Introduction of Thermodynamics

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 Thermodynamics is the study of the effects of work, heat, and energy on as

system.
 Thermodynamics is only concerned with large scale observations.
 It is a branch of physics which studies the effects on material bodies and on
radiation in regions of space of transfer of heat and of work done by the
bodies.
 In particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted to and from
other forms of energy and how it affects matter.
 It is built on the study of energy transfers which can be strictly resolved into
two distinct components, heat and work.

Thermodynamic Systems and Processes

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Thermodynamics System

 It is defined as the quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

 The mass and region outside the system is called surrounding.
 Real or imaginary surface (mathematically thickness zero) that separates
the system from the surrounding is called the boundary.

Closed System (Control Mass):

 It consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass can cross its boundary
or leave or enter a closed system.
 Energy in the form of heat or work can cross the boundary and the volume
of closed system does not have to be fixed
 Example: piston cylinder device.

Open System (Control Volume):

 It is a properly selected region in the space and both mass and energy
region can cross the boundary.
 The boundary of a control volume is called a control surface and they can
be real or imaginary.
 Example: Compressor, turbine, nozzle.
A control volume can be fixed, in size and shape as in case of nozzle or it may
involve moving boundaries as shown in Fig. (b).
Most control volume, however have fixed boundaries and thus do not involve any
moving boundaries.

Properties of a System: Any characteristic of a system is called a property. It

can be independent or dependent.

 Intensive properties: Which are independent of the size of system such as

temperature, pressure and density.
 Extensive properties: Whose values depend on the size or extent of the
system such as mass m, volume V and total energy E.

Divide the system into two equal parts with a partition to determine whether the
property is intensive or extensive.

Generally, upper case letters are used to denote extensive properties

(exceptionm) and lower case letters are used for intensive properties
(exception P, T).
Specific Properties of a System: Extensive properties per unit mass are called
specific properties.

 Specific volume:

 Specific energy:

 Specific gravity (or relative density): It is used to define the density of a

substance with respect to density of some standard substance at a
specified temperature. (Usually, water at 4 o C, = 1000 kg/m 3 )

Continuum:

 Continuum is defined as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes.

 The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point function.
 To assume properties to vary continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.

State:

 State of system is described by its properties.

 At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values.
 However, there is no need to specify all the properties in order to fix a
state.
 The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given by
the state postulates.
 It property varies, other should be held constant.
  In other words, the condition of a system at any instant of time is called its
state.

Equilibrium:

 The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.

 In an equilibrium state, there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.
 A system in equilibrium experience has no changes when it is isolated from
its surrounding.
 Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
 A system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is same throughout the
entire system.
 In mechanical equilibrium, there is no change in pressure at any point of
the system with time.
 In chemical equilibrium, no chemical reactions occur.

Processes: Any change that a system goes from one equilibrium state to another
equilibrium state is called a process and series of states through which a sys tem
passes during a process is called the path of the process.
Quasi Equilibrium Process: When a process proceeds in such a manner that
the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is
called a quasi-static or quasi equilibrium process.

 Quasi equilibrium is an idealized process and is not a true representation of

an actual process.
 Quasi equilibrium processes are easy to analyze.
 Quasi equilibrium processes are work producing devices deliver the
maximum work when they operate on quasi equilibrium processes.
 Quasi equilibrium processes as standards to which actual processes can
be compared.

Cycle: A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at
the end of process i.e., for a cycle the initial and final states are identical.

Steady Flow Process: Steady flow process is defined as a process during which
a fluid flows through a control volume steadily.
Temperature: The temperature is a measure (degree) of hotness or coldness.
(freezing cold, warm hot)

Temperature Scales:

 They are related to absolute temperature scales.

 The temperature scales used in the SI and English system are the celsius
scale and the Fahrenheit scale, respectively.
 A scale of temperature independent of the thermometric substance is called
a thermodynamic temperature scale.
 Kelvin scale is related to Celsius scale by
 T(K) = T(C) + 273.16

 Rankine scale is related to Fahrenheit scale by

T(K) = T(C) + 459.67

 The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by

Pressure

 Pressure is defined as the force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

 We speak of pressure only when we deal with gas or liquid.
 The counterpart of pressure is stress i.e., force per unit area.
o 1 pascal = 1N/m 2
o 1 bar = 10 5
o Pa = 0.1
o MPa = 100 kPa
o atm = 101325
o Pa = 101.325
o kPa = 1.01325 bar
o 1 kg f/cm 2 = 9.807 N /cm 2
o 1 kg f/cm 2 = 9.807 × 10 4 Pa
o 1 kg f/cm 2 = 0.9807 bar
o 1 kg f/cm 2 = 0.96788 atm

The actual pressure at a given position is called absolute pressure and it is

measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure)
  P gauge = p abs – p atm (for pressures above p atm )
 p vac = p atm - p abs (for pressures below p atm )

where, P gauge = gauge pressure, p abs = absolute pressure, and p atm = atomic
pressure

Properties of pure substances, behaviour of ideal and

real gases
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Properties of Pure Substance

 A pure substance is a material with homogeneous and invariable

composition.
 Pure substances can have multiple phases, an ice water mixture is still a
pure substance but an air-steam is not a pure substance.

Pure Substance:

 A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a

pure substance i.e., water, nitrogen, helium, and CO 2 .
 Substances which are mixture of various elements or compounds also
qualifies as pure substances as long as mixture is homogeneous.
Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure:

 At given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes

phase is called the saturation temperature Tsat .
 Likewise at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance
changes phase is called the saturation pressure p sat .

Example: For water at a pressure of 101.325 kPa, Tsat is 100 o C, conversely at a

temperature of 100 o C, p sat is 101.325 kPa.

Latent Heat:

 The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase change

process is called the latent heat.
 The amount of energy absorbed during melting is called the latent heat of
vaporization.
 Similarly, the amount of energy absorbed during vaporization is called
latent heat of vaporization and is equivalent to the energy released during
condensation.

Liquid-Vapour Saturation Curve:

From the following figure, it is clear that T sat increases with p sat . Thus, a substance
at higher pressure will boil at higher temperatures.
 Tsat = f(p sat )

 In the kitchen, higher boiling temperature means shorter cooking time and
energy saving.
 The atmospheric pressure, and thus the boiling temperature of water,
decreases with elevation. Therefore, it takes longer time to cook at higher
altitudes than it does at sea level.

Property Diagrams for Phase-change Process

The T-V Diagram:

 Consider piston cylinder device containing liquid water at 20 o C and 1 atm.

 Water will start boiling at a much higher temperature (179.9 o C) at inside
pressure of the cylinder reaches at 1 MP.
 The specific volume of the saturated liquid is larger and the specific volume
of the saturated vapour is smaller than the corresponding values at 1 atm
pressure. That is, the horizontal line that connects the saturated liquid and
saturated vapour states is much shorter.
 As the pressure is increased further, this saturation line will continue to get
shorter as shown in figure and it will become a point when the pressure
reaches 22.09 MPa for the case of water. This point is called the critic al
point and it is defined as the point at which the saturated liquid and
saturated vapour state are identical.
 At pressure above the critical pressure, there will not be a distinct phase
change. Instead, the specific volume of the substance will continual ly
increase and at all times there will be only one phase present. It is
customary to refer to the substance as superheated vapour at temperature
above the critical temperature and as compressed liquid at temperatures
below the critical temperature.
The p-V Diagram:

 The general shape of the p-V diagram of a pure substance is very much
like the T-V diagram but the T = constant lines on this diagram have a
downward trend.
 Consider again a piston cylinder device that contains liquid water at 1 MPa
and 150°C, water at this state exists as a compressed liquid. Now, the
weights on top of the piston are removed one by one so that the pressure
inside the cylinder decreases gradually.
 The water is allowed to exchange heat with the surroundings so its
temperature remains constant.
 As the pressure decreases, the volume of the water will increase slightly,
when the pressure reaches the saturation pressure volume at the specific
temperature, the water will start to boil.
 During this vaporisation process, both the temperature and the pressure
remain constant but the specific volume increases. Once the last drop of
liquid is vaporised further reduction in pressure results in a further increase
in specific volume.
 If the process is repeated for other temperatures similar paths will be
obtained for the phase change processes.

Triple Phase:

 When all three phases of a pure substance co-exist in equilibrium. It is

called triple phase.
 Triple phase states form a line called the triple line.
 The triple line appears as a point on the p-T diagram and therefore is often
called the triple point.
  No substance can exist in the liquid phase in stable equilibrium at pressure
below the triple point pressure.
 The same can be said for temperature for substance that contract on
freezing.
 Substances at high pressure can exist in the liquid phase at temperatures
below the triple point temperature.

The p-T Diagram:

 Solid – Liquid = Fusion

 Liquid – Vapour = Vaporisation
 Solid – Vapour = Sublimation
Enthalpy

 Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system.

 It includes energy required to create a system and the amount of energy
required to make room for it by displacing its environment and establishing
its volume and pressure.
 For certain type of processes particularly in power generation and
refrigeration.
o Enthalpy (H )= U + pV(kJ) Or
o per unit mass h = u + pV(kJ/kg)

Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapour States:

  Subscript f → properties of saturated liquid
 Subscript g → properties of saturated vapour
 V f → specific volume of saturated liquid
 V g → specific volume of saturated vapour
 V fg → difference between V g and V fnthal
 V fg = V g - V f
 hfg → enthalpy of vaporisation or latent heat of vaporisation (amount of
energy need to vaporise a unit mass of saturated liquid at a given
temperature of pressure).
 The magnitude of latent heat depends on temperature and pressure at
which phase change occurs.
 For example at 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion of water is 333.7
kj/kg and latent heat of vaporization is 2257.1 kj/kg.
 At below triple point pressure, substance begins to change directly gas.
 Enthalpy of vaporization decreases as the temperature or pressure
increases and become zero at the critical point.

Saturated Liquid Vapour Mixture:

 During vaporisation process, a substance exists as part liquid and part

vapour.
 A new property quality x is the ratio of mass of vapour to the total mass of
the mixture.

Quality or dryness fraction:

 m total = m liquid + m vapour = m f + m g
where, mf = mass of the saturated liquid, and mg = mass of the saturated vapour

 Quality has significance for saturated mixtures only.

 It has no meaning in the compressed liquid or superheated region.
 Its value lie between 0 (saturated liquid) and 1 (saturated vapour).
 The properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether it exists alone
or in a mixture with saturated vapour.
 During vaporization process, only the amount of saturated liquid changes
not its properties. The same can be said about a saturated vapour.

Quality :
  V av = (1-x)V f + xV g or V av = V f + xV g
 Uav = Uf + U fg
 h av = h f + xh fg

Superheated Vapour :
Since, the superheated region is a single phase region (vapour phase only)
temperature and pressure are no longer dependent properties and they can
conveniently be used as the two independent properties.
Superheated vapour is characterised by:

 Lower pressures (p < p sat at a given T)

 Higher temperatures (T < T sat at a given p)
 Higher specific volumes (U > V g at a given p or T)
 Higher internal energies (U > U g at a given p or T)
 Higher enthalpies (h > h g at a given p or T)

Compressed Liquid

 A compressed liquid may be approximated as a saturated liquid at the

given temperature.
 This is because the compressed liquid properties depend on temperature
much more strongly than they do on the pressure.
o V ≅ Vf
o u ≅ uf
o h ≅ hf
 In general, a compressed liquid is characterised by:
o Higher pressures (p > p sat at a given T)
o Lower temperatures (T < T sat at a given p)
o Lower specific volumes (V <V f at a given p or T)
o Lower internal energies (U < U f at a given p or T)
o Lower enthalpies (h < h f at a given p or T)

Specific Heat
  Specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of a substance by one degree.
 When this energy is required at constant volume then it is denoted by C V.
 When energy is required at constant pressure then it is denoted by C P.
 Cp > C v, Because at constant pressure, the system is allowed to expand and
the energy for this expansion work must also be supplied to the system.
 The change in internal energy with temperature at constant volume =

 The change in enthalpy with temperature at constant pressure =

 These two equations are property relations and as such are independent of
the type of processes. They are valid for any substance undergoing any
process.

Internal Energy

 For an ideal gas internal energy is a function of the temperature only.

U = U(T)

 However, for gases that deviate significantly from ideal gas behaviour, the
internal energy is not a function of temperature only.
 Using definition of enthalpy and the equation of state of an ideal gas

h = U + pV h = U + RT

pV = RT
So, h = h(T)
So, we can express the change in internal energy: dU = C v (T)dt

Since, h = U + RT; dh = dU + RdT

Replacing dh = C p dT, dU = C v dT

Cp dT = C v dT + RdT

Cp = C v + R(kJ/kg K

Specific heat ratio:

Air at 300 K

 CV = 0.718kJ/kg-K
 R = 0.287 kJ/kg-K
 Cp = 1.005kJ/kg=K

or on molar basis

 CV = 20.80 kJ/k mol-K

 RU = 8.314 kJ/k mol-K
 Cp = 29.114 kJ/k mol-K

The Ideal Gas Equation of State

 Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature and specific volume of
a substance is called an equation of state.
 Property relations that involve other properties of a substance at
equilibrium states are also referred to as equation of state.
  Ideal gas equation of state: pV = RT, where, p = Absolute pressure, T =
Absolute temperature, and V = Specific volume

 Gas and vapour are often used as synonymous words.

