Nuclear PhysicsB252 (I 985) 343-356 343

North-Holland,Amsterdam

LOWER DIMENSIONAL GRAVITY

Roman JACKIW

Center for Theoretical Physics, Laboratory for Nuclear Science and Depart-
ment of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 02139 U.S.A.

Gravity theory on a line and in the plane is reviewed. The t r i v i a l i t y of

the planar Einstein model is avoided by adding sources and a topological
mass term. A constant curvature model for two dimensional space-time,
analogous to the theory in three dimensional space-time, is proposed.

I. INTRODUCTION
Much is said these days about gravity in higher dimensions: a generalized
Kaluza-Klein program is vigorously pursued by many people who hope that grav-
i t y theory, in a world with space-time dimensionality greater than four, pro-
vides a unified description of all natural processes in our world. However, I
am moving in the opposite direction. I shall describe gravity in dimensional-
i t y less than four: in two and three space-time dimensions, i . e . , on a line and
on a plane. Evidently, this [anti-Kaluza-Klein] program is not meant to pro-
vide phenomenologically interesting ideas for unification.
My principal reason for studying these models is pedagogical. F o u r dimen-
sional gravity remains thoroughly un-understood, even though a l l kinds of very
interesting phenomenaare recognized: classical and quantal i r r e g u l a r i t i e s ,
black holes, Hawking radiation and temperature, etc. Just as lower dimensional,
non-gravitational f i e l d theories are used for studying effects relevant to our
world, [e.g., spontaneous symmetry breaking, anomalies, confinement, solitons,
phase transitions and tunneling, e t c . ] , so also I hope that lower dimensional
gravity can illuminate the physical four [and possibly higher] dimensional
model. In my program, one is also immediately presented with a challenge: we
shall see that Einstein gravity in two or three dimensional space-time is quite
peculiar and non-generic. Hence, new ideas are needed i f lower dimensional gra-
vity theory is to be a useful laboratory; thus, we shall go beyond ordinary Ei~
stein theory - this in i t s e l f is refreshing.
Non-gravitational, lower dimensional fields are not only pedagogically, but
also physically relevant in at least two circumstances. First, we know that dy-
namical systems on d dimensional space-time and high temperature are phenomeno-
l o g i c a l l y described by a d-l, zero temperature model. The reason for this is
that f i n i t e temperature f i e l d theory is defined On an Sl X Rd_l manifold where

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344 R. Jackiw /Lower dimensional gravity

Sl is a circle with radius proportional to inverse temperature and Rd_l is the

Euclidean d-l dimensional space. As temperature passes to i n f i n i t y , the circle
shrinks to a point, and we are l e f t with a theory on Rd_I. Thus, three dimen-
sional f i e l d theories provide a phenomenological description of four dimension-
al physics at high temperature.
Second, there are physical systems whose motion is dynamically constrained
to l i e in a subspace of the f u l l space-time, and a lower dimensional model can
serve to describe adequately the reduced dynamics. Examplesare linear poly-
mers like polyacetylene or the planar motion of electrons in an external mag-
netic f i e l d , as in the Hall effect. Field theories in two and three dimensional
space-time, respectively, have been used to investigate these physically inter-
esting configurations.
Lower dimensional gravity does not appear to have many physical applications.
Gravity in an external hot environment makes no sense physically. Nor does i t
seem possible to arrange gravitational interactions to be limited to a subspace.
We have to be content with purely theoretical applications, with one possible
[speculative] application to Nature. I t has been suggested that strings/vor-
tices are relevant to galax~v formation. These linear objects can have i n f i n i t e
l
extent, and one may plausibly ignore the dimension along which they l i e . Thus,
their interactions are governed by planar gravity, which is one of the models
that I shall discuss. In this context, there is the p o s s i b i l i t y of a gravita-
tional phenomenonanalogous to the electromagnetic Hall effect.
In my presentation, I summarizef i r s t our work on three dimensional space-
time~'3 and then in the last section, on two dimensional models.4'5'6

2. GRAVITY
2.1 Gravity in the Absence of Matter
The Einstein equation [without cosmological constant] reads7
l
G ~ R - ~g~vR = 0 (2.1)

