m² 130 48,230.00
Plane horizontal
G215 width:exceeding 1.22 m 345 m² 130 44,850.00
Page 1 / 2
| P a g e 112
Rate Total
SDG SDG
Plane vertical
G242 width: 0.1-0.2 m 106 m 100 10,600.00
Reinforcement
Plain round steel bars to BS 4449
Deformed high yield steel bars to BS 4449
G523 nominal size: 12 mm 4 ton 18000 72,000.00
G525 nominal size: 16 mm 7 ton 17000 119,000.00

Masonry
Common brickwork
Thickness: 150 - 250 mm
U121.01 Vertical straight walls 735 m² 185 135,975.00
Page 1 / 3
Total
SDG
Collection From
1/1 162,065.00
1/2 156,100.00
1/3 357,375.00
Bill Carried to Summary 675,540.00
| P a g e 113
4.7 Discussions
 The traditional bricks in Khartoum area are not complying with
Sudanese standard in dimensions but conforming with it in
compressive strength.
 Mechanized bricks comply with BS 3921.
 BoQ shown the cost of load bearing building is equal to 515,055
SDG, and the cost of reinforced concrete is equal to 675,540 SDG.
The R.C is more expansive by ratio of 1:1.3
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CHAPTER 5:
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
| P a g e 115
Conclusions:
The total cost of load bearing is cheaper than the total cost of reinforced
concrete by
675,540–514,055 = 161,485 SDG
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 514,055

= = 0.761
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 675,540
Cost of load bearing = 76.1% from cost of reinforced concrete
Recommendations:
Further study is required in order to improve the manufacturing of process
bricks in order to increase their strength.
Unified standards should be issued and implemented in order to produce
bricks of uniform size and properties.
| P a g e 116
References
Arya, C., 2009. Design of structural element. London: Taylor and Francis.
BS591, 1992. Code of practice for Use of masonry, Part 1: Structural use of unreinforced
masonry. s.l.:s.n.
BS8110, 1997. Code of Practice for design and construction. 2 ed. s.l.:s.n.
Khalaf, Hendry, 2001. Masonry wall construction. London: Spon Press.
McKenzie, 2001. Design of Structural Masonry. Britain: PALGRAVE.
Mohamed,M.E,Saeed,M.M.B,Hajo,A.B and Eltayeb,E.B, 2013. Characterization of Fired Clay
Bricks in Khartoum Area. s.l.:Unpublished BSC thesis, submitted to University of Khartoum in
Partial Fulifluent of BSc in Civil Engineering ,Civil Eng. Dept, Faculty of Engneering, University
of Khartoum.
Spain, B., 2005. Taking Off Quantities. United Kindom: Taylor & Francis e-Library.
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APPENDICES
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‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

Final Year Graduation Project

COST COMPARISON BETWEEN LOAD BEARING

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of B.Sc.

ABDULGHANI MOHAMED ALHAJ ALI 123065

To those who gave us their time

To those who gave us their Knowledge

of Civil Engineering at the University of Khartoum.

We owe our deepest gratitude and acknowledgment to our supervisor Dr.

Yousif Hummaida Ahmed for his patient guidance, enthusiastic

to Engineer Asim Elsanosi Osman for his continuous technical directions

demonstrations and assistance.

Engineering at the University of Khartoum for their help in providing

resources and references. We are also obliged to our colleagues who

supported us all over the year.

for it assistance and explanations regarding the drawings and detailing

associated to this specific building.

dissertation. We believe this work would not have been accomplished

without their continuous help and support.

‫الحوائط الحاملة والهيكل الخرساني‪.‬‬

‫( ‪.(Qspro Premium and Plan swift‬‬

‫‪.‬‬ ‫وتمثل حوالي ‪ % 75‬من تكلفه الهيكل الخرساني‬

The purpose of the project is to compare the cost of constructions two-story

residential building using the load-bearing structure and the concrete

structure in the Khartoum area. To achieve this objective, we have

collected the architectural drawings of the building consist of two storeys

consist (ground+1st floor) with Roof from the contractor engineer.

R.C building amount.

‫قال هللا سبحانه وتعالي‪:‬‬

‫(وقال فرعون يا أيها المأل ما علمت لكم من اله غيري فأوقد‬

‫موسي وأني ألظنه من الكاذبين)‬

‫االيه ‪ 38‬من سورة القصص‬

= area of tension reinforcement

= minimum area of compression reinforcement

= area of tension reinforcement provided

=area of tension reinforcement required

b = width or effective width of the section or flange in the compression

=effective width of flange

= average web width of a flanged beam.

D.L = Dead load.

d = effective depth of the tension reinforcement

𝑑 ˊ = Distance between compression and tension.

= characteristic strength of concrete.

𝑓𝑘 = Characteristic compressive strength of masonry unit.

= characteristic strength of compression reinforcement.

= characteristic strength of links (not to be taken as more than

H = Total story height.

h = depth of cross-section measured in the plane under consideration.

= thickness of the flange.

I= second moment of area.

K= A factor that relates the depth to the centroid of the rectangular

= clear height between end restraints.

= effective height of a column in the plane of bending considered.

= length of longer side.

M= design ultimate moment at the section considered.

= Ultimate design moment.

m.f= modification factor for tension reinforcement.

=moment resisted by flange.

= design ultimate moment about the x-axis.

= design ultimate moment about the y-axis.

N = design axial force.

= total design ultimate load per unit area.

S = spacing between bars.