 The vapour phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it is
above the critical temperature.
 Vapour usually implies a gas that is not far from a state of condensation.

Gas Constant

 It has been experimentally observed that the ideal gas relation given
closely approximately the p-V-T behaviour of real gases at low densities.
 At low pressure and high temperature, the density of a gas decreases and
the gas behaves as an ideal gas under these conditions.

where, Ru = Universal gas constant, M = Molar mass, R = Gas constant.

Compressibility Factor

 Compressibility factor (correction factor) is measurement of deviation of

gases from ideal gas behaviour.
 Compressibility factor (z):

 It can also be expressed as

 For ideal gases ⇒ z = 1

 For real gases ⇒ z is away from unity (> 1 or < 1)
Reduce Pressure and Temperature

 Gases behave differently at a given temperature and pressure, but they

behave very much the same at temperature and pressures normalized with
respect to their critical temperatures and pressures.
 The normalization is done as introducing new terms,
o Reduce pressure:

and reduce temperature:

where, Tcr = critical temperature, p cr = critical pressure.

z factor for all gases is approximately the same at the same reduced pressure
and temperature is greatest in the vicinity of the critical point.

 Gases deviate from the ideal gas behaviour most in the neighborhood of
the critical point. So, we can say that at critical point. Compressibility factor
is constant for all substances.
 As mention above z factor for all gases is approximately the same at the
same reduced pressure and temperature.
 Pseudo reduced specific volume (V R) :
  V R is defined differently from p R and T R. It is related to Tcr and p cr instead
ofV cr .

 All substances have same critical compressibility factor

 Experimental value of Zc for most substances fall within a narrow range of

0.20 – 0.33.
 Z the compressibility factor is the same function of p r and T r for all gases.
 Specific heat all constant pressure and volume are the properties of the
substances and are always properties.

Van der wall’s Equation of State:

 Two effects: Inter molecular attraction forces:

and b accounts for volume occupied by the gas molecules.

Above equation can also be written as:

pV 3 – (pb + RT) V 2 + aV – ab = 0
p r = 0; p r V r = 0,9

Differentiating p r w.r.t. p r V r
The parabola has the vertex at p r V r = 4.5 and p r = 3.375 and it intersects the
ordinate at 0 and 9.

Boyle Temperature:

 Boyle temperature is the temperature at which a non-ideal gas behaves

most like an ideal gas.
 Boyle temperature T B is determined by making
  Above the Boyle temperature, the isotherms slope upward and show no
minima.

Virial Equation of State:

Van der Waal’s equation of state can be expressed in the virial form as given
below
This is called the virital equation of state.

 The second virial coefficient:

 The third virial coefficient: C=b 2

 To determine Boyle temperature: T B

or

Because

The point at which B is equal to zero gives the Boyle temperature.

Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State

The above equation is known to be reasonably accurate for densities up to about

0.8 p cr, where, p cr is the density of the substance at the critical point.
 Benedict Webb-Rubin Equation of State

 Valid upto about 2.5 p cr .

Properties of pure substances, behaviour of ideal and

real gases
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Properties of Pure Substance

 A pure substance is a material with homogeneous and invariable

composition.
 Pure substances can have multiple phases, an ice water mixture is still a
pure substance but an air-steam is not a pure substance.

Pure Substance:
  A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a
pure substance i.e., water, nitrogen, helium, and CO 2 .
 Substances which are mixture of various elements or compounds also
qualifies as pure substances as long as mixture is homogeneous.

Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure:

 At given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes

phase is called the saturation temperature Tsat .
 Likewise at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance
changes phase is called the saturation pressure p sat .

Example: For water at a pressure of 101.325 kPa, Tsat is 100 o C, conversely at a

temperature of 100 o C, p sat is 101.325 kPa.

Latent Heat:

 The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase change

process is called the latent heat.
 The amount of energy absorbed during melting is called the latent heat of
vaporization.
  Similarly, the amount of energy absorbed during vaporization is called
latent heat of vaporization and is equivalent to the energy released during
condensation.

Liquid-Vapour Saturation Curve:

From the following figure, it is clear that T sat increases with p sat . Thus, a substance
at higher pressure will boil at higher temperatures.
Tsat = f(p sat )
  In the kitchen, higher boiling temperature means shorter cooking time and
energy saving.
 The atmospheric pressure, and thus the boiling temperature of water,
decreases with elevation. Therefore, it takes longer time to cook at higher
altitudes than it does at sea level.

Property Diagrams for Phase-change Process

The T-V Diagram:

 Consider piston cylinder device containing liquid water at 20 o C and 1 atm.

 Water will start boiling at a much higher temperature (179.9 o C) at inside
pressure of the cylinder reaches at 1 MP.
 The specific volume of the saturated liquid is larger and the specific volume
of the saturated vapour is smaller than the corresponding values at 1 atm
pressure. That is, the horizontal line that connects the saturated liquid and
saturated vapour states is much shorter.
 As the pressure is increased further, this saturation line will continue to get
shorter as shown in figure and it will become a point when the pressure
reaches 22.09 MPa for the case of water. This point is called the critic al
point and it is defined as the point at which the saturated liquid and
saturated vapour state are identical.
 At pressure above the critical pressure, there will not be a distinct phase
change. Instead, the specific volume of the substance will continual ly
increase and at all times there will be only one phase present. It is
customary to refer to the substance as superheated vapour at temperature
above the critical temperature and as compressed liquid at temperatures
below the critical temperature.
The p-V Diagram:

 The general shape of the p-V diagram of a pure substance is very much
like the T-V diagram but the T = constant lines on this diagram have a
downward trend.
 Consider again a piston cylinder device that contains liquid water at 1 MPa
and 150°C, water at this state exists as a compressed liquid. Now, the
weights on top of the piston are removed one by one so that the pressure
inside the cylinder decreases gradually.
 The water is allowed to exchange heat with the surroundings so its
temperature remains constant.
 As the pressure decreases, the volume of the water will increase slightly,
when the pressure reaches the saturation pressure volume at the specific
temperature, the water will start to boil.
 During this vaporisation process, both the temperature and the pressure
remain constant but the specific volume increases. Once the last drop of
 liquid is vaporised further reduction in pressure results in a further increase
in specific volume.
 If the process is repeated for other temperatures similar paths will be
obtained for the phase change processes.

Triple Phase:

 When all three phases of a pure substance co-exist in equilibrium. It is

called triple phase.
 Triple phase states form a line called the triple line.
 The triple line appears as a point on the p-T diagram and therefore is often
called the triple point.

 No substance can exist in the liquid phase in stable equilibrium at pressure

below the triple point pressure.
 The same can be said for temperature for substance that contract on
freezing.
  Substances at high pressure can exist in the liquid phase at temperatures
below the triple point temperature.

The p-T Diagram:

 Solid – Liquid = Fusion

 Liquid – Vapour = Vaporisation
 Solid – Vapour = Sublimation

Enthalpy
  Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system.
 It includes energy required to create a system and the amount of energy
required to make room for it by displacing its environment and establishing
its volume and pressure.
 For certain type of processes particularly in power generation and
refrigeration.
o Enthalpy (H )= U + pV(kJ) Or
o per unit mass h = u + pV(kJ/kg)

Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapour States:

 Subscript f → properties of saturated liquid

 Subscript g → properties of saturated vapour
 V f → specific volume of saturated liquid
 V g → specific volume of saturated vapour
 V fg → difference between V g and V fnthal
 V fg = V g - V f
 hfg → enthalpy of vaporisation or latent heat of vaporisation (amount of
energy need to vaporise a unit mass of saturated liquid at a given
temperature of pressure).
 The magnitude of latent heat depends on temperature and pressure at
which phase change occurs.
 For example at 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion of water is 333.7
kj/kg and latent heat of vaporization is 2257.1 kj/kg.
 At below triple point pressure, substance begins to change directly gas.
 Enthalpy of vaporization decreases as the temperature or pressure
increases and become zero at the critical point.

Saturated Liquid Vapour Mixture:

 During vaporisation process, a substance exists as part liquid and part

vapour.
  A new property quality x is the ratio of mass of vapour to the total mass of
the mixture.

Quality or dryness fraction:

m total = m liquid + m vapour = m f + m g

where, mf = mass of the saturated liquid, and mg = mass of the saturated vapour

 Quality has significance for saturated mixtures only.

 It has no meaning in the compressed liquid or superheated region.
 Its value lie between 0 (saturated liquid) and 1 (saturated vapour).
 The properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether it exists alone
or in a mixture with saturated vapour.
  During vaporization process, only the amount of saturated liquid changes
not its properties. The same can be said about a saturated vapour.

Quality :

 V av = (1-x)V f + xV g or V av = V f + xV g
 Uav = Uf + U fg
 h av = h f + xh fg

Superheated Vapour :
Since, the superheated region is a single phase region (vapour phase only)
temperature and pressure are no longer dependent properties and they can
conveniently be used as the two independent properties.
Superheated vapour is characterised by:

 Lower pressures (p < p sat at a given T)

 Higher temperatures (T < T sat at a given p)
 Higher specific volumes (U > V g at a given p or T)
 Higher internal energies (U > U g at a given p or T)
 Higher enthalpies (h > h g at a given p or T)

Compressed Liquid

 A compressed liquid may be approximated as a saturated liquid at the

given temperature.
 This is because the compressed liquid properties depend on temperature
much more strongly than they do on the pressure.
o V ≅ Vf
o u ≅ uf
o h ≅ hf
  In general, a compressed liquid is characterised by:
o Higher pressures (p > p sat at a given T)
o Lower temperatures (T < T sat at a given p)
o Lower specific volumes (V <V f at a given p or T)
o Lower internal energies (U < U f at a given p or T)
o Lower enthalpies (h < h f at a given p or T)

Specific Heat

 Specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a

unit mass of a substance by one degree.
 When this energy is required at constant volume then it is denoted by C V.
 When energy is required at constant pressure then it is denoted by C P.
 Cp > C v, Because at constant pressure, the system is allowed to expand and
the energy for this expansion work must also be supplied to the system.
 The change in internal energy with temperature at constant volume =

 The change in enthalpy with temperature at constant pressure =

 These two equations are property relations and as such are independent of
the type of processes. They are valid for any substance undergoing any
process.

Internal Energy

 For an ideal gas internal energy is a function of the temperature only.

 U = U(T)

 However, for gases that deviate significantly from ideal gas behaviour, the
internal energy is not a function of temperature only.
 Using definition of enthalpy and the equation of state of an ideal gas

h = U + pV h = U + RT

pV = RT

So, h = h(T)

So, we can express the change in internal energy: dU = C v (T)dt

Since, h = U + RT; dh = dU + RdT

Replacing dh = C p dT, dU = C v dT

Cp dT = C v dT + RdT

Cp = C v + R(kJ/kg K

Specific heat ratio:

Air at 300 K

 CV = 0.718kJ/kg-K
 R = 0.287 kJ/kg-K
 Cp = 1.005kJ/kg=K

or on molar basis

 CV = 20.80 kJ/k mol-K

 RU = 8.314 kJ/k mol-K
  Cp = 29.114 kJ/k mol-K

The Ideal Gas Equation of State

 Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature and specific volume of
a substance is called an equation of state.
 Property relations that involve other properties of a substance at
equilibrium states are also referred to as equation of state.
 Ideal gas equation of state: pV = RT, where, p = Absolute pressure, T =
Absolute temperature, and V = Specific volume

 Gas and vapour are often used as synonymous words.

 The vapour phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it is
above the critical temperature.
 Vapour usually implies a gas that is not far from a state of condensation.

Gas Constant

 It has been experimentally observed that the ideal gas relation given
closely approximately the p-V-T behaviour of real gases at low densities.
 At low pressure and high temperature, the density of a gas decreases and
the gas behaves as an ideal gas under these conditions.

where, Ru = Universal gas constant, M = Molar mass, R = Gas constant.

Compressibility Factor

 Compressibility factor (correction factor) is measurement of deviation of

gases from ideal gas behaviour.
 Compressibility factor (z):
  It can also be expressed as

 For ideal gases ⇒ z = 1

 For real gases ⇒ z is away from unity (> 1 or < 1)

Reduce Pressure and Temperature

 Gases behave differently at a given temperature and pressure, but they

behave very much the same at temperature and pressures normalized with
respect to their critical temperatures and pressures.
 The normalization is done as introducing new terms,
o Reduce pressure:

and reduce temperature:

where, Tcr = critical temperature, p cr = critical pressure.

z factor for all gases is approximately the same at the same reduced pressure
and temperature is greatest in the vicinity of the critical point.