Here, R is the Ricci curvature t e n s o r , a c o n t r a c t i o n o f the f o u r - i n d e x Rie-

mann-Christoffel curvature tensor, R : R~ and R is the scalar curvature
a contraction of the Ricci tensor. In general, the vanishing of G , hence of
R and R, does not imply that the Riemann tensor is zero, i . e . , the space need
not be f l a t . However, in three dimensions the formula Gu= - l ~ueB~ y6R Ya
may be inverted.
R~uB~= -E~uY~B~G~ (2.2)
[The reason for this is that the four-index Weyl tensor - the traceless portion
of the Riemann tensor - vanishes identically in three dimensions and the l a t t e r
is completely determined by i t s Ricci trace; this w i l l be further explained
 R. Jackiw / Lower dimensional gravity 345

below.] When G v vanishes, so does R~Bv, and a l l three dimensional Einstein

spaces - solutions to (2.1) - are f l a t . The theory is t r i v i a l .
The quantum mechanical analog of this t r i v i a l i t y emerges when the Hilbert-
Einstein action, I = - l Id3x~TR, is quantized. [G is Newton's gravitational
#
constant.] I t is easy to establish that the theo~ does not possess any propa-
gating degrees of freedom - there are no gravitons.
We recognize that three dimensional Einstein gravity is analogous to gauge
theories in two dimensional space-time, which also do not possess propagating
excitations and are t r i v i a l in the absence of matter couplings. This analogy
makes the gravity model interesting, for we recall that two dimensional gauge
theories in the presence of matter [Schwinger's model for spinor electrodyna-
mics, ' t Hooft's for quantum chromodynamics]do possess interactions - a Cou-
lomb force between charged matter - but they are s u f f i c i e n t l y simple, presum-
ably because there are no gauge-field excitations, to allow a thorough analysis
which has taught us much about quantum f i e l d theoretic phenomena. Thus, one
may expect that also three dimensional quantum gravity interacting with matter
can be understood completely.
We have taken only the f i r s t steps in this research, and that is a l l that I
can report here. S p e c i f i c a l l y , I shall present solutions to classical gravita-
tional equations with point sources. The N-body s t a t i c solution to the theory
without cosmological constant, as above, is given f i r s t , and also a one-body
spinning solution is found.
A cosmological constant may also be considered. In that case, (2.1) becomes
replaced by
G v - Ag~ = 0 (2.3)
and use of (2.2) converts this to
= -A(ga~g~v - g~vg6~ ) (2.4)

which shows t h a t w i t h o u t sources, a l l spaces t h a t solve (2.3) are o f constant

curvature, d e S i t t e r (A > O) or a n t i - d e S i t t e r (A < O) and q u a n t i z a t i o n produces
no 9ravitons. The N-body s t a t i c s o l u t i o n is again constructed; however, we can-
not present i t as g e n e r a l l y and e x p l i c i t l y as w i t h o u t cosmological constant.
We shall also describe a t o p o l o g i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g m o d i f i c a t i o n o f the usual
t h e o r y ; t h i s is the g r a v i t a t i o n a l analog of s i m i l a r p o s s i b i l i t i e s in v e c t o r
gauge t h e o r i e s . A physical s e t t i n g f o r t h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n w i l l be given; i t is
the g r a v i t a t i o n a l analog of the Hall e f f e c t .
2.2 S t a t i c Sources
Sources f o r the g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d are included in the E i n s t e i n theory by
i n s e r t i n g a matter energy-momentum tensor T# v in the E i n s t e i n equation ( 2 . 1 ) .

GpV = 8~GTp~ (2.5)

346 R. Jackiw / Lower dimensional gravity

With a static choice for T and for the metric tensor guy'

g ~ = gp~(r), goi = 0 (2.6)

and the hypothesis t h a t Tu~ is non zero only in i t s time-time component, i . e . ,
the external matter provides only a non-vanishing energy density, covariant con-
servation of Tuu reduces to

T00aig00 = 0 (2.7)
We f u r t h e r parameterize the metric tensor as

go0(r) = N2(r),gij = -e~(r)~ij (2.8)

where the conformal form for the purely spatial components is always attainable
by coordinate redefinition on two-space. Moreover, TOO is taken as
l N
TOO = ~ E, E =N=IZ mn~(r-rn) (2.9)

Aside from the normalization factors, which are inserted for later conven-
ience, TOO describes an array of point particles, with the one located at r = rn

carrying mass mn.

