Science, Technology and Development

By : Norman Clark

There are problems in implementing science policy in developing countries:

1) Economic system finds it hard to react to changing demand conditions through a smooth
reallocation of resources.
2) Economic system does not possess the means to advance technically and hence the rate of the
growth suffers.

• Technology transfer occurs as a by-product of industrialization.

• According to Cooper and Sercovitch, technology is a wide range of heterogeneous forms or
“elements” (knowledge about plant design, process know-how..) which are necessary for starting
production but not possessed by the person or organization wishing to establish new facilities in an
LDC.

• Schumacher propounded the notion of “appropriate technology” as the potential and the actual
loss of employment and output resulting from the adoption of excessively machine-intensive
techniques of manufacturing production.

• He argued that if more intermediate technologies were invented/innovated/made available then

these would provide entrepreneurial possibilities in rural areas.

• However, Schumacher desire to prevent LDCs from following the path of rich countries where
machine-based technologies has not been means to an end but became an end themselves.

• Technologies imported from rich countries are classified as “inappropriate” since these produces
expensive way of satisfying the basic needs edging out the products which is necessary but not
luxurious. This whole process is entrenched when a foreign firm establishes a brand name or trade
mark which has a high selling value on local markets.

• LDCs should develop mechanisms for “unpackaging” foreign technology, thereby reducing the
extent to which suppliers could dominate the transfer process an increasing the flow of technical
know-how to individuals and institutions within LDCs.

• Arrow’s view was that of a “learning by doing” concept. According to him, technological change
was largely a function of experience, and hence of time.

• According to Maxwell, the formal learning by doing models are quite insufficient guide for policy
makers. A much more detailed, close-up and empirically based account of the nature of form
learning processes at all stages of plant life-cycle seems to be needed.

• Lall’s six fold classification of learning are:

a.) learning by doing

b.) adapting
c.) design
d.) improved design
e.) setting up complete production
f.) designing new processes

• Bell, argues that learning does not happen automatically but on the contrary requires the
commitment of resources on the part of the firm.
• Different types of learning for him: learning by learning training, hiring, and searching.
 • Hoffman and Rush show how technological advances may be classified into two broad categories:

a) Incremental application – where microelectronics-based control units have been

incorporated into machinery without changing the fundamental design of the equipment.
b) Systematic application – where the technology is applied in a generic fashion to whole
production processes and combinations of processes

• The pessimistic view of microelectronics is related innovations (MRIs) is that diffusion will occur
much more rapidly within the rich countries thereby overcoming the labor cost advantages of
LDCs.

• The optimistic view is the prospective international pattern of MRIs favor poorer countries.

• Biggs and Clay have pointed out that agricultural technology is both biologically unstable and
locationaly specific in the sense that the efficiency of economic production is indeterminate
through time and through space.

• Rural development is vitally important, hence the need for rural technology transfer.

• Another model of diffusion is the “farming systems” approach wherein the focus is directly on
the geographical location as the locus of developmental attention and the informal knowledge
possessed by the farmers themselves, as well as the material inputs and credit provided by central
agencies. Transfer of technology is in decentralized, holistic and horizontal manner.

• Indigenous science and S&T planning in LDCs has not been as successful as in the industrialized
countries because research institutions established to provide a “scientific base” do not perform
this function well. One reason why this is so is a lack of social demand for their services on the
part of the productive sector.

For science planning to be successful, the making of science policy should be tied to the institutional
process of national development planning.
 Technology policies
by Francisco Sagasti

Difference between science and technology policies at the national level

Science policy
Objectives
Main type of activities covered
Appropriation of the types of
activities covered
Reference criteria for the
performance of activities
Scope of activities
Amenability to planning
Dominant time horizon
Technology policy
Generate scientific knowledge
which may eventually feed into
social and economic uses, and
which will allow understanding
and keep up with the evolution of
science
Basic and applied research
Results appropriated by
disseminating them widely,
ownership ensured by publishing
Internal to the scientific
community
Universal
Programming possible only for
broad areas and directives; results
dependent on the capacity of
researchers to generate, large
uncertainties associated
Long and medium term
Acquire the technology and the
technical capabilities for the
production of goods and the
provision of services
Development, adaptation, reverse
engineering, technology transfer,
and engineering
Results remain largely with who
generated them, ensured by
patents, secret know-how and
human-embodied knowledge
External to the technical and
engineering community
Localized
Stricter programming of activities
and sequences possible, little new
knowledge generally required,
systematic use of existing
knowledge, less uncertainty
associated
Short and medium term