 Gases deviate from the ideal gas behaviour most in the neighborhood of
the critical point. So, we can say that at critical point. Compressibility factor
is constant for all substances.
 As mention above z factor for all gases is approximately the same at the
same reduced pressure and temperature.
 Pseudo reduced specific volume (V R) :
  V R is defined differently from p R and T R. It is related to Tcr and p cr instead
ofV cr .

 All substances have same critical compressibility factor

 Experimental value of Zc for most substances fall within a narrow range of

0.20 – 0.33.
 Z the compressibility factor is the same function of p r and T r for all gases.
 Specific heat all constant pressure and volume are the properties of the
substances and are always properties.

Van der wall’s Equation of State:

 Two effects: Inter molecular attraction forces:

and b accounts for volume occupied by the gas molecules.

Above equation can also be written as:

pV 3 – (pb + RT) V 2 + aV – ab = 0
p r = 0; p r V r = 0,9

Differentiating p r w.r.t. p r V r
The parabola has the vertex at p r V r = 4.5 and p r = 3.375 and it intersects the
ordinate at 0 and 9.

Boyle Temperature:

 Boyle temperature is the temperature at which a non-ideal gas behaves

most like an ideal gas.
 Boyle temperature T B is determined by making
  Above the Boyle temperature, the isotherms slope upward and show no
minima.

Virial Equation of State:

Van der Waal’s equation of state can be expressed in the virial form as given
below

This is called the virital equation of state.

  The second virial coefficient:

 The third virial coefficient: C=b 2

 To determine Boyle temperature: T B

or

Because

The point at which B is equal to zero gives the Boyle temperature.

Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State

The above equation is known to be reasonably accurate for densities up to about

0.8 p cr, where, p cr is the density of the substance at the critical point.

Benedict Webb-Rubin Equation of State

  Valid upto about 2.5 p cr .

Zeroth and First Laws of Thermodynamics

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 15 comments

Heat and Work:

 Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two

systems (or system and its surrounding) by virtue of a temperature
difference.
 If energy interaction between two systems (or system and its surrounding)
is not caused by a temperature difference then it is called work.

Laws of Thermodynamics: The four laws of thermodynamics define fundamental

physical quantities (temperature, energy and entropy) that
characterize thermodynamic systems.
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

 The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
 A system in thermal equilibrium is a system whose properties are invaria nt
with time.

First Law of Thermodynamics:

 It is based on conservation of energy according to which total amount of

energy in any thermodynamics system remains constant.
 Energy cannot be destroyed or produced; it can only be converted from one
form to another form.
 It states that whenever a closed system executes a cyclic process, the
algebraic sum of work transfer is proportional to algebraic sum of heat
transfers.

Heat is given to a closed system is equal to sum of work done by a system and
change in internal energy of the system.

Where ∆Q and ∆W are infinitesimal amounts of heat supplied to the system by its
surroundings and work done by the system on its surroundings, respectively and
∆U is an infinitesimal change in internal energy.
Calculation of Work and Heat in Various Processes
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 5 comments
Work Done in Moving the Boundaries of a Closed System

Suppose a gas contained in piston cylinder expands from position 1 to 2, then work done
by the gas
 Constant Volume Process (Isochoric Process):
o In isochoric process, volume is constant during process.
o Work done: dW = pdV = 0
o Heat supplied to system: dQ = mC v dt
o ΔQ = mC v (T 2 -T 1 ) Where, Cv = Specific heat for constant volume process.
  Change in internal energy of system:

dU = mC v dt

ΔU = mC v (T 2 -T 1 )

Constant Pressure Process (Isobaric Process):

 In isobaric process, pressure is constant throughout process

 ΔW = p 2 V2 – p 1 V 1 = mR (T 2 -T 1 )
 ΔQ = mC p (T 2 -T 1 )
 ΔU = mC v (T 2 -T 1 )
Constant Temperature (Isothermal Process):

 In isothermal process, temperature is constant during process.

 If an ideal gas follows a constant temperature process, then Boyle’s law is

pV = constant

or

Reversible Adiabatic Process:

In reversible adiabatic process there is no heat transfer between the system and the
surrounding (Q = 0)
pVγ = constant,

Where, r = adiabatic index, and Cp = specific heat for constant pressure

ΔQ = 0 (No heat transfer from surrounding)

ΔU = -ΔW, (0 = ΔU + ΔW)

Reversible Polytrophic Process:

  In polytropic process, both heat and work transfers take place.
 The process equation is represented by p.V n = C where n is called the index of
process or polytropic index.

where, n = polytropic index

Second law of Thermodynamics

 49 upvotes
 6 comments
Second law has been mentioned by two statements “Clausius and Kelvin-Planck
statement”. Each statement is based on irreversible process.

 Clausius Statement: It is impossible to construct a device operating on a

cycle whose sole effect is the transfer of heat from a low temperature body
to high temperature body.
 Kelvin-Planck Statement: It is impossible to construct a device operating
on a cycle whose sole effect is transfer of heat energy from a single heat
reservoir and deliver equivalent amount of energy by work.

Note: Violation of Kelvin-Planck statement leads to violation of Clausius

statement and vice-versa.

Perpetual Motion Machines (PMM): Any device that violates either first law or
second law of thermodynamics is known as perpetual motion
machine(PMM). These machines are of two types: PMM1 and PMM2.

PMM 1:

 PMM 1 is that machine which violates first law of thermodynamics.

 It produces continuous work without receiving energy from other systems

Q =0 → PMM1 → W
PMM 2:
  PMM 2 is that machine which violates second law of thermodynamics.
 This machine exchange heat from a single reservoir and do equal amount
of work

Q → PMM1 → W

Availability and Irreversibility

 28 upvotes
 5 comments

The sources of energy can be divided into two groups i.e., high grade energy
(mechanical work, electrical energy, water power, wind power) and low grade
energy (heat or thermal energy, heat derived from nuclear fission or combustion
of fossil fuels). That part of the low grade energy which is available for,
conversion is referred to as available energy, while the part which is not available
is known as unavailable energy.
Availability: When a system is subjected to a process from its original state to
dead state the maximum amount of useful work that can be achieved under ideal
conditions is known as available energy or availability of the system.
 W max = AE = Q xy – T0 (S y-S x )

Unavailable Energy:
UE = T 0 (S y -S x)

where, S x and S y are the entropy at x and y, respectively.

The Available Energy (AE) is also known as exergy and the Unavailable Energy
(UE) as energy.
Available Energy from a Finite Energy Source: Consider a hot gas of
mass mg at temperature T when the environmental temperature is T 0 . Assume that
gas is cooled from state 1 to state 3 and heat given by the gas Q 1 be utilized in
heating up reversibly a working fluid of mass mwf from state 3 to state 1. The
working fluid expands reversibly and adiabatically in an engine or turbine from
state 1 to state 2 and then return to state 3 to complete heat engine cycle.
Available energy of a finite energy source
Available energy = W max = Q 1 -Q 2

Law of Degradation of Energy

First law states that energy is always conserved quantity wise while second law
emphasizes that energy always degrades quality wise. Second law is called the
law of degradation of energy. Energy is always conserved but its quality is always
degraded.
Reversible work by an open system exchanging heat only with the surroundings.

Where, Z 1 and Z 2 are the elevation at 1 and 2, respectively.

For steady flow process, ⇒ dm1 =dm2 dm

dE v=0

The maximum reversible work

The expression is called Kennan function B. In term of per unit mass is called
Kennan function B.

= ψ1 - ψ2

Where, Ψ is called the availability function of a steady flow process given by

If ΔKE = 0 and ΔPE = 0

W max = b 1 - b 2 = (h 1 -h 2 )-T0 (S 1 -S 2 )

Maximum reversible work for a closed system,

dm1 = dm2 = 0

where, at
ΔKE=0, ΔPE=0 W max = (U 1 -T0 S 1 )-(U2 -T0 S 2 )e

where, ∆ KE = Change in kinetic energy

∆ PE = Change in potential energy

Maximum reversible work for unit mass of fluid,

W max = (U 1 -T0 S 1 )-(U2 -T 0 S 2 )

Useful Work
Maximum useful work W max =W max -p 0 (V 2 -V 1 )
V 1 and V 2 are the initial and final volumes of the systems and p 0 is the atmospheric
pressure.

Useful Work for Unsteady Open System

Useful Work for Unsteady Closed System

ΔKE=0, ΔPE=0
(W u ) max = U1 -U2 +p 0 (V 1 -V 2 )-T0 (S 1 -S 2 )
(W u ) max = (U1 +p 0 V-T0 S 1 )-(U 2 +p 0 V 2 -T0 S 2 )

(W u ) max = φ1 -φ2 ϕ is called the availability function for a closed system,

φ = U + p 0V - p0S

or φ = u + p 0 V - p 0 S (per unit mass basis)

Maximum useful work obtainable when the systems exchange heat with thermal
reservoirs in addition to the atmosphere

Dead State: When the system is in equilibrium with surrounding with

temperatureT0 and pressure p 0 and the system also in chemical equilibrium
with zero velocity and minimum potential energy. Then, it is called the dead state.
All spontaneous processes terminate at the dead state.

Irreversibility
The actual work done by a system is always less than idealized reversible work
and the difference between the two is called the irreversibility of the process.
I = W max - W

I = T0 (ΔS system + ΔS surrounding )

I = T0 (ΔS)universal

T0 (ΔS)universal represent an increase in unavailable energy.

Goby-Stodola Theorem: It states that the rate of loss of available energy or

exergy in a process is proportional to the rate of entropy generation S gen

I = W lost = T0 ΔS universal

I = T 0 S gen

where, I = irreversibility

Irreversibility for adiabatic flow of an ideal gas through the segment of pipe with
friction decreases in availability and is proportional to pressure drop and mass
flow rate.
  The term Kennan function B(=H–T 0 S) is used in steady flow process and
availability function is given by

 For closed system availability function is given by and

where
 Property Helmholty function F-be defined by the relation F = U – TS
 Given function G is defined as G=H-TS=U+pV-TS

Thermodynamic Relations
 38 upvotes
 3 comments
Thermodynamics Relations: Thermodynamic relations are based on the
condition of exact differentia. Let relation exist among the variables x, y and z.

For thermodynamic variables p, V & T

Maxwell’s Equation: Using thermodynamics relations and applying to each of

those relations results in four equations that are known as Maxwell’s relation. For
a pure substance undergoing an infinitesimal reversible process,
of the four Maxwell’s relations, the last two Eqs. (iii)p and (iv) are more valuable

since they relate entropy derivatives and to derivatives of

pressure and volume and .

TdS Equation

First TdS equation,

Second TdS equation,

Difference in Heat Capacity

As or absolute zero expansivity

Isothermal compressibility k T is defined as

Adiabatic compressibility is defined as

Joule Thomson Coefficient: If a real gas undergoes throttling process then its
temperature changes. Slope of curve drawn between pressure and temperature is
known as Joule Thomson coefficient generally denoted as μ j.

S entropic curve and inversion curve

Here, μ j < 0: temperature increases

μ j = 0 ⇒ temperature constant

μ j > 0 ⇒ temperature decreases

 or

For an ideal gas, μ j = 0

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation: Clausius-Clapeyron equation is a way of

characterizing a discontinuous phase transition between two phase of matter of a
single constituent. On a p-T diagram, the line separating two phases is known as
the coexistence curve.

where, dp / dT is the slope of tangent to the co-existence curve at any point, l is

the specific latent heat. T is the temperature and V is the specific volume
change and S stands for specific entropy.

where,
S f = entropy of the final phase

S 1 = entropy of the initial phase

V f = volume of the final phase

V i = volume of the initial phase

Thermodynamic Relations
 38 upvotes
 3 comments
Thermodynamics Relations: Thermodynamic relations are based on the
condition of exact differentia. Let relation exist among the variables x, y and z.

For thermodynamic variables p, V & T

Maxwell’s Equation: Using thermodynamics relations and applying to each of

those relations results in four equations that are known as Maxwell’s relation. For
a pure substance undergoing an infinitesimal reversible process,
of the four Maxwell’s relations, the last two Eqs. (iii)p and (iv) are more valuable

since they relate entropy derivatives and to derivatives of

pressure and volume and .

TdS Equation

First TdS equation,

Second TdS equation,

Difference in Heat Capacity

As or absolute zero expansivity

Isothermal compressibility k T is defined as

Adiabatic compressibility is defined as

Joule Thomson Coefficient: If a real gas undergoes throttling process then its
temperature changes. Slope of curve drawn between pressure and temperature is
known as Joule Thomson coefficient generally denoted as μ j.