Substitution of the above forms for g~ and Tu~ into (2.5) yields equations
for the metric components N and @. The time-space (oi) components of (2.5) are
vacuous, reducing to 0 = O. The space-space ( i j ) components imply that N is a
constant, which may be scaled to unity. Finally, the time-time component leaves

v2@ = -16xGE (2.10)

which shows that @is the Green's function for the two dimensional Laplacian.
N
: -8G ~ mn~nI r - r n I (2.11)
n=l
[A constant addition to (2.11)provides a normalization scale for the logarithms-
here we suppress this].
Therefore, the space-time interval for a distribution of N static point part-
icles is 2'8
(ds) 2 = (dt) 2 - ( g n = i I r - rn I-8 Gmn)(dr) 2 (2.12)

That t h i s s o l u t i o n is s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t l y s t a t i c follows also from the geodesic

equation of motion, which here is equivalent to the covariant conservation of
the [ p o i n t - p a r t i c l e ] energy-momentum tensor.

x~(s) = F~Bx~(s)xB(s) (2.13)

Since (2.7) is s a t i s f i e d , so is (2.13) and the acceleration of i n i t i a l l y static

p a r t i c l e s vanishes.
Although the s o l u t i o n f o r the s t a t i c N-body problem is presented e x p l i c i t l y
 R. Jackiw / Lower dimensional gravity 347

in (2.13), that formula belies geometric i n t u i t i o n , and i t is not obvious that

the space is f l a t except at the location of the sources. To see that indeed i t
i s , we consider the case of one body located at the Origin. The spatial l i n e
element
(dl) 2 = r-8Gm[(dr)2 + r2(d0) 2] (2.14)
is transformed to a new coordinate system according to

p = f(r) = ~-Ir~, o' = ~e, ~ ~ 1 - 4Gm (2.15)

which renders (dl) 2 manifestly flat

(dl) 2 = (dp) 2 + p2(dO')2 (2.16)

However, the new variables range unconventionally: 0 ~ p < ~, 0 ~ 0' ~ 2~.
The space is f l a t , but a wedge with opening angle 2~(I - ~) is cut out, and i t s
edges are i d e n t i f i e d . Evidently, we are describing a cone, the unique two-
space which is metrically f l a t except at one point - i t s vertex. The angular
defect 2~(I - ~) = 8~Gm characterizes the mass. [We have taken ~ to be posi-
t i v e , m<I/4G. When m exceed this l i m i t and ~ becomes negative, the metric
near the p a r t i c l e becomes i r r e g u l a r , e.g., the distance from the p a r t i c l e to
any other point diverges. There is no upper l i m i t on ~, hence, a r b i t r a r y neg-
ative Gm is permitted. One can show that a many-body system can have higher
(up to I/2G) total mass.2]
The above geometrical construction is extended to N bodies by finding the
space which is everywhere f l a t except for N a r b i t r a r i l y distributed singulari-
t i e s ; i . e . , one must j o i n smoothly N cones. This has been done,2 but I shali
not here describe this alternative road to a solution.
We now turn to the energy. Since the model is a gauge theory, there should
be a f l u x integral expression f o r i t s total "charge", here energy. Since there
is no asymptotic curvature, the only possible energy measure must be topologi-
cal, and the Euler invariant is the only candidate. One finds that the correct
2
expression is
1
E = 16~ f d2r e~Jde-{--g-~R
d (2) (2.17a)

where R(2) is the scalar curvature of the spatial two-manifold. The integrand
is indeed a total divergence, in conformal coordinates (2.17a) may be written as

E -- 1 I d$ • V~ : Z mn (2.17b)
16~G n
Note that a closed space with $2 it°p°I°gy has Euler invariant equal to 8~; con-
sequently, the total mass equals ~G there.
C. Spinning Sources
Another solution which can be easily constructed involves a spinning source
with i n t r i n s i c angular momentum, which in the plane has only one component:
348 R. Jackiw / Lower dimensional gravity

j = ~ ij( drxIT
' °J. We consider a " p a r t i c l e " located a t the o r i g i n which has
J
no mass, but possess spin, i . e . , i t s energy-memontum tensor i s :

TOO = O, Ti j = O, T° i : ~ ~ i j a j ~ 2 ( r ) (2.18)

