MEX3235 Thermo-fluids

 Zeroth Law of thermodynamics

 1st Law of Thermodynamics
 Non flow processes
 Open system flow process
The zeroth law of thermodynamics

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

states that if two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, then the
two given bodies will be in thermal
equilibrium with each other. The zeroth
law of thermodynamics is used for
measurement of temperature.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that the
energy cannot be created nor destroyed it can
only be changed from on form to another.

Another name for this law is the “law of

conservation of energy”.
 For a closed system or a fixed mass:

Net energy Net increase in

transferred to the
system as heat = the total
energy of the
and work system

W+Q = E
Certain properties in the behaviour of thermodynamic
systems can be deduced from the first law of
thermodynamics. They may be termed as corollaries.
Signs of Q heat transfer and W
work transfer
1st Law of Thermodynamics Corollary 1

Final Energy – Initial Energy = Energy added to the system.

E2  E1  Q  W
(U 2  PE2  KE2 )  (U1  PE1  KE1 )  Q  W

(U 2  U1 )  ( PE2  PE1 )  ( KE2  KE1 )  Q  W

Q  W  U  PE  KE
∆U = change in internal energy

Q  W  U
For a stationary closed systems
This is known as non-flow energy equation
 For a process during which the state of the closed
system is changed from state 1 to state 2

Q12 -W12 = U1 – U2

1st Law of Thermodynamics - Corollary 2

The internal energy of a closed system remains unchanged if the

system is isolated from its surroundings.

For isolated process Q=0 and W=0

If no work or heat transfer then no change in internal energy

U2 – U1 = 0 since Q  W  U
 A certain amount of air is compressed in a
cylinder. The change in internal energy of the
air is 10kJ. Work required for the compression
is 500kJ. What is the amount of heat transfer?

Q  W  U

Q = △U + W = 10 -500 = -490kJ Heat is rejected

For constant pressure process
Q  W  U
Q  U 2  U1   pV
Q  U 2  U1  p(V2  V1 )
Q  (U 2  pV2 )  (U1  pV1 )
Q  H

Q  C p T  H
 For constant volume process (W = 0)
Q  W  U Q  U  Cv T

Specific heat relations for ideal gases

c p  cv  R

cp
 = specific heat ratio
cv
This is equal to 1.4 many diatomic gases
A 0.6kg copper piece at 100oC is dropped in to an
insulated tank containing 0.75kg of liquid water at 25oC.
Determine the temperature of the system when thermal
equilibrium is reached.
Specific heats of copper and water are:
0.393kJ/kgK and 4.184kJ/kgK

For incompressible substances (solids and liquids)

cp and cv take same value
Take the copper piece and water as the system

Q  W  U

0  U

U cop  U w  0

mcopccop (T2  T1 )cop  mwcw (T2  T1 ) w  0

0.6(0.393)(T2 100)  0.75(4.184)(T2  25)  0

T2  30.24o C
 The processes undergone by the fluid in a closed
system are termed as “non-flow process”.
 Constant pressure (Isobaric) process P=C

 Constant-volume process: v=C

 Constant temperature (Isothermal) process: T=C

 Adiabatic process: no heat transfer: Q=0

 Polytropic process
 Constant pressure (Isobaric) process

Work done by an expanding gas, constant

pressure:
 Constant pressure (Isobaric) process
From the first law of thermodynamics.

dq = du + dw

Q  h 2  h1  U2  U1  P  V2  V1 
During constant pressure process, heat transfer is
equal to change in enthalpy.
 Constant volume process

If the volume stays constant, nothing moves

and no work is done.
 Constant volume process

Since the volume remains constant V1  V2  V

Also, since there is no change of volume, then there can be no
external work done.

Hence, W = 0

dq = du + dw
dq = du, (w = 0)
q = u2 – u1
  h 2  P2 V2    h1  P1V1 

q   h 2  h1   v  P2  P1 
(q = transfer of heat/unit mass)
Constant temperature (Isothermal) process

The work done is the area under the curve:

 Constant temperature (Isothermal) process

P1V1 P2 V2
 P1V1  P2 V2  PV
Leads to PV = C
T1 T2
Work done V2 P1V1
 W    P.dV but P
V1
V
V2
P1V1
W 
V1
V
.dV therefore V 
W  P1V1 log  2 
 V1 

Now dQ = dU + dW

dQ = dW, (du = 0)
 V2 
Q  P1V1 log  
 V1 
 Adiabatic (Isentropic) process

An adiabatic process is one in which no heat

flows into or out of the system. The adiabatic
P-V curve is similar to the isothermal one, but
is steeper. One way to ensure that a process is
adiabatic is to insulate the system.
 Adiabatic (Isentropic) process

When a fluid undergoes a process in such a manner that no

heat is supplied or rejected during the process, the process is
called ‘adiabatic’.

i.e. dq = 0

Work done

P1V1  P2 V2
W
   1
Polytrophic process
More generalized form of relationship between pressure & volume
can be expressed by equation

This is known as polytrophic process & n is called the polytrophic

index of expansion or compression

Where (n = γ , adiabatic process)

(n = 1, isothermal process)

Work done (W)

P1V1  P2 V2
 n  1
In this process, there are heat and work transfer between system &
surroundings.
Example 3

Note : Pressure unit is Pa

Answers (i) 25000Nm
2009/2010 Final

Q1
0.2 m3 of an ideal gas at a pressure of 2000kpa
and 327ºC is expanded isothermally to 5 times
the initial volume. It is then cooled to 25ºC at
constant volume and then compressed back
polytropically to its initial state.