S entropic curve and inversion curve

Here, μ j < 0: temperature increases

μ j = 0 ⇒ temperature constant

μ j > 0 ⇒ temperature decreases

or

For an ideal gas, μ j = 0

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation: Clausius-Clapeyron equation is a way of

characterizing a discontinuous phase transition between two phase of matter of a
single constituent. On a p-T diagram, the line separating two phases is known as
the coexistence curve.
 where, dp / dT is the slope of tangent to the co-existence curve at any point, l is
the specific latent heat. T is the temperature and V is the specific volume
change and S stands for specific entropy.

where,
S f = entropy of the final phase

S 1 = entropy of the initial phase

V f = volume of the final phase

V i = volume of the initial phase

Power Engineering
 27 upvotes
 2 comments

Power plant engineering deals with the study of energy, its sources and utilization
of energy for power generation. The power is generated by prime movers
(example Hydraulic turbines, steam turbines, diesel engines). Large amount of
power is generated using prime movers in a site or layout called power plants,
where all the equipments and machineries required for power generation is
located.
Energy: Energy may be defined as the capacity to do work. Energy exists in
various forms, such as Mechanical Energy, thermal energy, electrical energy,
solar energy etc. Electricity is the only form of energy, which is easy to produce,
easy to transport, easy to use and easy to control. Electricity consumption per
capita is the index of the living standard people of a place or country i.e. the
utilization of energy is an indication of the growth of the nation.
Power can be defined as the rate of flow of energy and can state that a power
plant is a unit built for production and delivery of a flow of mechanical or electrica l
energy.

Classification of power plants:

A power plant makes use of any one of the energy sources to produce power.

Depending on the type of energy source the power plants are classified as

 Thermal power plant (Steam power plant)

 Internal combustion engine plants
 Gas turbine power plant
 Nuclear power plant
 Solar power plant
  Tidal power plant
 Hydroelectric power plant
 Wind power
 Geothermal power plant

Air and Gas Compressors

 29 upvotes
 1 comment

Compressor: A compressor compresses air or a gas by harnessing external work

fed from a prime mover.
The increase in the gas pressure is accompanied by the temperature rise. If the
compressor is perfectly insulated and the compression is adiabatic then it
requires the minor work input to increase the gas pressure. All the generated heat
of compression is expanded to compresses the gas as no heat is allowed to
escape.

So Q = 0

Mass flow route of the gas = M and V 1 = V 2

Z1 = Z2,
By applying SFEE h 1 = h 2 + (-W C) (-) sign before Wc refers to the work done on
the gas (system) W C = M(h 2 -h 1 ) = MCP (T 2 -T 1 ) Nozzle

There is no work output : W = O

No heat influx or escape Q = 0

For a horizontal disposition

Z1 = Z2

And so the SFEE applied to the nozzle boils down to

Pump:
  Pump is a mechanical device generally used for raising liquids from lower
level to a higher level.
 Pump is also used to add energy to the fluid to move it from one point to
another. This is achieved by creating a low pressure at the inlet and the
high pressure at the outlet of the pump. Due to the low inlet pressure the
liquid rises from where it is available and the high outlet pressure forces it
up where it is to be stored or supplied. However, work has to be done by
prime mover to enable it to impart mechanical energy to the liquid which
ultimately converts into pressure energy.
 Pump is also used to increase the flow rate of the liquid

Classification of pumps:
  In Pump, the saturated liquid is compressed and reversible adiabatically
ending at initial pressure.
 Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE) for the boiler (as control volume)

h4 + Q1 = h1 ⇒ Q1 = h1 - h4

 SFEE for turbine (as control volume)

W r = h1 – h2

where, W T = work done by turbine.

 SFEE for the condenser

Q2 = h2 – h3

 SFEE for the pump (ds = 0)

 Efficiency of the Rankine cycle,

 Steam rate

 Heat rate

Q ECO = h 5 – h 4 (Economiser)

Q ECO = h 6 – h 5 = h fg (Evaporator)
Q SH = h 1 – h 6 (Superheated)
Turbine

 A turbine is a rotatory mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid

flow and converts it into useful work.
  A turbine is a turbo machine with at least one moving part called a rotor
assembly, which is a shaft or drum with blades attached moving fluid acts
on the blades so that they move and import rotational energy to the rotor.

The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or
drum, with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the blades react to
the flow, so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor.
Gas, steam, and water turbines usually have a casing around the blades that
contains and controls the working fluid.
Steam Turbine: A steam turbine is prime mover which converts high pressure
energy and high temperature steam supplied by steam generator into shaft work
with the low temperature steam exhausted to a condenser.
Impulse Turbines: All pressure drops of steam occur in the nozzles. No pressure
drops as steam flow through the passage between two blades.
Before entering nozzle p 0 , V 1

After p 1 , V 1

After deflection p 2 , V 2

 The steam flows through the nozzles and impinges on the moving blades
 The steam impinges on the buckets with kinetic energy.
 The steam may or may not be admitted over the whole circumference.
 The steam pressure remains constant during its flow through the moving
blades.
 The blades are symmetrical.
 The number of stages required is less for the same power developed.

Momentum Conservation in Blades: Momentum of steam jet at inlet to the

blades-momentum of steam jets at exit from the blades = momentum absorbed by
wheel in producing shaft work.
∆vw = velocity of whirl at inlet - velocity of whirl at outlet.

α = Nozzle angle subtended by nozzle axis with the direction of rotation of wheel
β 1 = Inlet blade angle
β 2 = Exit blade angle

Blade friction factor

For symmetrical blades: β1 = β 2

V b = mean peripheral velocity of the blades (mean blade velocity)

Dm = mean diameter of the blade

 Tangential thrust impressed by jet on the blades P t = W s . ∆V w W s = steam

flow rate
 Axial thrust where
 Area of the flow or blade annulus.

D1 is the root diameter, D 2 is the tip diameter, h b is the height of the blades.

Blading or diagram efficiency

 Energy loss due to friction in the blades is equal to

 Optimum velocity ratio

and

If the energy loss due to friction is small,

k b = 1, then n d max = (cos 2 α)
Nozzle angle has to be maintained within a certain range, which varies from 16 o to
22 o in impulse turbine.
Compounding of Steam Turbines: Compounding of steam turbines is the
method in which energy from the steam is extracted in a number of stages rather
than a single stage in a turbine.

 One row of nozzle followed by one row of blades is called a stage

(compounding) of a turbine.
 With a single stage, the velocity of steam at exit is sufficiently high and
there is considerable loss of kinetic energy with existing steam.

There are two methods of compounding which are given below

Pressure Compounding (Rateau staging): The pressure compounding is used to

solve the problem of high blade velocity in the single stage impulse turbine.

 Series of nozzle and blades.

 Pressure drop only at nozzles.
 Kinetic energy of steam increases in the nozzles and it is absorbed by the
blades in each stage, in producing torque.
 The total enthalpy drop is divided equality in each stages.
 If n stages, isentropic enthalpy drop in per stages
The velocity of steam at exit from the first row of nozzle

Where, h 0 and h 1 in kj/kg and velocity in m/s.

 If the kinetic energy of steam is neglected at inlet to each subsequent row

of nozzles, the velocity of steam leaving the nozzles at each row will be the
same.
 For 4 stages velocity leaving nozzle in each stage = ½ of single stage
 For 9 stages velocity leaving nozzle in each stage = 1/3 of single stage
 For each impulse stage operating at its maximum blade efficiency, the
blade velocity is given by νb =(cosα/2)V 1

Velocity Compounding (Curtis staging): Velocity compounding is used to solve

the problem of single stage impulse turbine for use of high pressure and
temperature steam.
  Pattern: nozzle moving blade → stationary blades → moving
blades →stationary blade.
 All the pressure drops (enthalpy drop) in a single row of nozzles.
 Resultant kinetic energy of steam is absorbed by wheel in a number of rows
of moving blades with guided blades in between two such rows.

 Blade friction factor

Let,

α 1 = Exit angle guide blade

β 1 , β 2 = Inlet and exit angle of the first row of moving blade

β 3 , β 4 = Inlet and exit angle of the second row of moving blades

∆V w1 ∆V w2 = changes in velocity of whirl in the first row and second row of moving
blades
∆V a1 ∆V a2 = changes in velocity of whirl in the first row and second row of moving
blades

 The tangential thrust,

 The axial thrust,
 Blading or diagram work

 Blading or diagram efficiency,

  Ratio of work done by the steam jets on the moving blades in row.
In 2-row Curtis stage,
It means ¾ of the work done by the steam jets on the first row of moving
blades and ¼ of the total work done on the second row of moving blades.
In 3-row Curtis stage,

Note: As the number of rows of moving blade in a Curtis stage increases, the
effectiveness of the later rows decreases.
Optimum Velocity Ratio for a Curtis Stage: For a Curtis stage having z-rows of
moving blade

where, z = number of rows

For a 2-row Curtis stage, n d =(cosα)2

Where, ∆h = Change in drought pressure

Reaction Turbines: Pressure drops occur both in the nozzles or the fixed row of
blades, as well as in the moving row of blades. Moving blades also have nozzle
shape. Expansion of steam through the blades, increase in kinetic energy give
rise to reaction in the opposite direction, Rotation of blades due to both the
impulse effect of jets (change in momentum) and reaction force of the exist ing
jets impressed on the blades in the opposite direction.
The degree of reaction (R) = Δh MB/(Δh MB + Δh FB )
Δh MB = 0, R=0 Pure impulse turbine (no enthalpy drop in the moving blades, all in
nozzle)
Δh FB = 0, R=1 (100% pure reaction turbine Hero’s turbine)

Δh MB = Δh stage /2,
 (50% reaction turbine)
For manufacturing advantage, both fixed blades and moving blades are made
similar in shapes so that they can be extruded from the same set of dies.

Since,

For similar geometry,

β 1 is not equal to β 2 (to blades are unsymmetrical).

∆V s = 0 in 50% reaction turbine, there is no axial thrust.
However, there will be considerable axial thrust produced due to the pressure
difference across the blades in each rotor disc since there is pressure drop of
steam across the moving blades.

 In reaction turbine, since both fixed and moving blades act as nozzle. So,
we refer fixed blades as stator and moving blades as rotor.
 Optimum efficiency for simple impulse, Curtis and reaction turbine blading
are all equal. However, when friction is taken into account, the reaction
stage found to be most efficient due to low flow velocity followed by Rateau
and Curtis in that order.
 Comparison of enthalpy drops in various stages
The diagram work per kg of steam, W D = ΔV W . V b = (2V 1 cosα - V b )-V b

The energy input the blades the blades per kg steam

Specific blading work corresponding maximum blade efficiency

 The steam first through guide mechanism and then through the moving
blades.
 The steam guides over the vanes with pressure and kinetic energy.
 The steam must be admitted over the whole circumference.
 The steam pressure is reduced during its flow through the moving blades.
 The steam pressure is reduced during its flow through the moving blades.
 The number of stages required is more for the same power developed.

Gas Turbine: A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal
combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a
downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in between. The basic operation
of the gas turbine is similar to the steam power plant except that air is used
instead of water.
These turbines are sometimes referred to as turbine engines. Such engines
usually feature an inlet, fan, compressor, combustor and nozzle in additi on to one
or more turbines.

Gas Turbine Power Plant

  For power generation, it is attractive due to its low capital cost and its high
reliability and flexibility in operation.
 Because of its low weight per unit power, gas turbine is exclusively used to
drive aviation systems of all kind of aircraft.

Closed Cycle and Open Cycle Plants

 In open cycle plant which is more common, where the combustion products
after doing work in the turbine are exhausted to atmosphere.
 In a closed cycle plant, the working fluid (air, helium, argon, carbon dioxide
etc.) is externally heated (by burning fuel or by nuclear reactor), and cooled
and it operates in a closed cycle.

Analysis of Gas Turbine Power Plant

Heat supplied

Heat rejected

Let ma = mass of air

rp = pressure ratio

If compressor and turbine efficiencies are considered,

The work ratio rw is defined as the ratio of net work to work done in turbine.

Variation of cycle efficiency with rp

Effect of Regeneration: Regenerator effectiveness e = (actual temperature rise

of air)/(maximum temperature of rise possible)
  Q 1 and Q 2 both of which decreases whereas W net remains unchanged due to
regeneration. Therefore, efficiency of the cycle W net /Q 1 increases.
 In practice, the regenerator is costly, heavy and bulky and causes pressure
losses which may bring about decreases in cycle efficiency. So, there may
be balanced.

Effect of Intercooling: By staging the compression process with perfect

intercooling, the cycle efficiency decreases as shown in figure, where the small
cycle 1-2-3-4’-1, without intercooling.

 For minimum work of compression, the intercooler pressure.

Where, p 1 and p 2 are suction and discharge pressures respectively.

Effect of Reheating: By staging the heat supply process with a combustor and a
reheater, the cycle efficiency decreases.
  But it permits more heat recovery from heat recovery from the turbine
exhaust gases, with the result that reheating along with regeneration may
bring about an improvement in cycle efficiency.
 It can be shown that the optimum reheat pressure for maximum work
is

Vapour and Gas Power Cycles

 19 upvotes
 2 comments

Binary Vapour Cycle

In the binary cycle, two cycles with different working fluids are coupled series and
the heat rejected by one being utilized in the other.
m = flow rate of binary in the necessary cycle per kg of steam cycle.
Brayton Rankine Combine Cycle Plant
In this cycle, the Brayton and Rankine cycles are combined to increase the
efficiency.
When Plant in Series
Let us consider two cyclic pair plant coupled in series. The toppling plant
operating on Brayton cycle and boiling are operating on Rankinee cycle

X L = fraction of heat supplied which is loss

When Plants Operate in Parallel

Where,
Advantages of Combined Cycle

 High overall plant efficiency

 Low investment costs
 Great operating flexibility
 Water required in small amount
 Simplicity of operation
 Low environmental impact.