The most general s t a t i o n a r y , r a d i a l l y symmetric m e t r i c tensor leads to a l i n e

element
(ds) 2 : N 2 ( r ) ( d t ) 2 - 2 a ( r ) d t d e - ( d l ) 2, ( d l ) 2 = (dr) 2 + f 2 ( r ) ( d e ) 2 (2.19)
i.e.,
= i ~ = ciJ~ j A ( r ) / r , = _(~ij . . f2
~l~J) . .
~1~j (2.20)
go0 N 2 ' r " goi gij - ~- "
r
[Possible c o n t r i b u t i o n s to goi i n v o l v i n g ~i and to g i j involving ~icjkfk +

~j i j f k o r ?iFj w i t h a r b i t r a r y c o e f f i c i e n t s may be removed by a coordinate

transformation.]
Our s t r a t e g y is to i n s e r t the above i n t o the f i e l d equation ( 2 . 1 ) , to look
f o r e x t e r i o r vacuum s o l u t i o n s but w i t h a s i n g u l a r i t y at the o r i g i n , and to
match the s i n g u l a r i t y w i t h t h a t of the energy-momentum tensor (2.18).
One f i n d s ,
N = I , A = constant = 4GJ, f2 = r 2 _ A2 (2.21)
Thus, the space-time i n t e r v a l f o r a spinning massless p a r t i c l e is 2
(ds) 2 = (dt - 4gdde) 2 - (dr) 2 - r2(de) 2 (2.22)
We may introduce a new time~ = t - 4GJe so t h a t the i n t e r v a l is f l a t , as ex-
pected f o r a p o i n t p a r t i c l e .
(ds) 2 = (dr) 2 - (dr) 2 - r2(de) 2 (2.23)
But the spin is hidden in the s i n g u l a r i t i e s o f the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n which is un-
defined at r = O, and also the new time T possess a curious h e l i c a l s t r u c t u r e
since [ a t f i x e d t ] i n t e r v a l s of T d i f f e r i n g by i n t e g e r m u l t i p l e s o f 8~GJ are
i d e n t i f i e d because e and e + 2xn is i d e n t i f i e d .
9
The g e n e r a l i z a t i o n to spinning, massive bodies has also been given.
2.4 Cosmological Constant
When the f i e l d equations include a cosmological constant, as in ( 2 . 3 ) , the
s o l u t i o n gives a space-time of constant c u r v a t u r e , which is a closed R1 X S2de-
S i t t e r space f o r A > O, and a h y p e r b o l i c a n t i - d e S i t t e r space f o r A < O. Sources
modify t h i s geometry only when they are non-vanishing, and p o i n t sources c o r r e -
spond to i s o l a t e d s i n g u l a r i t i e s .
The a n a l y t i c approach to the s t a t i c N-body problem begins by choosing d e l t a
f u n c t i o n sources, as in ( 2 . 9 ) , and making the s t a t i c Ansatz f o r the m e t r i c , as
in (2.7) and ( 2 . 8 ) . The c o v a r i a n t f i e l d equation
 R. Jackiw /Lower dimensional gravity 349

Gu~ - Ag~ : 8~GTv (2.24)

reduces in i t s time-time component to the L i o u v i l l e equation with [ s i n g u l a r ]

sources.
v2¢ + 2Ae¢ = -16~GE (2.25)
The time-space component of (2.24) is vacuous as before, while the space-space
components of (2.24) may be presented by two equations: the spatial trace
(V 2 + 2Ae~)N = 0 (2.26)
and the traceless part, which is the two dimensional conformal K i l l i n g equation
f o r a two vector Vi constructed from the metric components.

~i vj + ~jV i - alJ~kVk = O, Vi ~ ~1~ i N (2,27)

