Technical Briefing for Emergency
Response
Technical Briefing for Emergency
Response:
Water Supply and Treatment
Water Supply in Urban Flood Settings
This Technical Brief looks at key water supply issues affecting populations in urban
flood settings, including restoration of public infrastructure and alternative
measures to rapidly provide safe drinking water.
It is important to plan the response with an
understanding of the type of flood and its
impact on the affected population. For example,
floods may last from a few days up to many
months. Refer to Smith (2009) for a
comprehensive list of the different types of
floods.
Other factors that may vary from one country to
another include Government participation, UN
and NGO response capacity and the
effectiveness of existing coordination
mechanisms.
Urban floods in low and middle-income
countries often have large impacts on people
and water infrastructure due to:
High density of the population.
High value of water infrastructure.
A large proportion of the population living
in slums or areas without basic or official
access to water services.
Arrival of newcomers (e.g. IDPs, migrants)
from rural areas to seek employment and
shelter in the city.
Although many approaches and strategies are
similar for rural and urban emergency
responses, specific approaches are also
required. The main challenges and priorities to
consider are:
The coordination and building of
partnerships between relief agencies, local
authorities and private suppliers of water
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Urban Water Supply
to restore municipal water supply as
quickly as possible.
Populations in urban areas may be used to
and rely upon larger quantities of water
(e.g. 150 – 300 L per capita per day) for a
variety of needs such as toilet flushing,
drinking, shower, bath, car washing etc.
Consultation with urban communities for
the design and implementation of new
infrastructure.
Emergency preparedness and the
establishment and management of a
contingency stock for flood-prone areas.
Land ownership issues.
A phased approach may be necessary:
Immediate action after the flood (1st
Phase), typified by instability and rapidly
changing situation (0 – 2 months).
48 hours up to 2 weeks
Coordination with WASH Cluster / sector
actors, with an emphasis on encouraging
Government bodies to “lead” the response.
An initial rapid assessment (see Figure 1).
Identify public and private water supply
installations that can rapidly be
rehabilitated and strategic places where
mobile water supply and treatment plants
can be delivered (health centres, shelters,
IDP camps and any place with a high
concentration of people).
 Technical Briefing for Emergency
Response
Make water distribution points available
either through existing state or private
water resources, or through new
infrastructure in strategic places and
inform the population about those places.
1) What are the main sources of water supply? E.g.
surface water, rivers, lakes, dams or groundwater,
wells, boreholes, springs etc.
2) What type of water resources do people in the
different parts of the city rely on and which are the
main affected zones? Is water mainly supplied from
modern water treatment works (WTWs) through
pipeline distributions or through other systems? (List
and map them).
3) Which areas of the city are most affected by the
disruption to water services? (List and map them).
4) Which services are still working? (List and map
them).
5) Which areas need to receive rapid assistance (e.g.
bottled water, non-food item (NFI) kits, water
tankering and water treatment kits?).
Figure 1: Essential questions for the initial
rapid assessment
Short to medium-term actions (2nd
Phase), typified by a stabilisation of the
situation (from 2 – 6 months). Rehabilitation of
water supply plants.
Medium to long-term actions, typified
by the early recovery phase & resettlement of
the affected communities (3 – 12 months or
longer). Continue rehabilitation water supply
infrastructure. Establish new water supplies
rather than continue tinkering, where possible
(e.g. limiting water tinkering to slums or areas
with no basic access to water).
The importance of hygiene behaviour
Water supply, sanitation and health are directly
affected by hygiene behaviour. It is essential
to read this briefing in conjunction with
the „Hygiene Promotion in Flood Setting‟
briefing, Sow (2009).
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
In areas at risk of recurrent flood emergencies,
it is important to incorporate DRR activities into
the response, for example:
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Urban Water Supply
Advocacy for sustainable flood prevention,
effective water resource and catchment
management, additional protected water
sources etc.
Ensure that rehabilitated and newly
constructed infrastructure is (more)
disaster proof.
Capacity building of local staff for