Principles for technology policy

1. Simultaneously attending to the creation of an indigenous technological capacity and to the
regulation of the process of importation of foreign technology, and by promoting the demand for
local technology.
2. Importance of science and technology in the development process makes it necessary to establish
an explicit and coherent technology policy, differentiated from science, economic, labor,
educational, and industrial policies, although closely related to them.
3. The formulation and implementation of a technology policy must have a solid national base, and
an even more geographical basis, whenever territorial extension and diversity require it.
4. Policies for technological development can’t ignore the world context within the economies they
operate.
5. When formulating and implementing technology policy, it is necessary to act simultaneously on
the demand and supply of technology
6. A technological development policy should take into account the characteristics of the different
productive sectors and branches.
7. Such policy must be kept flexible and should be implemented gradually.

Lines of action for technology policy

1. Increasing the demand for local technology
2. Increasing the demand for technological absorption
3. Regulating the process of importation of technology
4. Increasing the capacity of technology in priority areas

Activating technology policies

-instruments and mechanisms required to implement technology policies have been
ignored by those who formulate policies
 -technological behavior at the national level is the result of aggregating decisions made
by enterprises, research centers, and government agencies.
-technological decisions made by enterprises determine the technology absorption
capacity of the country, as well as the pattern of demand of technology.

Relating conceptual frameworks to action require:

1. a core of trained people who combine executive talent and political sensitivity and with
intellectual leadership
2. political access and discretionary power
3. sufficient funds must be available
4. clear concept of the problem and thorough knowledge
5. the core group, particularly its leaders, must have a capacity for designing and operating policy
instruments in such a way as to balance short term achievements and long term goals
 FRAMEWORK FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (S & T) POLICIES

ROGER POSADAS
March 1982

1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY:

1.1 The Meaning of a National S & T Policy (NSTP)
A National S &T Policy is the integration of strategies, principles, methods, and actions
adopted by a government in order to carry out the development of the national scientific
and technological potential (STP) and to apply and utilize this potential to meet the
national development needs.
1.2 The Components of the National Scientific and Technological Potential
1.21 Human Resources – quantity and quality of scientists, technologists, engineers,
R & D technicians and managers, S & T professors, teachers, planners and
administrators, and STS specialists.
1.22 Infrastructural Resources – system of S & T buildings, facilities and equipments.
1.23 Informational Resources – system of formal and informal institutions and
mechanisms.
1.24 Financial Resources – the public, private and foreign funds.
1.3 The Dual Aspects of the National S & T Policy
1.31 Policy for Science and Technology – measures for developing the national
scientific and technological potential.
1.32 S & T Policy – measures for the utilization of S & T for national development.
1.4 The Scope and Linkages of National Science and Technology Policy
The scope of the NSTP covers the entire spectrum of S & T activities: R & D, STS,
Technological Innovation and Technology Transfer, and S &T Education, Training and
Popularization. The NSTP must be closely integrated with overall national development
plans and policies.

2. POLICY-MAKING FUNCTIONS IN S & T:

2.1 Specific Missions of S & T Policy-Making (Based from UNESCO)
2.11 Selection of S & T goals and objectives derived from national
development goals and objectives
2.12 Justification and evaluation of these choices
2.13 Judicious settings of norms
2.14 Gathering, organization, and deployment of the resources
2.15 Monitoring and evaluation of the results
2.2 Major Tasks of S & T Policy-Making (Based from UNESCO)
2.21 Strengthening the governmental structures and mechanisms
2.22 Gathering, processing, and analyzing data
2.23 Preparing the National S & T Plan and the annual State Budget for S & T
2.24 Assessing and promoting the quality, efficiency and effectiveness of R & D and STS
2.25 Promoting the process of innovation in production and service sectors
2.26 Assessing the economic, social, cultural and political impacts of new technologies
2.27 Initiating legislative action

2.3 Major Functions of S & T Policy-Making

2.31 Planning Function
2.32 Budgeting Function
 2.33 Assessment Function
2.34 Coordination Function
2.35 Promotion and Management Function
2.36 Execution Function
2.37 Advocacy Function
2.38 Advisory Function
2.4 Tasks Associated with S & T Planning
S & T Planning consists of the determination of a coherent set of means and
resources for the purpose of achieving one or more S & T objectives within a given time
frame.
2.5 General Principles of S & T Planning
2.51 Planning should integrated with overall national development planning
2.52 Planning should include subplans for various areas, sectors or programmes
2.53 Planning should be in harmony in various subplans and competing programmes
2.54 Planning should distinguish between planning for technology
development and for science development
2.55 Planning should avoid absolutist criteria and rigidity in the prioritization of areas
2.56 Planning should be flexible enough
2.57 Planning should be a continuing process
2.58 Planning should ensure long term and stable support
2.59 Planning should not be regarded as a substitute for adequate funding
and proper implementation
2.510 Planning should involve scientists, technologists, social
scientists, industrialists and politicians