These equations may be solved in the following manner. We ignore the source in
(2.25) and take the most general solution allowing for singularities. A defin-
i t e solution is arrived at by matching its singularities with the delta func-
tions in the right-hand side of (2.25) and demanding that no singularities be
present in (2.26) and (2.27). The general solution to the L i o u v i l l e equation is
available since i t is a well-known completely integrable equation - L i o u v i l l e
integrated i t in terms of two arbitrary analytic functions. Similarly, the gen-
eral solution of the two dimensional conformal K i l l i n g equation is expressed in
terms of analytic functions. Theseanalytic functions are related to each other
by demanding (2.26) and enforcing r e a l i t y of the metric components. Finally,
everything becomes completely determined by matching singularities in (2.25).
An alternative, simplier route to the desired solution is available. The non-
linear L i o u v i l l e equation, being completely integrable, shares many properties
of completely integrable systems.5 In particular, i t is equivalent to two coup-
led linear equations• In fact, these two equations are just (2.26) and (2.27);
one can show that they imply (2.24) [without sources].
In this way, we can construct the arbitrary N-body static solution, which can
be shown to be self-consistently static just as in the problem without a cosmo-
logical constant. 2
However, the matching of singularities cannot be carried out as t r i v i a l l y and
e x p l i c i t l y as in the A = 0 case. Indeed, a solution requires that the N sources
carry definite masses and be placed in a definite arrangement. For example, for
A > 0 there is no one-body solution. A two-body solution exists: the spatial
sphere in the Rl X S2 topology has radius I / ~ . With one point-particle placed
at one pole of the sphere, the solution requires that another particle of equal
mass be present at the other pole. Moreover, a wedge with opening angle 2~(I-~)
is cut out along great circles originating and terminating at the two poles and
its edges are identified. Locally, near each source, the effect of curvature is
~eglible and the geometry is as i f A = O.
350 R, Jackiw / Lower dimensional gravity

Solutions w i t h more than two p a r t i c l e s can also be constructed; t h e i r loca-

t i o n s , masses and the arrangement o f excised wedges are too i n t r i c a t e to des-
s c r i b e here. 2 Of course, we understand t h a t the sources must be p r e c i s e l y bal-
anced so t h a t s t a t i c e q u i l i b r i u m e x i s t s in which e f f e c t s o f background curvature
are compensated by g r a v i t a t i o n a l forces between the p a r t i c l e s . These s o l u t i o n s
are s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t , in t h a t p a r t i c l e a c c e l e r a t i o n s vanish when t h e i r i n i t i a l
v e l o c i t i e s are zero. While an a n a l y t i c treatment f o r each N is a v a i l a b l e , a
general geometric understanding of the s t a t i c c o n f i g u r a t i o n s is l a c k i n g .
We record here the two-body d e S i t t e r space s o l u t i o n w i t h one p a r t i c l e at the
origin, the o t h e r at i n f i n i t y in the c o r r d i n a t e s ( 2 . 8 ) . 2
e~ = 4~2 N = (r/r°)- (r/rO (2.28)
)-~
A r 2 [ ( r / r o )~ + ( r / r o ) - a ] 2, ( r / r O) + ( r / r o

Here r is an a r b i t r a r y scale, which, when rescaled, allows the l i m i t A + 0 to

0
be taken. Then, (2.28) reduces to (2.14). The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

2 ~ = ~e (2.29)
sin ~ =
(r/ro)~ + (r/ro)-~
changes the above to a m e t r i c in which the spherical nature o f two-space is
manifest.
ds 2 = c o ~ ( d t ) 2 A - l [ ( d ~ ) 2 + s i n 2 ~ ( d ~ ) 2] (2.30)
One p a r t i c l e is now located at ~ = 0 ( r = 0), the other a t ~ = ~ ( r = ~ ) , and
the angle @ runs from 0 to 2 ~ , w i t h a wedge o f angular opening 2 (I - e) cut
out - t h i s angular defect is the only remnant of the sources. F i n a l l y , the
transformation
s i n ~ = AI/2R (2.31)
gives the standard d e S i t t e r form,
(ds) 2 = (I - AR2)(dt) 2 - [ ( I - AR2)-I(dR) 2 + R2(d@)] 2 (2.32)
where a double covering of the range 0 < R < AI / 2 is r e q u i r e d to cover the f u l l
sphere. Again, the sources are hidden in the angular d e f e c t of @.
2.5 Topological M o d i f i c a t i o n
Any odd-dimensional gauge theory may be m o d i f i e d by a t o p o l o g i c a l term, and
3
in p a r t i c u l a r , t h i s is p o s s i b l e in three dimensional g r a v i t y . To e x p l a i n the
m o d i f i c a t i o n , l e t me review some geometrical f a c t s which are true in any number
of dimentions, d. The Riemann f o u r - i n d e x t e n s o r , RuBv, which contains the f u l l
i n f o r m a t i o n about the curvature o f a space, may be expressed f o r d ~ 3 in terms
o f i t s various traces given by the Ricci tensor R , and curvature s c a l a r R,
and the t r a c e l e s s Weyl or conformal tensor C ~ .
 R. Jackiw / Lower dimensional gravity 3 51