protection of infrastructure, emergency
preparedness and immediate flood
response activities.
Capacity building of the affected population
for emergency preparedness.
1. Understanding the
water supply system
In some urban areas, the population may be
entirely reliant on water treatment works
(WTWs) for their drinking water. Rupture of the
installation may affect thousands of people at
the same time. Before carrying out the
assessment it is important to achieve
partnership with local authorities, private water
vendors and suppliers and/or the water board.
Try to support the local emergency response
rather than to substitute it. This can be
achieved by actively integrating the authorities
in all steps of the assessment and rehabilitation,
and encouraging them to supervise the
response. Floods may inundate and pollute the
water supply system partially or totally, for
example necessitating cleaning the whole WTW
and the piped system as well as repairing or
replacing the electrical equipment. It is essential
before starting the assessment and
rehabilitation work to understand how the
system works and to consider the water supply
system (abstraction, treatment, pumping, pipes)
as a whole. It is also prudent to ascertain how
well the WTWs were operating prior to the
emergency.
Water Treatment Works (WTWs)
The requirements for a WTW are shown below
(Figure 2).
 Technical Briefing for Emergency
Response
Figure 4: WTW requirements (WEDC)
Water treatment processes will differ,
depending on the type of water source used. It
is important to make enquiries about the
specific treatment stages that have been
used in a particular context.
Some common treatment stages are listed
below.
1. Pre-treatment: Allows removing of coarse
debris, oils and microbes through different
processes depending on the type of water
source at the inlet.
2. Clarification: The process of removal of
suspended organic and mineral matter by
coagulation/flocculation followed by
sedimentation (see Figure 2).
Figure 3: Clarification basins of a WTW
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Urban Water Supply
3. Sand Filtration: Water runs through a
sand filter (slow sand filter or rapid gravity
filter), which removes most disease causing
microorganisms such as bacteria, bacterial
spores, viruses, protozoa and helminths.
4. Charcoal Filtration: Charcoal filters are
effective at removing some tastes, odours, and
colour.
5. Chlorination: It is recommended that
chlorination be the final treatment stage, as
many of the disinfection processes will be
hampered by suspended solids and organic
matter in the water. Chlorination removes
residual microbial pathogens and leaves a small
amount of active chlorine in the water. This
remaining chlorine is called the "residual
chlorine". The residual chlorine is desirable to
protect the water against subsequent bacterial
pollution, as the water will circulate through
pipes and stay in reservoirs before
consumption.
Pumps
Different types of pumping are available for
different use. It is not possible to provide a
comprehensive list of pumps and uses in a
briefing note. You may wish to refer to IRC:
Environmental Health Field Guide, section 8.17
Motorized (pumped) water systems, as one
source of further information.
Pump selection is carried out by drawing the
system curve, a graph that shows the static lift
and frictional losses along the pumping line for
various flows. Overlaying various pumping
curves (available from manufacturers) allows
selection of the most appropriate pump. The
pump will operate where the pumping curve
and system curve cross.
Pipelines and distribution network
Distribution systems are based on a series of
large (trunk) water mains that feed into smaller
pipes. Reservoirs are needed at various points
in the system to ensure continuous supplies of
water. Water is usually pumped from the water
treatment plant to the highest point (water
tower or distribution tank). This is to allow
enough pressure in the entire network.
 Technical Briefing for Emergency
Response
The distribution system itself can be branched
or meshed (with pipes connected in loops so
that water can flow in ether direction).
Pipes can be made of different materials and
this must be considered when repairing the
system:
Galvanised iron with cement, iron, zinc and
polyvinyl coating or joints.
Steel with epoxy or polyvinyl coating. Pipes
can be welded to each other.
Concrete
Cement fibre
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Oriented polymer – not sure what these
are
Polyester resin reinforced with fibreglass.
Polyethylene (PE)
Step 1 Check electrical power system
Figure 3: Branched distribution network
(WEDC)
2. Rapid assessment of
flood-damaged
municipal water
treatment plants and
distribution systems
Before starting the assessment collect basic
information:
Verify how many installations are in the
city, where they are located, who runs them