3. S & T POLICY-MAKING STRUCTURES AND MECHANISMS:

3.1 Governmental Structures for S & T Policy-Making and Administration
3.11 First Functional Level – Planning, Budgeting, Decision-Making,
Interministerial Coordination, and Assessment.
3.12 Second Functional Level – Promotion, Financing, and Scientific Coordination
3.13Third Functional Level – Execution of R & D
3.14 Fourth Functional Level – Performance of STS
3.2 National S & T Policy-Making Bodies (First Functional Level)
3.21 Ministry of S & T (e.g. Korea)
3.22 S & T Agency (e.g. Japan)
3.33 Statutory Body for S & T
3.3 Sectoral S & T Management Bodies (Second Functional Level)
The principal functions at this level are carried out through the allocation
of research grants or fellowships to individuals; grants to R & D institutions; or research
contracts
3.4 R & D and STS Institutions (Third and Fourth Functional Levels)
R & D Institutions:
3.41 University research institutes and units
3.42 Government R & D centers or laboratories
3.43 Industrial R & D laboratories
STS Institutions:
3.44 S & T library, information, and documentation services
3.45 Metrology, standards and instrumentation services
3.46 Analytical and Testing Services
3.47 Computer Services
3.48 S & T surveys and observations

3.5 The National R & D and STS Systems (Based from UNESCO)
3.51 Zone I covers the financial resources, policy objectives, directives and norms
3.52 Zone II covers the R & D and STS institutions and their activities
 3.53 Zone III covers the users of S & T knowledge
3.6 Efficiency and Effectiveness of the R & D and STS Systems
3.61 Efficiency – measure of how far resources invested have been productive within
reasonable time limits. It is the ratio of the new S & T knowledge actually
produced to the theoretically expected.
3.62 Effectiveness – measure of the output of R & D or STS, both qualitatively
and quantitatively

4. DEVELOPING THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL POTENTIALS:

4.1 Human Resources for Scientific and Technological Activities
It is the basis of all S & T activities. An adequate supply of highly trained and
competent scientists, technologists and technicians is an absolute prerequisite to
the advancement of application of S & T.
4.2 Categories of Scientific and Technological Manpower
4.21 Scientists and Engineers
4.22 S & T Professionals
4.23 Technicians
4.24 R & D Professionals
4.25 R & D Technicians
4.26 Full-Time Equivalent (FTE)
4.27 Total Stock of S & T Manpower
4.28 Total Stock of R & D Professionals
4.29 R & D Support Ratio
4.3 Quantitative Aspects of S & T Manpower
4.31 More than 90% of the world’s total stock of S & T professionals were employed
in the HDCs
4.32 The number of S & T professionals per million population is roughly
between 15,000 to 40,000 in the HDCs and between 500 to 7,000 for most of the
LDCs
4.33 The number of R & D professionals per million population is roughly
between 1,000 to 4,800 in the HDCs and between 50 to 200 in the LDCs
4.4 Qualitative Aspects of S & T Manpower
4.41 Level of education and specialized training
4.42 Extent of postdoctoral research experience
4.43 Scientific creativity and productivity
4.44 Capacity for leading research groups
4.5 Retention of S & T Manpower
4.51 Professional factors
4.52 Economic factors
4.53 Socio-Political Factors
4.6 Infrastructural Resources
4.61 Properly designed and furnished laboratories
4.62 Adequate laboratory equipment and spare parts
4.63 Adequate library and documentation facilities
4.64 Adequate computer facilities
4.65 Instrument service facilities
4.66 Analytical testing facilities

4.7 University-Linked Science Complexes / Parks

It aims to provide the physical environment for stimulating cross-fertilization
 among basic researches, applied researches, and students and close cooperation between
R & D work and S & T training.
4.8 Centers for Advanced Studies and Research
It aims to expand and strengthen indigenous capacity to provide advanced scientific
and engineering manpower training of internationally recognized standards.
4.9 Informational Resources
4.91 Establishing first-class science libraries
4.92 Publication of local scientific journal
4.93 Production of high-quality local university textbooks in S & T
4.94 Providing scientists with local travel grants
4.95 Sponsoring seminars, workshops and annual conventions
4.10 Financial Resources
It comprises the total amount of public, private and foreign funds which is available
for national expenditure on R & D and other related S & T activities.