l
R By = ~ (guvR~B - guBR v - gvaR ~ + gaBR~v)
(2.33)
R (g~vg~ - g ~ g a v ) + C u~v
TB=--~-2T
The Weyl t e n s o r , which e x i s t s only at d > 3 and vanishes i d e n t i c a l l y in d = 3,
has a dual r o l e : not only is i t the t r a c e l e s s p a r t o f the curvature tensor, but
also i t probes the conformal p r o p e r t i e s a m e t r i c : C By is invariantagainst
conformal r e d e f i n i t i o n of a metric [g~v + P(x)nuv] and vanishes i f and only i f
the metric is conformally f l a t [guy = P(x)nuv]" In d = 3, R By does not have
a traceless part and C vanishesidentically; that is why equation (2.2)
holds. However, there is another tensor which replaces the f o u r - i n d e x Weyl ten-
sor as a probe of the conformal p r o p e r t i e s o f a three dimensional m e t r i c .
The second-rank tensor

: l (~DR~ + ~%R~) (2.34)

C~v 2v~

has the property t h a t i t vanishes i f and only i f the t h r e e - m e t r i c is conformal-

ly flat, and i t does not change under conformal r e d e f i n i t i o n o f the m e t r i c ; we
c a l l i t the three dimensional Weyl tensor. I t is m a n i f e s t l y symmetric and more
over the Bianchi i d e n t i t i e s ensure t h a t i t is c o v a r i a n t l y conserved. Hence, in
a f i e l d equation i t may supplement the E i n s t e i n t e n s o r , but since i t is of one
higher d e r i v a t i v e order than R , the p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y constant between i t and
the E i n s t e i n tensor must have dimension of inverse mass. In t h i s way, we are
led to the f o l l o w i n g m o d i f i c a t i o n of the Einstein theory [ i n the absence o f
sources and cosmological c o n s t a n t ] .
+ 1 = 0 (2.35)

C also is the v a r i a t i o n of the a c t i o n . To construct the a c t i o n , we begin

w i t h the Chern-Pontryagin-Hirzebruch density of f o u r dimensional space-time P=

K vaBKy6 . That quantity is a total divergence, P = a~u , where ~P is

called the Chern-Simons characteristic and mz does not involve any z-components
of the metric. Therefore, f d3xmz can be a contribution to the three dimension-
al action, when a l l z-dependence
J issupressed, and its variation is C . 3
The above construction is the gravitational analog of the Chern-Simons topo-
lO
logical mass term that exists in three dimensional gauge theories. However,
in non-Abelian gauge theories, i t must enter a quantum theory with quantized
coefficient for the following reasons.3 The gauge theoretic Chern-Simons struc-
ture is not gauge invariant and its three-integral remains gauge non-invariant
against homotopicaly non-trivial gauge transformations. Thus, when ~3 of the
gauge group is Zn, the integers, the Chern-Simons action changes by an integer
when i t is gauge transformed. In order that the phase exponential of the action
352 R. Jackiw / Lower dimensional gravity

not change - this is the relevant quantity in a quantum t h e o r y - t h e coefficient

of the Chern-Simons action must be an integral multiple of 2~. S i m i l a r l y , in
the gravitational case, z is not a three dimensional scalar density. But

Id3xwz is a scalar because there are no n o n - t r i v i a l gauge transformations [local

Lorentz transformations] since x3(SO(2,1)) is t r i v i a l . Hence, there does not
seem to be any reason for quantizing m - the gravitational s i t u a t i o n is analo-
II
gous to the Maxwell theory with a topological mass term, which also remains
unquantized since x3(U(1)) is t r i v i a l .
The topological mass term alters the gravity theory s i g n i f i c a n t l y . Thus fa~
only the linearized theory has been analyzed - unlike in the conventional model,
there now do e x i s t propagating modes. They carry mass m and spin +2, the sign
being correlated with that of the mass. The linearized metric g~ = h (k)e ikx
in the gauge kUh = O, h~ = O, has the form h = h h ,

hP = I ' ~ ' ' kOkim iciJkJlh' k2 = m2 (2.36)

where h is an a r b i t r a r y complex amplitude. Upon defining two mutually orthogo-

nal space-like vectors eV and e~ that are also orthogonal to the time-like prop-
agation vector k~ = eL m, (2.36) may be w r i t t e n in covariant form.