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Urban Water Supply
and how many people rely on each system.
Try to obtain a detailed map of each
installation. It may be necessary to look at
the payment schemes and how well they
are operating prior to the emergency. Be
aware of potential pressures to repair the
most profitable lines for the Government or
private companies.
Assessment and rehabilitation should ideally
be carried out with local staff who know the
installations, and with coordination and/or
supervision by local authorities. If local staff
are not available, skilled technicians
(electricians, civil engineers, plumbers,
laboratory technicians etc.) need to be
hired.
While carrying out the assessment, take
into account potential future risks due to
another storm, hurricane or flood (and
required Disaster Risk Reduction activities),
as well as the likelihood of new illegal
connections being made – this will
undermine any rehabilitation or repair work
and eventually cause water quality issues.
Respect all marked security instructions
with regard to the installations.
Check the type of power supply.
Is it a high tension (>5000 volts) supply or
low tension (<5000 volts) supply?
Check for location of transformers, circuit
breakers, main electrical switchboard and
automated system control board.
Make sure the main circuit breaker is
switched off before entering the installation.
Check for global damage in the different
rooms of the water treatment plant. Check
when, where and how high the water level
reached in the different parts of the power
plant. How high is the water level now? Is
there still mud that needs to be cleared?
Once the water and mud has been cleared,
assess the electrical system (with support
from electricians) to determine if there is
any minor or major damage to the system?
 Technical Briefing for Emergency
Response
Determine how long it will take to fully
check and repair each section / the whole
electrical system. Are there adequate
materials available for repairs and are spare
parts available in town or not? What will be
the cost for repairing or replacing
equipment?
What are rapid alternative solutions? Could
one or several new generators temporarily
solve the problem?
Step 2 Check pumps and valves
Locate the number of pumps, their types
(rotodynamic, volumetric, dosimeter, etc.),
serial numbers and voltages.
Check for internal and external damage of
each pump.
List the number of pumps and valves that
need to be changed.
Check local availability of replacement
materials and estimate timeline and costs
for restoring devices.
Step 3 Check pipelines at the water
treatment plant (inlet-outlet)
Check the number and locate visible
breakage points of the different pipelines
inside the water treatment plant from inlet
to outlet.
What are the sizes and materials of pipes
affected?
Estimate time and cost for repairing.
Step 4 Check the state of water
treatment tanks, water storage
tanks, and availability of chemicals.
Check for waste material / debris that
needs to be removed to prevent clogging of
the inlets and outlets between the different
basins.
Check if there is any visible break, damage
or leakage to the treatment basins.
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Urban Water Supply
Check the state of interconnecting pipes
between basins.
Check the state of the laboratory and
availability of chemicals for the upcoming
months. In particular, check the availability
of chlorine, aluminium sulphate, laboratory
materials and chemical reagents necessary
for improving and monitoring water quality.
Contact local suppliers, as required.
Check the state of sand filters and
availability of charcoal.
Step 5 Check the state of the water
distribution network.
This step can be run in parallel to the previous
steps by a different team to accelerate the
process.
Inspection of the water distribution
network, checking the pumps and looking
for leaks or damage to the water mains,
distribution pipes and storage reservoirs,
which may affect water quality.
Local communities can be mobilised to
participate in reporting leaks and damages.
Determine the extent of the affected area,
including the type of pipelines and facilities
affected (e.g. transmission mains, primary
distribution mains, secondary mains,
reservoirs etc.)
Do the pipes need repair or replacement?
Estimate cost and timeline for repairing
different affected areas.
3. Basic repairs and
restart of machinery
Based on the assessment carried out in steps 1
to 5 of Section 2, determine whether repairs
can be done within the first phase of the
emergency (within 2 months) or if repairs will
require more time and need major funding that
may not be readily available. Whilst carrying
out repairs, it is also important to consider
capacity building for local staff on how to
protect water treatment works (WTWs),
 Technical Briefing for Emergency
Response Urban Water Supply