Proximate Analysis of coal

It indicates the behavior of coal when it is heated.

FC + VM + M + A = 100% by mass
FC = Fixed Carbon
Where, VM = Volatile Matter

M = Moisture

A = Ash

Ultimate Analysis of coal

It gives the chemical elements that comprise the coal substances, together with
ash and moisture.

C + H + O + N + S + M + A = 100% by mass

Where, C = Carbon, H = Hydrogen,

O = Oxygen N = Nitrogen

S = Sulphur, M = Moisture,

A = Ash

Heating Value by Using Bomb Calorimeter

Heating value is the heat generated when the products of complete combustion of
a sample of fuel are cooled to initial temperature of fuel air.

LHV = HHV – mw hfg

h fg = Latent heat of vaporization

mw = Mass of water vapour

mw = M + gH + 𝛾 AW A
where, M and H are the mass fractions of moisture and hydrogen in the coal. γ A is
the specific humidity of atmospheric air and W A is the actual amount of air
supplied per kg of coal.

Dulong and Petit Formula

If the ultimate analysis is known, the HHV of anthracite and bituminous coals can
be determined approximately by using Dulong and Petit formula as

Where, C = Carbon, O = Oxygen, H = Hydrogen, S = Sulphur

Orsat Gas Analysis
 Orsat gas analyser measures the volume or mole fraction of CO 2 , CO and O 2 in
the dry flue gas.

CO 2 + CO + O 2 + N 2 = 100% by volume

Height of Chimney

Height of chimney is given by following formula.

where, H = Height of chimney above the fire grate in metres

h = Drought pressure in mm of water

m = Mass of air used for per kg of fuel

Ta = Absolute temperature of air outside the chimney (K)

Tg = Absolute temperature of air inside chimney (K)

Condition for maximum discharge through the chimney.

The drought in mm of water column

Concepts of Regeneration and Reheat

 33 upvotes
 4 comments
Reheating of Steam
In the reheat cycle, the expansion of steam from the initial state 1 to the
condenser pressure is carried out in two or more steps depending upon the
number of reheats used.
Cycle efficiency improves with reheat, however the cycle efficiency in a single
reheat plant is influenced by pressure at which steam is reheated. The efficie ncy
increases as the reheat pressure is lowered and reaches a peak at a pressure
ratio between 0.20 and 0.25
Reheating steam also increase the net work output of turbine.

Key Points

 Internal irreversibility of Rankine cycle (Real cycle) is caused by fl uid

frictions throttling and mixing.
 Externally, irreversibility of the Rankine cycle is caused due to the
temperature difference between the combustion gases and the working
fluid on the same side and the temperature difference between the
condensing working fluid and the condenser cooling water on the sink side.

Advantages of Re-heating:
  Due to reheating, network done increases
 Heat supply increases
 Thermal efficiency increases
 Due to reheating, the turbine exit dryness fraction increases so moisture
decreases - so blade erosion becomes minimum - so life of the turbine will
be increased.

Regeneration
The mean temperature of heat addition (and so efficiency) can also be increased
by reducing the amount of heat added at low temperatures in the economizer
section of steam generator. In the regeneration process energy is exchanged
internally between the expanding fluid in the turbine and the compressed fluid
before heat addition.
Ideal regenerative cycle done not affect work output from turbine, it is more
efficient with high steam rate.
Efficiency of Steam Power Plant

Overall efficiency of the steam per plant is given by

 Reheating of steam improved the thermal efficiency of the plant, net work
output of turbine, reduction in blade erosion (or quality of steam improve)
 By regeneration thermal efficiency of the plant can be increased but it does
not affect work output from turbine.

Combined Cycle Power Generation

 It is an assembly of heat engines that works with the same source of heat. The
principle of combined cycle power generation is that the exhaust of one heat
engine is used as the used as the source of heat for another heat engine. This
process increases the overall efficiency of a heat engine.

Advantages of Regeneration cycle:

 Heat supplied to boiler becomes reduced

 Thermal efficiency is increased since the average temperature of heat
addition to the cycle is increased.
 Due to bleeding in the turbine, erosion of turbine due to moisture is
reduced.

Characteristics of Ideal Working Fluid

 The fluid should have high critical temperature and the saturation pressure
at the temperature of heat rejection should be above the atmospheric
pressure.
 Specific heat of liquid should be small.
 The saturated vapour line of T-s diagram, very close to the turbine
expansion process.
 The freezing point of the fluid should be below the room temperature.
 The fluid should be chemically stable, non-toxic, non-corrosive, not
excessively viscous and low in cost.

I.C. Engines
 55 upvotes
 4 comments
Engine: An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another
form. Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into
thermal energy and utilizes this thermal energy to perform useful work.

Classification of Heat Engines:

EC and IC Engines: External Combustion (EC) engines are those in which

combustion takes place outside the engine whereas in Internal Combustion (IC)
engines, combustion takes within the engine.

Classification of IC Engine
  Two Strokes Engine: The thermodynamics cycle is completed in two
strokes of the piston or in one revolution of the crankshaft. Thus, one power
stroke is obtained in each revolution of the crankshaft with uniform turning
moment and light flywheel.
 Four Strokes Engine: The thermodynamics cycle is completed in four
strokes of the piston or in two revolution of the crankshaft. Th us, one power
stroke is obtained in every two revolution of the crankshaft with non -uniform
turning moment and heavier flywheel.
 Spark Ignition (SI) Engine: It works on Otto cycle or constant volume heat
addition cycle. A gaseous mixture of fuel air introduced during the suction
stroke. A carburettor and an ignition system are necessary. Modern
engines have gasoline injection.
 Compression Ignition (CI) Engine: It works one diesel cycle or constant
pressure heat addition cycle. Fuel is injected directly into the combustion
chamber at high pressure at the end of the compression stroke. A fuel
pump and injection are necessary.

Performance Parameters of Engine

 Indicated Thermal Efficiency: Total power developed by the combustion

of fuel in combustion chamber is called “indicated power”. This efficiency
gives an idea of the output generated by the engine with respect to heat
supplied in the form of fuel. The indicated thermal efficiency can be defined
as indicated power.

Here, I p = Indicated power, Cv = Calorific value of fuel, and Mf = Mass of

fuel/second
  Brake Thermal Efficiency: It is defined as ratio at heat equivalent to break
power to heat energy supplied to engine in fuel.

 Mechanical Efficiency: It is the ratio of brake power to indicated power.

 Volumetric Efficiency: Volumetric efficiency is a measure of the success

with which the air supply, and thus the charge, is inducted into the engine.
It is a very important parameter, since it indicates the breathing capacity of
the engine.

Here, p a = Inlet density of air, Ma = Mass of air, V dis = Displaced volume of air,

= Volume flow rate for four strokes engine, V d = Volume flow rate of air.

 Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio: It is the ratio of indicated thermal

efficiency to thermal efficiency to theoretical cycle at same compression
ratio.
  Mean Effective Pressure (p m): The parameter mean effective pressure is
measured by the formula which is given below

where, ip = Indicated power in kW, p m = Indicated mean effective pressure

(N/m 2 ),L = Length of the stroke (m), A = Area of the piston (m 2 ), N = Speed in
revolutions per minute (rpm), n = Number of power strokes N/2 for four strokes
and N for two strokes engine, and K = Number of cylinders.

 Mean Piston Speed: Mean piston speed can be given by

 Specific Fuel Consumption: It is the ratio of amount of kilogram of fuel

used per hour by engine to power produced by the engine.

 Fuel Air (F/A) or Air Fuel Ratio (A/F): The ratio of actual fuel air ratio to
stoichiometric fuel air ratio is called equivalence ratio.
 Accordingly, for stoichiometric mixture, For lean mixture, and
for rich mixture.
Air-Standard Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles
 40 upvotes
 22 comments

Cycle: A cycle is defined as a repeated series of operations occurring in a certain

order. In other words, any process or series of processes whose end states are
identical termed as cycle.

Assumptions of Air Standard Cycle:

 Assume working medium as perfect gas (ideal gas).

 No change in mass of working period.
 Reversible processes.
 Supply of heat from a constant high temperature source (not from chemical
reactions) and rejection of heal to a constant low temperature source.
 Not heat losses from the system to surroundings.
 Constant specific heats through the cycle.

Types of Cycles
Carnot Cycle: Carnot cycle is an ideal cycle in which all the processes
constituting a reversible cycle. This cycle consists of two isothermal and two
reversible adiabatic processes.

 Process 1 – 2 is isothermal compression process

 Process 2 – 3 is adiabatic process (isentropic process)
 Process 3 – 4 is isothermal expansive process
 Process 4 – 1 is adiabatic process (isentropic process)

All the processes are reversible.

where, T1 = Temperature at process 1, and T3 = Temperature at process 3.

Carnot cycle has a low mean effective pressure because of very low work output.
The Stirling Cycle: It is modified form of Carnot cycle with high mean effective
pressure. It consists of two isothermal and two constant volume processes.
  Isothermal process:

 Constant volume process

(same as Carnot cycle)

 In practical Stirling cycle, efficiency will be less than Carnot efficiency.

 For heat exchange efficiency:

where, E = Heat exchanger effectiveness.

The Ericsson Cycle: It consists of two isothermal and two constant pressure
processes. The processes are

 Process 1-2 is reversible isothermal compression

 Process 2-3 is constant pressure heat addition
  Process 3-4 is reversible isothermal expansion
 Process 4-1 is constant pressure heat rejection

The advantage of the Ericsson cycle is its small pressure ratio for given ratio of
maximum to minimum specific volume with higher mean effective pressure.
Ericsson cycle is applied by a gas turbine employing a large number of stages
with heat exchangers, insulators and repeater

The thermal efficiency of Ericsson, cycle is given by,

The Otto Cycle: The Otto cycle is a set of processes used by spark ignition
internal combustion engines (2-stroke or 4-stroke cycles). Petrol engine works on
the Otto cycle. In petrol engine, fuel burnt by spark ignition. It consists, two
isentropic processes (reversible adiabatic) and two constant volume processes.

 Process 1-2 is reversible adiabatic compression of air

  Process 2-3 is heat addition constant volume.
 Process 3-4 is reversible isothermal expansion of air
 Process 4-1 is heat rejection at constant volume.

Compression ratio

where, Q s = Heat supplied during the isothermal process.

Q R = Heat rejected during the isothermal expression process

Work Output (W): It can be measures as

where, Q s = Heat supplied, and Q R = Heat rejected

Heat supplied:
Q S = m C V (T3 – T2 )

Heat rejected:
Q R = mC V (T4 – T1 )

where, γ = Specific heat ratio, and rp = Pressure ratio

Pressure ratio:

Value of 𝛄 (Ratio of Specific Heat):

 For monoatomic gas γ = 1.67

 For air γ = 1.40
 For exhaust gas γ = 1.30
Mean Effective Pressure: It is defined as the ratio of the net work done to the
displacement volume of the piston.

Swept volume = V 1 – V 2 = V 2 (r – 1)

where, p m = Mean effective pressure, rp = Pressure ratio, and γ = Specific heat

ratio.
The Diesel Cycle: This cycle is used in diesel engine. In diesel engine, fuel is
burnt by compressing the air up to high pressure. It consists of two isentropic
processes, one constant volume process and one constant pressure process.

 Process 1-2 is reversible adiabatic compression

 Process 2-3 is constant pressure heat addition
 Process 3-4 is reversible adiabatic compression
 Process 4-1 is constant volume heat rejection

Volume ratio or cut-off ratio:

Compression ratio:

Work Output: Work output can be calculated by the following relation.

Where, r = Compression ratio, and rc = Cut-off ratio.

Dual Cycle: In this cycle, heat is added partly at constant volume and partly at
constant pressure. It consists of two isentropic processes, two constant volume
processes and one constant pressure process.

 Process 1-2 is reversible adiabatic compression

 Process 2-3 is constant volume heat addition
 Process 3-4 is constant pressure heat addition
 Process 4-5 is reversible adiabatic expansion
 Process 5-1 is constant volume heat rejection

 Efficiency
  Work output

 Mean effective pressure

Comparison of Efficiencies in Cycles:

For same compression ratio and heat addition

For same compression ratio and heat rejection

Same peak pressure, peak temperature and heat rejection

Same maximum pressure and heat input

Same maximum pressure and work output

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
 17 upvotes
 1 comment
Refrigeration deals with cooling of bodies or fluids to temperatures lower than
those of surroundings. This involves absorption of heat at a lower temperature
and rejection to higher temperature of the surroundings.