h~ : (e V - ie~)h (2.37)

The massive nature of the theory can also be seen by i t e r a t i n g (2.37). One finds
(D~D~ + m2}R u = -g~ RaBRaB + 3R~Ra~ (2.38)
I t is remarkable that even through the f i e l d equation for gp~ is of t h i r d deri-
vative order, the propagation is e n t i r e l y causal.
2.6 Remarks About the Quantum Theory
We have not developed the three dimensional quamtum gravity theory. However,
various unconnected and preliminary observations can be made.
Perturbation theory remains non-renormalizable, even though in the absence
of sources and topological mass there are no propagating e x c i t a t i o n s .
Particle interactions have no Newtonian l i m i t ; indeed, particles at rest do
not interact with each other in the Einstein model.
Owing to the conical geometry, a l i g h t test p a r t i c l e moving in the presence
of a massive source with d e f i c i t angle 2~(I - ~) w i l l have i t s angular momentum
quantized in integer units of I / a , giving yet another example of unconventional
angular momentum quantum numbers in planar systems. 12 On the other hand, we
have no quantum mechanical interpretations for the helical time structure that
a spinning p a r t i c l e produces.
When massless fermions are coupled to conventional gravity theory, we expect
that the topological mass term is generated by radiative corrections, as i t is
 R. Jackiw / Lower dimensional gravity 353

in vector gauge theories. 13 Moreover, a massless fermion moving in some special

g r a v i t a t i o n a l background f i e l d should be governed by a Dirac equation with in-
finitely degenerate zero energy modes, j u s t as in eletrodynamics with constant
14
background magnetic f i e l d . When second quantized, the fermion vacuum is then
i n f i n i t e l y degenerate. Since in electrodynamics these ideas are the s t a r t i n g
15
point f o r an analysis of the quantized Hall e f f e c t , one may, t h e r e f o r e , a n t i -
cipate the occurrence of a g r a v i t a t i o n a l Hall e f f e c t . 16
3. TWO DIMENSIONAL GRAVITY
3.1 Sourceless Theory
Whereas Einstein theory in three space-time dimensions is t r i v i a l , in two di-
mensions i t cannot even be formulated since G~v vanishes i d e n t i c a l l y . Corres-
pondingly, the H i l b e r t - E i n s t e i n action is a surface term - i t is the Euler in-
v a r i e n t ; see (2.171. Therefore, g r a v i t y on a l i n e must be invented anew.
We have suggested that an appropriate geometrical model f o r two dimensional
g r a v i t y is the constant curvature equation. 4
R + 2A = 0 (3.11
This is the only a v a i l a b l e geometrical, second d e r i v a t i v e equation, and i t is
e n t i r e l y analogous to the three dimensional equation (2.4). Since in two dimen-
sions the metric can be made conformally f l a t with a coordinate transformation,
gu~ = e@nuv, R = -e-@D@, the f l a t - s p a c e L i o u v i l l e equation governs the con-
formal factor.
~@ - 2Ae@ = 0 (3.2)
Is there an action whose v a r i a t i o n gives (3.11? A n o n - i n v a r i a n t action is
the f l a t - s p a c e L i o u v i l l e action for (3.2).

IL : I d2x(½nUU~h¢~u¢+2he*) (3.31

But there is also an i n v a r i a n t action, which, however, is not e n t i r e l y geometri-

cal since i t involves a scalar f i e l d N acting as a Lagrange m u l t i p l i e r .