including electrical circuits, pipes, pumps, 2. Check functioning of each pump or group of
and machines. pumps separately.
The following steps should be taken to carry out 3. Set in motion the water treatment process.
basic repairs and restart of machinery:
4. Measure the flow and dosage of the
Inform the WASH Cluster / sector agencies different treatment chemicals.
about agency plans so that other measures,
such as water tankering, can proceed or 5. Perform the „Jar test‟ to determine a
stop depending on the needs. suitable dosage of Aluminium Sulphate or
other coagulant.
Acquire resources (human resources,
equipment and materials) required for the
repair work.
Start clearing the mud and evacuating
stagnant water. Let the different rooms dry
after cleaning.
Repair the electrical system. Damage to
electrical motors of water pumps is often a
cause for failure of the whole system. Figure 4: The Jar test is an ancient, rapid and
Repair or replace the pumps and valves that
precise method to determine the amount of
have been damaged.
flocculent needed

Repair the water treatment tanks and

reservoirs.
Provide chemical reagents and treatment
agents (coagulant, flocculants, charcoal).
Repair the pipes, starting at the water
source or water treatment plant and
working outwards into the distribution
system. Repair sections in a stepped
manner, one section after another. You may
wish to refer to „Rehabilitating water
treatment works‟ (Reed, 2005).
If the system is buried under heavy urban
construction, the support from the state
civil engineering department may be
needed.
Always prioritise the use of local
materials, similar to those used
previously, to repair and rehabilitate
infrastructure. With replacements, use
similar locally-available electrical devices,
pumps, valves, and pipelines, wherever
possible.
Restart the WTW in the following order:
1. Switch on power and verify electrical
functioning of the installation.
6. Measure the turbidity of water at the inlet
and outlet of the installation.
7. Check residence time in each treatment
stage (sedimentation time, filtration time,
etc).
9. Check that water quality at the outlet of a
WTW meets the required quality (see Figure
5 below).
Turbidity: should not exceed 2 NTU
pH: between 6.8 and 7.2 to allow effective
chlorination.
Microbial contamination: 0 thermotolerant
coliforms per 100 ml.
Residual aluminium: <0.5mg per litre.
Heavy metals and organic pollutants: Refer
to „WHO guidelines for Water Quality‟, (WHO,
2006).
Figure 5: Minimum guidelines for water quality
Note: The following sections are also largely
applicable in rural contexts and are referred to
in the „Water Supply in Rural Flood Settings‟
briefing (Oess, 2009). Some sections have been
these sections have been tailored, as
appropriate for urban settings.

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 Technical Briefing for Emergency
Response Urban Water Supply

5. Water tankering and

4. Emergency water
treatment units and
package systems
During floods, it can be necessary to mount
emergency water treatment units either to
replace the existing facilities until they are
functional again or to support water delivery
services in areas that do not have access to
public services (e.g. slums). Emergency water
treatment units can be mounted by a
professional team within a week.
They usually allow similar stages of water
treatment as in conventional water treatment
works, but work in a simplified mode. The
treatment basins are substituted by inflatable or
fibreglass tanks that can be rapidly installed.
The size of the units needs to be calculated to
respond to the specific demand. See Figure 6
below for an example of a combination of
Oxfam onion and fibre tanks for emergency
water treatment purposes.
distribution
Water tankering is very costly. It is not
sustainable and should not be a substitute
for piped services. However, it is a quick
method for getting water to a population in
need during the initial stages of an emergency,
when a population is on the move or cannot be
reached by other means, providing that:
A suitable local water source exists and
there is a rapid exit strategy in place
before starting the tankering programme;
Suitable tankers for the transportation of
water of drinking quality are available; and
Access to a suitable site is possible with a
tanker.
Specific recommendations are as follows:
As it is an expensive activity, a clear exit
plan must be in place before starting the
tankering programme to ensure that
tankering does not go on for months after
the flood situation improves.
A local water resource must be identified
with sufficient quantity and quality to
support the local and beneficiary
populations.
Adequate access and road infrastructure
for tankers to bring water to the affected
population. Sometimes other modes of
transport are necessary, such as transport
by boats or aircraft.