Main purpose of refrigeration was to produce ice, which was used for cooling
beverages, food preservation and refrigerated transport etc. Refrigeration has
become essential for many chemical and processing industries to improve the
standard, quality, precision and efficiency of many manufacturing processes.
Air-conditioning involves control of temperature, humidity, cleanliness of air and
its distribution to meet the comfort requirements of human beings and/or some
industrial requirements. Air-conditioning involves cooling and dehumidification in
summer months; this is essentially done by refrigeration. It also involves heating
 and humidification in cold climates, which is conventionally done by a boiler
unless a heat pump is used.
The major applications of refrigeration can be grouped into following four major
equally important areas.

1. Food processing, preservation and distribution: Storage of Raw Fruits and

Vegetables, Fish, Meat and poultry, Dairy products, Beverages, Candy, and
Processing and distribution of frozed food.
2. Chemical and process industries: Separation of gases, Condensation of
gases, Dhimmification of Air, Solidification of solute, Storage as liquid at
low pressure, Removal of Heat of reaction, Cooling for preservation, and
Recovery of solvents.
3. Special Applications: Cold Treatment of Metals, Medical, Construction, Ice
skating, etc.
4. Industrial air conditioning: Laboratories, Printing, Manufacture of precision
parts, Textile Industry, Pharmaceutical Industries, Photographic Material,
Farm Animals, Computer Rooms, Power Plants, and Vehicular Air
conditioning.
5. Comfort air-conditioning

Vapour and Gas Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles

 32 upvotes
 5 comments
Refrigeration Cycle: Refrigeration is the process in which heat is removed from
a body enclosed space so that its temperature is reduced and then maintained at
the temperature below the surrounding temperature. The working substance
which is used to produce refrigeration is known as refrigerant.
Heat Pump: Heat pump is used to remove heat from a body at lower temperature
and transfer this heat to a body having high temperature on the expense of
external work supplied.
Coefficient of Performance;

Here, the desired effect is to give heat to higher temperature body.

where, TH = high temperature,

TL = lower temperature

Refrigerator: Working principle of refrigerator is same as heat pump, but its aim
to keep cool the body whose temperature is below atmospheric temperature.
Where, TH and TL are higher and lower temperature respectively.

(COP) p = (COP) R + 1
where, Q L = heat at lower temperature,

Q H = heat at higher temperature

Unit of Refrigeration: It has standard unit of TR (Ton or Refrigeration). 1 TR
(one ton of refrigeration) means capacity to freeze one ton of water from and at
0 o C in 24 h.

Key Points

 A refrigerator is a device operating in a cycle, maintains a body at a

temperature of the surroundings.
 There is performance parameter in a refrigerator cycle, called the
coefficient of performance.
 Heat pump is a device which operating in a cycle, maintains a body at a
temperature higher than the temperature of the surroundings.

Reversed Carnot Cycle: When the processes of Carnot cycle is reversed, then it
is called reversed Carnot cycle.
Where T2 and T1 are the temperature at section 2 and 1 respectively
and S 1 , S 2 , S 3 and S 4 are the entropy at 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

Air Refrigeration System: In air refrigeration, Bell Coleman cycle is used which
works on reversed Brayton cycle while Brayton cycle is used for gas turbine.

COP of reversed Brayton cycle,

Let pressure ratio is r p , then

Where, γ = index, rp = pressure ratio

Vapour Compression refrigeration System: In this system, refrigerant (like
NH3 R-12, R-11 etc) changes its phase from liquid to vapour and vice -versa.
When liquid changes into vapour, it produces refrigerating effect by absorbing
latent heat from cold chamber. This process is known as evaporation.

1 → 2 → compression process (Isentropic)

2 → 3 → condensation process (At constant pressure)

3 → 4 → expansion process (Isenthalpic process)
4 → 1 → evaporation process (At constant pressure)

Where h 1 , h 2 and h 4 are the enthalpy at section 1, 2 and 4 respectively.

Key Points

 COP of refrigerator working between two fixed temperature T L and TH (T H >

TL ) will have fixed COP.
 A reversible heat engine can work like a refrigerator or a heat pump.
 Vapour compression refrigeration cycle

 Entropy h 2 = h 2 +Cp (T 2 -T2 )

 For isentropic process, S 2 = S VS 3 = S 4
Compressor: A compressor is used in refrigerator to increase the pressure of
gas. To compress the refrigerant we use reciprocating compressor generally in
the vapour compression refrigeration system,

Stroke volume
where, d = diameter of compressor

L = stroke length

Volume flow rate of refrigerant

Where, N = rotational speed

η v = volumetric efficiency
n = number of cylinders

where, V c = clearance volume

c = clearance ratio

Vapour Absorption System: This system utilizes low grade form of heat energy
to produce cold on compression of vapour compression system. In vapour
absorption system compressor is replaced by absorber pump and generator.
COP of an Ideal Vapour Absorption System: Schematic diagram of energy
transfer in vapour absorption system is shown below
Q g = heat supply to refrigerator in generator

Q e = heat is absorbed by refrigerator in evaporator

Q c = heat is rejected to condenser or atmosphere

Coefficient of Performance:
Qg + Q e = Qc

For reversible cycle net entropy change is size

COP of Carnot refrigerator

Efficiency of Carnot engine

Here, Tg = generator temperature
Tc = absorber temperature (Generally surrounding temperature)
Te = evaporator temperature.

Refrigerant: Refrigerant absorbs heat by vaporization and rejects it through

condensation the condenser and so produces refrigerating effect.
Designation of Refrigerant: In International Standards, refrigerants are
designated as R followed by some numerals.

For a hydrocarbon Chemical formula is Cr Hs F1 CI y

If S+t+y=2r+2, designation of refrigerant is R(r-1)(S+1)t

It S+t+y=2r, designation of refrigerant is R1(r-1)(S+1)t

For an Inorganic Refrigerant

Designation is R(700 + molecular weight)

e.g.,

Desirable Properties of a Good Refrigerant

 Low boiling point

 Low freezing point
 High latent heat of vaporization
 High thermal conductivity
 Low viscosity
 Low specific volume in vapour state

Uses and Properties of Some Refrigerant

 In absorption refrigeration system, we use NH 3 – H2 O or water lithium

bromide or water lithium chloride. In NH 3 – H2 O system NH 3 is refrigerant
while H 2 O is transport medium. In water lithium bromide or water lithium
chloride water if refrigerant.
 In ice plant, primary refrigerant is NH 3 or Freon while secondary refrigerant
is prime solution.
 Freezing temperature of Freon-12 is – 157.8 o C, so it is not used for
producing temperature below the freezing temperature.
  In dehydrator, silica get (molecular sieve SiO 2 + K 2 O + NO 2 + Al 2 O 3 ) is used
with calcium chloride. (Not use sodium chloride).
 Hermetically sealed reciprocating compressor is commonly used in room air
conditioner.
 For passenger aircraft air is used as refrigerant.
 Refrigerant CO 2 has lowest specific volume.

Properties of Moist Air, Psychrometric Chart, Basic

Psychrometric Processes
 29 upvotes
 8 comments

For comfort air conditioning, properties of air should be known so that we can
control the environment in the space. The study of properties of ambient air is
known as psychrometric.
Pressure: Pressure is the effect of a force applied to a surface. Pressure is the
amount of force acting per unit area. The symbol of pressure is π

Total pressure of air p=p v +p a

where, p v = partial pressure of water vapour

p s = partial pressure of dry ai
Partial pressure of water vapour

where, (p vs ) wb = saturation pressure of water vapour corresponding to wet bulb

temperature
p = atmospheric pressure of moist air

Twb = wet bulb temperature

Tdb = dry bulb temperature

Dry Air: It is the mixture of gases. Generally O 2 and N 2 make up the major part of
the combustion.

It consists 21% O 2 and 79% N 2 by volume.

It consists 23% O 2 and 77% N 2 by mass.

Moisture: The water vapour present in the air is called moisture.

Moist Air: It is the mixture of dry air and water vapour.

Absolute Humidity: The weight of water vapour present in unit volume of air is
called absolute humidity.

Specific Humidity: It is the ratio of mass of water vapour in air (mixture) to mass
of dry air in air mixture.
Relative Humidity: It is the ratio of mass of water vapour in a given volume to
mass of water vapour in the same volume of saturated air at same temperature.

where mv and ms are the mass of water vapour and mass of saturated
air p v andp vs are the partial pressure of water vapour and partial pressure of water
vapour in saturated air at same temperature for saturated air relative humidity is 1
or 100%.
Degree of Saturation (μ): It is the ratio of mass of water vapour in a sample of
air to mass of water vapour in saturated air at the same temperature.

where w and w s are specific humidities of air and saturated air.

Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT): It is the normal temperature of air measured by an

ordinary thermometer.

Wet Bulb Temperature: It is the temperature measured by a thermometer when

bulb is covered by wet cloth.

Wet Bulb Depression (WBD) = DBT – WBT

Dew Point Temperature (DPT): It is temperature at which water vapour in air
start condensing.
  For unsaturated air, DBT > WBT > DPT
 For saturated air, DBT = WBT = DPT

Dew Point Depression: It is the difference between Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT)
and Dew Point Temperature (DPT), i.e.,

DPD = DBT – DPT

Enthalpy of Air (h): Enthalpy of air is defined as

H = H a + H v , H=ma h a +mv h v

h a = Cp a(t)
h v = 2500 + 1800t

t = Dry Bulb Temperature in o C,

Or h = C pm t ab + w(h g – Cpv t db )

where, Cpm = C pia + C pv W

Cpa , Cpv, C pm are the specific heat of dry air water vapour and moist air
respectively.
h g → enthalpy of saturated water vapour at DPT in kJ/kg.

Psychrometric Chart

 Enthalpy is more or less constant with wet bulb temperature. Enthalpy lines
are also downward from lelt to right.
 Constant specific Volume lines are more steeper inclined lines than wet
bulb temperate lines or enthalpy lines
 Adiabatic lines on psychrometric chart are represented along constant
enthalpy lines.
Sensible Heating: It is process of heating air at constant w.

where, Cpm = specific heating moist

Sensible Cooling: It is process of cooling air at constant w. for sensible cooling,
the coil temperature must be greater than dew point temperature and less than
dbt.

Humidification: The addition of moisture to air at a constant, Dry Bulb

Temperature (DBT) is knows as humidification. It is process of increasing w at
constant DBT.

Dehumidification: The removal of moisture from air at a constant Dry Bulb

Temperature is called dehumidification. It is process of decreasing w at constant
DBT.
Heating with Humidification: It is process in which air heated with
humidification. The heating and humidification process line (1-2) as shown in
following figure. In this process, Dry Bulb Temperature and specific humidity of
incoming air increases.
Addition of heat Q 1-2 = m a [(h 1 -h 2 )-(w 1 -w 2 )h t ]

h 2 - h 1 = Sensible heat (S H )

h 2 – h 2 = latent heat (L H)

Sensible heat factor =

Heating with Dehumidification: In this process, air is heated with

dehumidification.

Cooling with Humidification: In this process, an air is cooled with

humidification.
Cooling with Dehumidification: In this process air is cooled below the down
point with dehumidification. It is necessary to maintain. In a cooling with
dehumidification, both the humidity ratio and temperature of most air decrease.
Some water vapour is condensed in the form of liquid water, called a condensat e.
This process is shown by a curve in psychrometric chart.

Total heat load on cooling coil,

Q 1-2 = ma [(h 1 -h 2 )-(w 1 -w 2 )h f ]

Since, (w 1 -w 2 )h 1 =0

So, Q 1-2 = ma (h 1 -h 2 )

Sensible heat factor

where, h 1 and h 2 = enthalpy of moist air entering and leaving the coil

ma = mass flow rate of the condensate

h 2 = enthalpy of condensate.
Adiabatic Mixing of Air Streams: Streams of air at different condition are mixed
as shown in figure by mass balance.
Chemical Dehumidification: In chemical humidification DBT of air increases
while specific humidity decreases.
Adiabatic Evaporative Cooling: In adiabatic evaporative cooling, the heat
removed in lowering the Dry Bulb Temperature of the air is absorbed by the
moisture which evaporates and raises the humidity of the air.
By Pass Factor: Let Dry Bulb Temperature of coil surface is t coil and air
temperature at entry and exit is t 1 and t 2 respectively.
By pass factor,

Coil Efficiency: It is determined by the mass coming in perfect contact of coil.

η-1-m=1-BPF

From figure,

Note: If by pass factor is low then coil efficiency will be better.

Summer Air Conditioning with Ventilation Air

GSHF → the line joining of inlet and exit condition of an A/C equipment.

RSHF → the line joining supply conditions with inside room condition.

The point of interaction of GSHF and RSHF will give supply condition to room.
Apparated Dew Point (ADP): The temperature at which cooling and
humidification lines meet sat

Comfort Chart: Relative humidity lines are taken from chart. It is found that an
effective temperature of 20 o C, 99% of people where comfortable in winter and in
summer this temperature is found to be 21.6 o C. The comfortable relative humidity
conditions are 50% to 60% and hence shaded region shows comfort zone for year
round conditioning.