I = f d2xNvZZ-g-(R+ 2A) (3.4)

Varying N c l e a r l y y i e l d s (3.11, while v a r i a t i o n of g~u gives an equation f o r N,

(D D - g~ D2)N + g~ AN = 0 (3.5a)

which may also be presented as

(D2 - 2A)N = 0 (3.5b)

(12-~ D2 - D D )N = 0 (3.5c)

In the conformal gauge, these become

(~-2Ae~)N = 0 (3.6a)
354 R. Jackiw / Lower dimensional gravity

a V~ + av V~ - n q ~ a V6 = O, V~ ~ T1e -~a N (3.6b)

Equations (3.2) and (3.6) have the same structure as (2.25) and (2.26) and
(2.27); consequently, they are analyzed analogously.
The action (3.4) is also natural according to the f o l l o w i n g considerations.
When the three dimensional H i l b e r t - E i n s t e i n a c t i o n , supplemented by a cosmologi-
cal constant, is dimensionally reduced to two dimensions by suppressing the sec-
ond s p a t i a l coordinate, d e f i n i n g g22 as N2, s e t t i n g gu2 to zero f o r u ~ 2, iden-
t i f y i n g the two-metric with the corresponding components of the t h r e e - m e t r i c ,
then one a r r i v e s at (3.4). Indeed, t h i s is the reason f o r the s i m i l a r i t y be-
tween (3.2), (3.6) and (2.25), (2.26), (2.27).
In a d d i t i o n to the above c l a s s i c a l , geometrical reasons, there e x i s t also
quantum arguments f o r adopting the constant curvature theory as two dimensional
gravity. I t has been argued that i f one begins with f u n c t i o n a l i n t e g r a l i n v o l -
ving the conventional H i l b e r t - E i n s t e i n a c t i o n , and properly regularizes i n f i n -
ities, the constant curvature theory is induced by various anomalies. 17'18
Our analysis of the quantized theory has been confined thus f a r to an exam-
i n a t i o n of the a n t i - d e S i t t e r case (A < O) in the conformal gauge. More s p e c i f i -
c a l l y , we have studied the quantized L i o u v i l l e theory, which may be viewed as a
conventional, non-geometric, conformally i n v a r i a n t f i e l d theory in i t s own
r i g h t , governed by (3.2) and (3.3). 6 While t h i s analysis is very i n t e r e s t i n g ,
i t is beyond the scope of my lecture to present i t here. Suffice i t to say that
the vacuum chooses a n t i - d e S i t t e r space [even though (3.2) and (3.3) are given
in Minksowski space]; The SO(2,1) group [ r a t h e r than the P o i n c a r e g r o u p ] is
r e a l i z e d by the theory. 6'19 Nhile (3.2) and (3.3) appear to a l l o w propagating
e x c i t a t i o n s , there are no on-shell i n t e r a c t i o n s . 6'20 Thus, even in the non-
geometric and n o n - i n v a r i a n t formulation of (3.2) and (3.3), the L i o u v i l l e
model's geometric antecedents are restored in the quantum theory.
2.2 Matter I n t e r a c t i o n s
Adopting the dimensional reduction p r i n c i p l e , we are led to the f o l l o w i n g
action in the presence of matter governed by a Lagrangian density LM. [The cos-
mological constant is o m i t t e d . ]

I = - 1 61~ I d2xNV~-gR+ I d2xN-JZgLM (3.7)

Thus, the source f o r g r a v i t y is the Lagrangian density,

R = 16~GLM (3,8}

while the energy momentum tensor appears in the quation f o r N.

(-D Dv + g~vD2)N = 8~GNT v (3,9)
Note that the i n t e g r a t a b i l i t y condition f o r t h i s system is not the covariant
conservation of Tuv.
 R. Jackiw / Lower dimensional gravity 355

This way of coupling matter to two dimensional gravity is interesting in

view of the anomalies in the covariant conservation of T .21 I t has been
shown that for chiral lone-component] fermions T is not covariantly conserved.
However, this in i t s e l f is of no consequence, for even i f T were conserved,
i t could not be the source for G , since the l a t t e r vanishes in two dimensions.
In the present theory, lack of conservation does not interfere with the consis-
tency of the equations, a l b e i t we have not established that everything is in
order with (3.8) and (3.9). in particular, because of the anon~lies, the gen-
eral covariance of the system has to be carefully studied.

ACKNOWLEDGE~NT
This material was also presented at the NORDITA-LandauSeminar on Field
Theo~, Moscow, Ma,v 1984, and the APS Particle and Fields Meeting, Sante Fe, NM
October 1984. This research is supported by the U.S. Department of Energy
(D.O.E.) under contract DE-ACO2-76ER03069.

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• , ~I o o

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356 R. Jackiw / Lower dimensional gravity

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