4.11 National S & T Expenditures

Decision Criteria:
4.111 What is the optimum level of the national S & T expenditure corresponding
to the maximum permissible growth rate of the national economy?
4.112 What is the maximum permissible growth rate of the national scientific
and technological potential (STP)?
4.12 National S & T Budgeting
4.121 S & T planning and general administration
4.122 R & D training of scientists and technologists
4.123 Research and experimental development (R & D)
4.124 Scientific and experimental services (STS)
4.13 National S & T Financing
4.131 Financing through the State budget
4.132 Financing through special funds
4.133 Financing through selective indirect taxation
4.134 Financing through foreign loans
4.14 International S & T Resources
4.141 International S & T Assistance
4.1411 Human aspects
4.1412 Infrastructural aspects
4.1413 Informational aspects
4.1414 Financial aspects
4.1415 Expert assistance
4.1416 Equipment assistance
4.142 International S & T Cooperation
4.1421 Institutionalized Cooperation – characterized by a common
S & T program of action and a common budget fed by national
contributions.
4.1422 Concerted Cooperation – characterized by the coordination of
national research projects.
4.1423Reciprocal Cooperation – characterized by the formal and
informal, bilateral and multilateral, linkages among universities,
research centers departments or research groups.

**********
Underdevelopment, Science and Technology

Central Thesis: Science and technology are closely associated with the emergence of
underdevelopment
 Contributes both to maintenance and persistence
 For change to occur, both less developed and developing countries must participate, with
the developing countries initiating the change

Underdevelopment
 Linked to development
 If there is development there is also underdevelopment
 Interdependent parts in a system
 Ex: Developing countries make other countries underdeveloped

Characteristics of Underdeveloped Countries

 Dominated
 Disarticulated
 Incapable of providing adequate standards of living for the majority of it’s population

Development
 Sustained economic growth (linked to a viable capital accumulation process)
 Scientific and technological progress (which ensures the possibility of transforming the
surplus into capital goods with the adequate technical characteristics)
 Social propagation of effects of social growth and technical progress to all sectors of the
population
 Development process must be self-reliant (no dependence on others, except from fellow
countrymen)

INTERRELATIONSHIP OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND UNDERDEVELOPEMENT

Technology
 Increasingly important factor in the relations between developed and underdeveloped
countries
 Biggest contributor to economic growth of developing countries
 Research and development in advanced countries have been growing

Developed vs. Underdeveloped Countries

 dependence of underdeveloped countries to developed countries in terms of technology
 underdeveloped countries cannot compete with developing countries because of lack of
technology

research and development

activity in developed countries  concentrated in few large companies or government
based organizations

existence of cumulative scientific and makes it difficult for underdeveloped technological

tradition in developed countries  countries to catch up

Consequence
 Scientific and technological knowledge suited only to needs and conditions of developed
countries
 current trends in scientific and technological research will intensify
divergence

characteristic trends in the development of new technology:

1) shift toward more automated plant equipment using limited but highly skilled labor
 2) increases in the economic scale of productive units
3) trend toward the development of new synthetic materials

+ underdeveloped countries face a lack of suitable technological alternatives

- lack of viable and efficient technological alternatives
- low scientific and technological capacities

+ the capacity for creating technology, or even absorbing imported tech. Is not present in
most underdeveloped countries

+ because the productive sectors of the economy exert little pressure on the local
scientific and technological communities, scientists and researchers orient
themselves toward the international scientific community, choosing research
topics in fashion, seeking to contribute to the advancement of science as an
international undertaking, and disregarding the specific research needs of their
countries.

Characteristics of the “Republic of Science” (Michael Folanyi)

1) insistence of the international and universal character of the scientific
enterprise
2) the rejection of the imposition of any type of control in the selection of research topics and
areas
3) the emphasis on the objectivity of science and its quest for truth

+ the broad directions of scientific progress have been primarily influenced by political,
economic, and social considerations

+ science and technology of developed nations are not the kind of required help to
alleviate underdeveloped countries – the part that is required is not usually
available under favorable conditions; and if it is. There is often a lack of
competence to use it

EFFECTUATING THE POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO

DEVELOPMENT

If science and technology are tocontribute to the development of the Third World, there must be a major
transformation in the structure of the worldscientific and technological effort:
1) modifications in the international division of labor and the orientation of scientific and
technological activities at the world level
2) generation of local scientific and technological capabilities on underdeveloped countries
3) full incorporation of science and tehnology within the scope of development planning efforts