Turbomachine

Turbomachine is defined as a device in which energy transfer takes place between a

flowing fluid and a rotating element resulting in a change of pressure and momentum of
the fluid. Energy is transferred into or out of the turbomachine mechanically by means of
input/output shafts.

Principal Parts of a Turbo Machine

1. Rotating element consisting of a rotor on which are mounted blades.

2. A stationary element in the form of guide blades, nozzles, etc.
3. Input/output shafts.
4. Housing
Schematic cross sectional view of a steam turbine showing the principal parts of a turbo
machine.

Functions:

1. The rotor functions to absorb/deliver energy to the flowing fluid.

2. The stator is a stationary element which may be of many types:-
o Guide blades which function to direct the flowing fluid in such a way that
energy transfer is maximized.
o Nozzles which function to convert pressure energy of the fluid to kinetic
energy
o Diffusers which function to convert kinetic energy to pressure energy of the
fluid.
3. The input /output shafts function to deliver/receive mechanical energy to or from
the machine.
4. The housing is a protective enclosure which also functions to provide a path of
flowing fluid. While a rotor & input /output shaft are essential parts of all turbo
machines, the stator & the housing are optional.
Classification of Turbo Machines:

1. According to the nature of energy transfer:

o Power generating turbo machines: In this, energy is transferred from the
flowing fluid to the rotor. Hence, enthalpy of the flowing fluid decreases as
it flows across. There is a need for an output shaft.
o Ex: Hydraulic turbines such as Francis turbine, Pelton wheel turbine,
Kaplan turbine, steam turbine such as De-Laval turbine, Parsons Turbine
etc, Gas turbines etc,
o Power absorbing Turbo machines: In this, energy is transferred from the
rotor to the flowing fluid. The enthalpy of the fluid increases as it flows
there is a need for an input shaft.
o Ex: Centrifugal pump, Compressor, blower, fan etc,
o Power transmitting turbo machines: In this energy is transferred from one
rotor to another by means of a flowing fluid. There is a need for an input /
output shafts. The transfer of energy occurs due to fluid action.
o Ex: Hydraulic coupling, torque converter etc,

Schematic representation of different types of turbo machine based on fluid flow:

 Axial flow fan.

 Radial outward flow fan.
 Mixed flow hydraulic turbine.

2. Based on the type of fluid flow:

o Tangential flow in which fluid flows tangential to the rotor Ex: Pelton wheel
etc,
o Axial flow in which the fluid flows more or less parallel to the axes of the
shafts /rotors. Ex: Kaplan turbine, Axial flow compressor.
o Radial flow in which fluid flows along the radius of the rotor this is again
classified as:
 Radially inward flow. Ex: Old fancies turbine.
 Radially outward flow. Ex: Centrifugal Pump
 o Mixed flow which involves radius entry & axial exit or vise-versa. Ex:
Modern francises turbine & Centrifugal Pump
3. Based on the type of Head:
o High head &low discharge .Ex: Pelton wheel.
o Medium head &medium discharge. Ex: Francis turbine.
o Low head & high discharge. Ex: Kaplan turbine.

Application of 1 st & 2 nd law of thermodynamics of turbo machines:

In a turbo machine, the fluctuations in the properties when observed over a period of
time are found to be negligible. Hence, a turbo machine may be treated as a steady flow
machine with reasonable accuracy & hence, we may apply the steady flow energy
equation for the analysis of turbo machine.

Hence we may write

Where, subscript ‘1’ is at the point of entry & subscript ‘2’ is at point of exit.

It is also true that, thermal losses are minimal compared to the amount of work
transferred & hence may be neglected. Hence we may write,

Where, h 02 & h 01 are stagnation exit & entry respectively.

w = ∆h 0.

In a power generating turbo machine, ∆h 0 is negative (since h 02 < h 01 ) & hence w is

positive.

On the same line, for a power absorbing turbo machine, ∆h 0 is positive (since h 02 > h 01 ) &
hence w is negative.
From the 2 nd law of Thermodynamics:

In the above relation, we note that vdp would be a negative quantity for a power
generating turbo machine & positive for power absorbing turbo machine.

Hence Tds which is always a positive quantity would reduce the amount of work
generated in the former case & increase the work absorbed in the later case.

Efficiency of a turbo machine:

Generally, we define 2 types of turbo machine .in case of turbo machine to account for
various losses 2 type of efficiency is considered:

 Hydraulic efficiency/isentropic efficiency

 Mechanical efficiency.

1. Hydraulic efficiency/isentropic efficiency:

To account for the energy loss between the fluid & the rotor

2. Mechanical efficiency:

To account for the energy loss between the rotor & the shaft.

Schematic representation of Compression & Expansion process:

(a) Power absorbing machine. (b) Power generating machine.

Analysis of Energy Transfer in turbo machines: Analysis of energy transfer in turbo

machines requires a consideration of the kinematics and dynamic factors involved. The
factors include changes in the fluid velocity, rotor velocity and the forces caused due to
change in the velocity.

We apply Newton’s second law of motion as applicable to rotary movement. i.e., Torque
is proportional to the rate of change of angular momentum.

Another important consideration is the treatment of a turbo machine as a steady flow

machine.

1. This involves following assumptions:

2. Mass-flow rate is constant.
3. State of fluid at any given point does not change.
4. Heat and Work transfer are constant.
5. Leakage losses are negligible.
6. Same steady mass of fluid flows through all section.

Velocity Components:

Fig. velocity components through a rotor

The fluid enters the rotor with an absolute velocity say V 1 and leaves with an absolute
velocity say V 2.

The absolute velocity of the fluid will have components in the axial, radial and tangential
direction which may be referred to as V a ,V w and V f respectively.

The axial components do not participate in the energy transfer but cause a thrust which
is borne by the thrust bearings. The radial components also do not participate in the
energy transfer but cause a thrust which are borne by the journal bearings. The only
components which participate in the energy transfer is the tangential component Vw.

Va1 and V a2 : Axial components of V 1 and V 2 respectively.

Vf1 and V f2 : Radial components of V 1 and V 2 respectively.

V w1 and V w2 : Tangential components of V 1 and V 2 respectively referred to as whirl

velocity, flow velocity. Let the rotor move with an angular velocity ω.

Velocity Triangles:

These are formed at the inlet and exit by the combination of rotor velocity of a fluid V,
and relative velocity Vr which is the vectorial difference of V and U.

Derivation of Euler’s Turbine equation:

By Newton’s second law, Torque on the turbo machine

Is the Euler’s turbine equation.

Head form the Euler’s equation:

Alternate form of Euler’s turbine equation:

Consider the velocity triangle, we may write,

Significance of the terms:

1. -This represents the energy transferred due to change in absolute

velocity of the fluid and is referred to as dynamic head.
 2. -This represents the energy transferred due to movement of the fluid
from one radius to another which gives rise to centripetal/centrifugal action, This
is referred to as static head.

3. -This represents the energy transferred due to change in relative

velocity alone.

This also forms the part of static head.

The sum represents static energy transfer.

While represents dynamic energy transfer.

Impulse and Reaction Principles

 17 upvotes
 1 comment

Turbo machines are classified as impulse and reaction machines depending on

the relative proportions of the static and dynamic heads involved in the energy
transfer. To aid this, we define a term referred to as degree of reaction Rd.
Degree of reaction Rd can be defined as the ratio of static head to the total head
in the energy transfer.

Degree of reaction can be zero, positive or negative.

Rd=0, characterizes a close turbo machine for which a static head is equal to
zero.

In the most general case, this will happen if U 1 = U2 and V r1 = V r2 .

These classes of turbo machines are referred to as impulse machines. In most
practical situations V r2 may be less than V r1 even though r 1 = r2 .
This is generally due to frictional losses. Even then a machine is referred to as an
axial flow turbines and pumps would have r 1 = r 2 and if V r1 = V r2 , then they become
examples of pure impulse machines.
Pelton Wheel, tangential flow hydraulic machines is also example of impulse
machine.
Velocity Triangles for impulse machine: Velocity triangle for axial flow impulse
machine is shown in the following figure.
The velocity of whirl at exit is to be calculated by general expression,

If the value obtained is negative, then it suggests that

If Vw2 is positive, then OVT would appear as follows:

If V2=0, then the OVT would look like
Radial flow Pump and Compressors:

General analysis:
 IVT

O V T (preferred)

Most of the turbo machines belong to this class. In general, they have a restricted
flow area for a given rotor diameter and have low to medium specific speed.

Significant aspects:

1. Flow is outwards from the smaller to larger radius the Euler’s turbine

equation. i.e., requires that for pumps

and compressors which are power absorbing machines. For this sake ra dial
flow compressors and pumps generally have fluid entering at a smaller
radius and leaving at a larger radius.
 2. The absolute velocity at inlet is oriented parallel to the axes of the shaft
i.e., V a1 = V 1 and hence there is no whirl component at inlet i.e.,V w1 = 0.
3. Since V w1 = 0, the energy transferred is purely a function of exit condition

i.e.

Head-capacity relationship:
From the velocity triangles for the 3 types of vanes it may be noticed that the whirl
component at exit is least for backward curved vane (β<90° and most for a
forward curved vane. When operating under similar condition of speed and cross
section area. But from a practical view point a high value of exit velocity V2 is not
desirable. This is because it becomes necessary to construct a diffuser of
unreasonably large dimensions even for moderate sized rotors. Hence backward
curved vane with β 2 in the range of 20-25 degrees is preferred for radial flow
pumps and compressors. Forward curved vanes are not preferred while radia l
vanes (β=90°) are used in select applications requiring very high pressure.

Expression for Degree of reaction in terms of rotor velocity and rotor blade
angles:

We know that, Degree of reaction is given by,

For a pump it is generally acceptable to write degree of reaction as

We know that, Euler’s turbine equation for a pump may be written as

Degree of reaction is the ratio of suction head to the total head. Which may be
written as

General analysis of Turbines:

They are power generating turbo machines, which run on both incompressible
fluids such as water as well as compressible fluids such as gases.
The efficiency of turbines may be defined as the ratio of actual work output to the
fluid energy input.
This involves 2 types of efficiencies:
 1. Hydraulic efficiency /isentropic efficiency.
2. Mechanical efficiency.

The mechanical efficiency takes care of all losses due to energy transfer between
mechanical elements. In the turbines, mechanical efficiency is very high and of
the order of 98 to 99%.

The hydraulic efficiency takes care of losses during flow.

We realize that, turbines must have a residual exit velocity so that flow is
maintained.
However, this residual velocity so that flow is it represents a lot far as the rotor is
concerned. Hence, even if we have idealized friction free flow it is not possible to
transfer all the energy in the fluids due to the need to have the final residual exit
velocity.

Hence, hydraulic efficiency is a product of 2 terms and is given by

η H = ε*η V

η V - where is referred to as vane efficiency and takes care of frictional loss.

Utilization factor:
Utilization factor is defined as the ratio of the actual work transferred from the
fluid to the rotor in an ideal condition to the maximum possible work that cou ld be
transferred in an ideal condition.
Relationship between ε and R d:

OR
Derive an expression for ε in terms of Rd:

Utilization factor may be written as

Substituting for H s, we have

This expression holds good for Rd values between 0 and 1. This cannot be used
for Rd=1 (100% reaction). Since, the expression becomes equal to 1 suggesting
100% utilization factor which could obviously lead to residual exit velocity V2
becoming zero.

General analysis of Axial flow turbines:

Most turbines involving compressible flow are axial turbines. Generally, steam
and gas turbines are axial flow machines.

We know that in all axial turbine machines, U 1 = U2 = U.

And hence the alternative form of turbine equation reduces to

Degree of reaction,
Change of fluid pressure in the rotor happens only due to change in the relative
velocity component Vr, since, U remains constant.

Axial flow turbines are of 2 types:

 1. Impulse type for which Rd=0.since V r1=Vr2 and hence power output

2. Reaction type: Generally any turbine which is not purely an impulse turbine
is referred to as a reaction turbine. It is not a 100% reaction turbine. But, it
is still referred to as a reaction turbine. Most reaction turbines are designed
for 50% reaction which is found to be very advantageous from practical
consideration. In the case of steam turbines it is implicit that a reaction
turbine is 50% reaction turbine called as parson’s reaction turbine.