Determine
(i)Index of the polytropic compression
(ii) Net workdone

Answers
(i) n= 1.4
(ii) Wnet = 179.9 k
 2012/13 Final
a. Write the equation for First Law of Thermodynamics with usual notation.
b. Show that for a constant pressure process heat transferred (Q) can be
written as

Where all notation has its usual meaning.

c. One kilogramme of gaseous CO2 contained in a closed system

undergoes a reversible process at constant pressure. During this process 42kJ
of internal energy is decreased. Determine:

I Difference in temperature (T2 – T1)

Ii Heat supplied or rejected
Iii Work done during the process
For CO2: Cp = 840J/kg°C and Cv = 600 J/kg°C

Answers (i) 70°C

(ii) Heat supplied 58.8 kJ
(iii) Work done – 16.8 kJ
 2014/15 Final

1 a State the first Law of Thermodynamics and write down the non-flow energy equation (03 marks)
which represents a corollary First Law.

b Define following terms. (03 marks)

i work done
ii enthalpy
iii entropy

c A system exists with 0.3 m3 of gas at 5 bar and 450 K. It is expanded adiabatically
to 1 bar. The gas is then heated at constant pressure till its enthalpy increases by
100 kJ. Take Cp and Cv for gas as 1 kJ/kgK and 0.712 kJ/kgK respectively.

i Draw the processes on P-V or T-S diagrams. (01 marks)

ii Calculate characteristic gas constant (R) in J/kgK and ratio of specific heat (02 marks)
capacities (γ)

iii Determine mass of the gas (01 marks)

iv Calculate final temperature and volume of the gas (04 marks)

v Find work done during adiabatic expansion process (02 marks)

vi Find work done and entropy change during constant pressure heating
process. (04 marks)
Answers

(i) R = 288 J/kgK Specific heat ratio – 1.4

(ii) 1.157 kg

(iii) Temperature – 370K

Volume – 1.23m3
(iv) Work done during adiabatic expansion = 138.25kJ

(v) Work done during constant pressure heating

process – 28.3 kJ Entropy change – 1.144 kJ/kg
Open system flow processes
There are two types of open flow processes and they
are,

 Steady flow and

 Non-steady flow

P 1V 1 W
U 1C 1 SYSTEM
(OR CONTROL VOLUME)
ENTRY
P2 V 2
U 2C 2
Z1
EXIT
Q
Z2
DATUM LEVEL
Applying the principle of conservation of energy to the open flow
system,

Total energy entering the system = Total energy leaving the

system.

For unit mass of substance

C22 C22
gZ1   u1  P1v1    Q  gZ2   u 2  P2 v 2   W
2 2

Therefore steady flow energy

equation or the energy equation.
C C 2 2
Q  W   h 2  h1     Z2  Z1  g
2 1
2
The equation of continuity

1 1 C 1A 1 2 2 C2 A 2

m  1A1C1  2 A2C2
 Total or stagnation temperature and pressure

STAGNATION PROPERTIES
• It is a state of zero velocity.
• The properties of a fluid at the stagnation state are
called stagnation properties
• The stagnation values are denoted by a subscript
zero or TOT.

If a stream is brought to rest then, the total energy of

the stream remains constant. Then the loss of kinetic
energy of the stream will appear as an increase in the
temperature and pressure of the stream.
2
C
TTOT  T1  1
2CP
Steady-Flow Engineering Devices
Below are some engineering devices that operate essentially as steady-
state, steady-flow control volumes.
A diffuser converts high
speed, low pressure
flow to low speed, high
pressure flow

A nozzle converts high

pressure, low speed
flow to low pressure,
high speed flow

Chapter 4 The First Law of

Thermodynamics
 Common Assumptions
◦ Steady State, Steady Flow
◦ No work or heat transfer (Q = W= 0)
◦ Neglect changes in potential energy (Z1 = Z2)

C22  C12
Q  W   h 2  h1     Z2  Z1  g
2

C12 C22
T1   T2 
2CP 2CP
 Throttling: Reduces Pressure
 Common Assumptions:

◦ No work or heat transfer (Q = W = 0)

◦ Neglect changes in pe and ke Throttling
Valve

Isenthalpic (h = constant) Process

 Used in
◦ Almost all power plants
◦ Some propulsion systems (e.g.,
turbofan and turbojet engines)
 Working Fluid:
◦ Liquids (e.g., hydro power plants)
◦ Vapors (e.g., steam power plants)
◦ Gases (e.g., gas power plants)
 Common assumptions for turbine:
◦ SSSF
◦ Adiabatic (q = 0)
◦ Neglect kinetic and potential energies

W  CP  TS1  TS2  C22

TS2  T2 
2CP

C12
TS1  T1 
2CP
 Used in
◦ Gas power plants (e.g., gas turbine engine)
◦ Turbo propulsion systems (e.g., turbofan and turbojet
engines).
◦ Industry (e.g., supply high pressure gas)
 Working Fluids
◦ Gas
◦ Vapor
◦ Not for Liquid
(pump used)
 Common assumptions for compressor:
◦ SSSF
◦ Adiabatic (q = 0)
◦ Neglect kinetic and potential energies
 2013/14 Final
(1) (a) Explain clearly the difference between a non-flow and a
steady flow process.

(b) P 1V 1
U 1C 1
W
SYSTEM
(OR CONTROL VOLUME)
ENTRY
P2 V 2
U 2C 2

Z1
EXIT
Q
Z2
DATUM LEVEL

Fig. Q1

Figure Q1 illustrates a thermodynamic system of a fluid flow, and

inlet and exit conditions are also shown with usual notations The system
does work of W and heat of Q is transferred.

Derive the general steady flow energy equation for this system.

(c) Air is expanded isentropically in a convergent nozzle from 14bar

and 167°C to a pressure of 7bar and the process occurs under steady-state
conditions. Inlet air velocity is 10m/s. Calculate the exit temperature and
velocity of air stream assuming the nozzle is laid in a horizontal plane.