Velocity Diagrams
 17 upvotes
 2 comments

Velocity diagrams for different values of Rd appear as shown below:

(i) V 1 >V 2 , V r1 >V r2 ; Rd <0 (R d is negative)

(ii) V r1 =V r2 ; Rd =0
(iii) V 1 =V r2 ; V r1 =V 2 ; Rd =0.5

(iv) V 1 =V 2 ; R d =100%
(v) V 2 >V 1 ; V r2 >V r1 ; Rd >100%

We know that for utilization factor ε to be maximum, the exit velocity V2 should be
minimum.
For a given rotor speed U, the minimum value of V2 is obtained only if V22 is
axial and the velocity triangles would look as shown:
Velocity triangle for maximum utilization factor condition:

Form the expression, it is clear that ε maximum will have the highest value if α 1 = 0.
But α 1 = 0, results in V2 = 0 which is not a practically feasible condition. The zero
angle turbines which would have α 1 = 0 appears as shown:

Though the zero angle turbines are not practically feasible it represents the ideal
condition to be aimed at. In a Pelton wheel, we arrive at a condition wherein the
jet is deflected through an angle of 165 to 170 degrees. Though an angle of 180
degrees would be the ideal condition as in case of a zero angle turbine. Impulse
turbine designed for maximum utilization.
The ratio is referred to as a blade speed ratio φ which will have limiting value
of 0.5 for a zero angle turbine. But in practical situation, α 1 is in between 20 to 25
degrees. But φ varies from 0.45 to 0.47. The blade speed ratio is very useful
performance parameter and it may be noted that the closer its value is to 0.5, the
better it is.

Expression for power output:

Reaction turbine:

We know that,

For a fixed value of α 1 , as Rd increases ε maximum.

But for Rd=1 (100% reaction turbine), this equation doesn’t holds good.
Let us examine how ε maximum is affected by Rd.
Case (1): Rd=1,

V w1 =V w2

Hence by Euler’s turbine equation

For maximum utilization V 2 needs to be axial. If V 2 is to be axial, then V 1 also
should be axial which means that the denominator of the expression becomes
equal to infinity which reduces to to zero. This only means that α 1 should be as
low as possible to get meaning full values of. This represents contradicting
condition and hence Rd = 1 is not preferred.
Case (2): Rd>1
V2>V1, Vr2>Vr1

As Rd> ε tends to zero.

In this case, V 2 >V 1 and hence V 2 can never be axial and hence the condition for
ε maximum [An axial orientation for V2 can never be met]

The utilization factor ε is given by

As Rd increases, ε decreases.
This means that the stator has to function to not only diffuse V 2 to as low a value
as possible but also turn the fluid through a very large angle. This results in the
poor flow efficiency and hence Rd greater than 100% is not practically preferred.

Case (3): Rd<0 [negative Rd]

V r1 >V r2
For this condition, it is noticed that rd is negative denominator increases, ε
decreases.
V r2 <V r1 , also means that the pressure is increasing as fluid passes through the
rotor.
i.e. the rotor is acting like a diffuser. This is not preferred since pressure always
has to decrease along the flow path for good flow efficiency. Hence, Rd < 0 is not
practically preferred.

Case (4): Rd = 0.5,

We know that for a 50% reaction turbine, velocity triangles are similar and for
maximum utilization condition the triangle would appear as shown.

We notice,
 The angles are identical but reversed for the rotor and the stator. From the
practical view point, manufacturing of blades becomes simple. Since the same
blade can be used for either the stator or the rotor by merely reversing the
direction. It can also be shown that in a multistage turbines 50% reaction gives
maximum stage efficiency. Since V r2 >V r1 , pressure reduces along the flow path in
the rotor resulting in high flow efficiency. In general, n Rd value between 0 and 1
is preferred due to practical considerations.

From the velocity triangle it can be noted that V w1 =U

V w2 = 0 (for maximum utilization factor condition)

∴ P = U2
Comparing the energy transfer achieved by 50% reaction turbine with an impulse
turbine when both are designed for ε maximum condition and operating with the same
rotor velocities. We notice that an impulse turbine transfers twice as much energy
as 50% reaction turbine gives the better flow efficiencies.
If multi staging is attempted, then for a given value of energy transfer, a 50%
reaction turbine would need twice the number of stages as that of impulse
turbines. In actual practice, when multistage is attempted, the initial stages are
designed for an impulse turbine when maximum fluid velocity is available. The
subsequent stages are 50% reaction stages.
Pelton-Wheel
 18 upvotes
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There are three basic hydraulic machines: Pelton, Francis and Kaplan.
The fluid density is constant but the complication is that cavitation may
occur in the machine. Cavitation is effectively the boiling of the liquid as
it is exposed to extremely low pressures in certain parts of the turbine.
The Pelton wheel or Pelton turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine.
The water strikes the bucket along the tangent of the runner. The
energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy . The
pressure at the inlet and outlet of the turbine is atmospheric. The
turbine is used for high heads and is named after L.A Pelton, an
American Engineer.
The Pelton wheel is composed of a nozzle which converts the whole
available head to kinetic energy and a rotor made up of a series of
double hemispherical buckets fastened on the periphery of the rotor.
The rotor is not enclosed, and the water leaving the buckets goes
immediately to the tailrace.
The Pelton wheel falls in a large class of these machine s known as the
axial-flow type where the nozzle angle relative to the runner is zero.
However, the bucket cannot have a 180° camber angle, since the water
must have a finite radial velocity component away from the wheel in
order to avoid interference.
The main parts of the pelton turbine are: -

 Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement.

 Runner and buckets.
 Casing.
 Breaking Jet.

1. Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement: The amount of water

striking the buckets of the runner is controlled by providing a
spear in the nozzle. The spear is a conical needle which is
operated either by a hand wheel or automatically in an axial
direction depending upon the size of the unit. When the spear is
pushed forward into the nozzle the amount of water striking the
runner is reduced. On the other hand if the spear is pushed back,
the amount of water striking the runner increases.
2. Runner with buckets: It consists of a circular disc on the periphery
of which a number of buckets evenly spaced are fixed. The shape
of the buckets is of a double hemispherical cup or bowl. Each
bucket is divided into two hemispherical parts by a dividing wall
which is known as splitter.
3. Casing: The function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of
the water and to discharge water to tail race. It also acts as a
safeguard against accidents. It is made of cast iron or fabricated
steel plates. As pelton wheel is an impulse turbine, the casing of
the pelton wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.
4. Breaking Jet: When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the
spear in the forward direction the amount of water striking the
runner reduces to zero. But the runner due to inertia goes on
revolving for a long time. To stop the runner in a short time, a
small nozzle is provided which directs the Jet of water on the back
of the buckets. This Jet of water is called breaking Jet.

Working of Pelton wheel Turbine:

The water from the reservoir flows through the penstocks at the outlet
of which a nozzle is fitted. The nozzle increases the kinetic energy of
the water flowing through the penstock by converting pressure energy
into kinetic energy. At the outlet of the nozzle, the water comes out in
the form of a Jet and strikes on the splitter, which splits up the jet into
two parts. These parts of the Jet, glides over the inner surfaces and
comes out at the outer edge. The buckets are shaped in such a way that
buckets rotates, runner of the turbine rotates and thus hydraulic energy
of water gets converted into mechanical energy on the runner of turbine
which is further converted into electrical energy in a
generator/alternator.
The Pelton wheel shown in the following figure is a pure impulse (R = 0)
turbine. It is used in very high head installations and develops efficiencies
very close to the Francis and Kaplan reaction turbines.

The utilization factor described in Equation 3 can be further simplified

as follows: For these machines there is no change of rotor radius,
so U1 = U2 . Further, since the energy transfer is entirely at atmospheric
pressure, the absolute flow velocity remains unchanged; i.e., an impulse
machine of the axial-flow type has . Thus the energy transfer is
wholly derived from a change in the velocity’s direction. This resulting
change in momentum (impulse) causes a force on the turbine buckets.
The denominator of Equation 3 representing energy available then
becomes simply V 1 2 .

The ideal utilization factor, ε, is the ratio of E util to E avail , i.e.,

The V u terms in the numerator of above equation can be simplified by

referring to the above vector diagram.

where α 2 is described in the above given figure.

Thus the utilization factor for a Pelton wheel turbine becomes

The theoretical maximum value of utilization factor should occur when

i.e., when the linear velocity of the bucket is half that o f the absolute
velocity of the impinging jet.

Francis and Kaplan Turbines

Francis Turbine:- The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is
known as Francis turbine, after the name of J.B Francis an American engineer who in
beginning designed inward radial flow reaction turbine.

In the modern Francis turbine, the water enters the runner of the turbine in the radial
direction and leaves in the axial direction at the outlet of the runner. Thus the modern
Francis turbine is a mixed flow type turbine.
The main parts of the Francis turbine are: -

1. Penstock:- It is a long pipe at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted. The water
from reservoir flows through the penstock. The nozzle increases the kinetic
energy of water flowing through the penstock.
2. Casing:- In case of reaction turbine, casing and runner are always full of water.
The water from the penstocks enters the casing which is of spiral shape in which
area of cross-section of the casing goes on decreasing gradually. The casing
completely surrounds the runner of the turbine. The casing is made of spiral
shape, so that the water may enter the runner at constant velocity throughout the
circumference of the runner. The casing is made of concrete or cast steel.
3. Guide Mechanism:- It consists of a stationary circular wheel all-round the runner
of the turbine. The stationary guide vanes are fixed on the guide mechanism. The
guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without shake
at inlet. Also by a suitable arrangement, the width between two adjacent vanes of
 a guide’s mechanism can be altered so that the amount of water striking the
runner can vary.
4. Runner:- It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed.
The surface of the vanes is made very smooth. The radial curved vanes are so
shaped that the water enters and leaves the runner without shock. The runners
are made of cast steel, cast iron or stainless steel. They are keyed to the shaft.
5. Draft tube:- The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is
generally less than atmosphere pressure. The water at exit cannot be directly
discharged to the tail race. A tube or pipe of gradually increasing area is used for
discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the tail race. This tube of
increasing area is called draft tube. The draft tube, in addition to serve a passage
for water discharge, has the following two purposes also.
o The turbine may be placed above the tail race and hence turbine may be
inspected properly.
o The kinetic energy rejected at the outlet of the turbine is converted into
useful pressure energy.

Kaplan Turbine:- Kaplan Reaction turbines are axial flow turbines in which the flow is
parallel to the axis of the shaft. They are low head, high discharge turbine.

Kaplan is also known as propeller turbine. Kaplan turbine is a propeller type water
turbine along with the adjustable blades. Mainly it is designed for low head water
applications.

In this water turn at right angles between the guide vanes, runner & then flow pa rallel to
the shaft. It is inward flow reaction turbine. The flow was along the radius from periphery
to the centre of the runner. (From outer dia to the inner dia of runner).

It is capable of giving high efficiency at overloads (up to 15-20%), at normal loads (up to
94%). The runner of this turbine is in the form of boss or hub which extends in a bigger
dia. Casing with proper adjustment of blades during running. The blade angles should be
properly adjusted so that water enters & flow through the runner bl ades without shock.
 1. Penstock:- It is the water way used to carry the water from the reservoir to the
turbine. At the inlet of the penstock trash cracks are used to prevent the debris
from going into the turbine.
2. Spiral or Scroll casing:- In case of reaction turbine casing and runner are
always full of water. The water from the penstock enters the casing which is of
spiral shape in which area of cross-section of the casing goes on decreasing
gradually. The casing completely surrounds the runner of the turbine. The casing
is made of spiral shape, so that the water may enter the runner at constant
velocity throughout the circumference of the runner.
3. Guide Mechanism:- It consists of a stationary circular wheel all-round the runner
of the turbine. The stationary guide vanes are fixed on the guide mechanism. The
guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without shock
at inlet. Also by a suitable arrangement, the width between two adjacent vanes of
a guide mechanism can be altered so that the amount of water striking the runner
can be varied. A space, called whirl Chamber, is provided between the guide
vanes and the runner. In this chamber, the flow turns by 90° & move as a free
vortex i.e without the aid of any external torque. The radial component changes
into axial component due to the guidance from the fixed housing.
4. Runner:- It is a circular wheel, also called ‘hub’ or ‘bass’ on which a series of
radial curved vanes are fixed. The surface of the vanes is made very smooth. The
radial curved vanes are so shaped that water enters and leaves the runner
without shock. The runners are made of cast steel, cast iron or stainless steel. In
Kaplan turbine, the shaft is the extended part of runner with smaller diameter.
5. Draft tube:- The pressure at the exit of an axial turbine is generally less than
atmospheric pressure. The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail
race. A tube or pipe of a gradually increasing area is used for discharging water
from the exit of the turbine to the tail race. This tube of increasing area is called
draft tube.

Working of the Kaplan turbine:

Due to the low water heads it allows the water flow at larger in the Kaplan turbine. With
help of the guide vane the water enters. So the guide vanes are aligned to give the flow
a suitable degree of swirl. The swirl is determined according to the rotor of the turbine.
The water flow from the guide vanes are passes through the curved structure which
forces the radial flow to direction of axial. The swirl is imparted by the inlet guide vanes
and they are not in the form of free vortex. With a component of the swirl in the form of
axial flow are applies forces on the blades of the rotor. Due to the force it loses both
angular and linear momentum.

Advantages of Kaplan turbine:

 Runner vanes are adjusted in the Kaplan

 Very low heads are required
 Very small no of blades are used nearly 3 to 8 blades
 Less resistance has to be overcome.

Disadvantages:

 Position of the shaft is only in vertical direction

 Speed of the turbine is 250 to 850
 High speed generator is required
 Large Flow rate must be required.