Figure 6: Arrangement and combination of

onion and fibre tanks for emergency water
treatment purposes (Myanmar, 2009)
Packaged systems can be rapidly set up in an
emergency to produce large amounts of treated
water. Units are even able to treat water
contaminated by seawater, sewage, radioactive,
biological or chemical substances. It is
important that packaged systems sent from
abroad are accompanied by skilled technician/s
Figure 7: Water transport by boat
to install the system and train local technicians
using tanks fitted with tarpaulins
to operate and maintain them; otherwise, they
(UNICEF, 2009 Myanmar)
are not likely to be used.

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 Technical Briefing for Emergency
Response
Strategic locations are identified together
with beneficiaries and local authorities for
water delivery. Suitable locations can be
close to health centres, shelters, at IDP
camps or any place with high
concentrations of people.
Suitable tankers for the transportation of
water must be available locally at a
reasonable price. Tankers should be
suitable for transporting water of potable
quality. It is important to investigate
whether suitable tankers are available from
drinks factories, breweries, dairies, etc.
before hiring oil and fuel tankers, which
would need to be cleaned thoroughly.
Make sure that all tankers are cleaned and
chlorinated before use.
If trucking bladder tanks are selected, they
should be supported on structures able to
bear the weight when the tanks are filled
with water.
If the water is not turbid, (NTU < 5) the
water can be chlorinated in situ. Otherwise,
water will need to go through a water
treatment process to improve its quality.
The water should be regularly tested for
faecal and chemical contamination.
A weekly distribution plan has to be set up
based on the amount of water to be
delivered and the estimated number of
population that will collect water from the
selected place. Clearly inform the
population about the day and location of
water delivery. Local radio and media can
be used to communicate this information in
combination with hygiene promotion
messages. Refer to Sow (2009).
Suitable mass storage tanks should be
used for the tanker water to be decanted
and the population collect from the
distribution tap stands rather than from the
water tanker directly. This maximises the
number of trips (and volume of water) the
tankers can deliver in a day.
Communal storage facilities: It is
important to be aware of the needs of the
target population and the peaks in water
demand, when designing water storage
systems. It may be appropriate to initially size
the storage volume on the water required for
8 Revised: 15th September 2009
Urban Water Supply
food preparation and drinking only i.e. a
minimum of 15 litres per person per day
(Sphere). Sufficient numbers of standpipes
should be installed so that people can
have access to water without queuing for
more than 15 minutes.
Figure 8: A standpipe installation supplying
about 1000 inhabitants
6. Rehabilitation of
Wells and Boreholes
In some urban areas of Africa, Asia and Latin
America, many people still rely on traditional
wells, and on private or communal boreholes.
Before going through the process of cleaning
and rehabilitation wells it is essential to
ensure that any source of contamination
is removed.
The extent of pollution of the groundwater has
to be assessed before cleaning wells and
boreholes. Analysis of the groundwater can be
carried out by local authorities or by WASH
agencies. Be aware that in some places the
bedrock may naturally contain high
concentrations of arsenic, fluoride or toxic
heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury.
Places close to industrial activity, landfills or
mining may contain organic and heavy metal
pollutants. Refer to WHO (2006) for guidance
on threshold levels for each contaminant,
analytical techniques for chemical analysis and
appropriate techniques for removal of toxic
components. If there is no simple and rapid
technique available to remove a
hazardous pollutant, avoid water
treatment and look for another source of
water supply.
 Technical Briefing for Emergency
Response Urban Water Supply

Rehabilitation may include: more using

Repair or replacement of the pumping
mechanism.
Removal of polluted water and debris from
wells using either buckets or pumps.
Sealing the top of the well using a sanitary
seal (can be concrete etc) built around top
of well (see Figure 9 below).
Construction of a drainage apron and head
wall (minimum of 1m high) around the well
to prevent surface water, insects and
rodents entering the well.
Relining the well to reduce the risk of
subsurface contamination.
Raise pumps in wells and boreholes as an
emergency preparedness measure for
future floods.
chlorine to chlorine
oxidise solution
organic
matter
Table 1: Physico-chemical parameters
(Godfrey, 2005)
Disinfection: If the turbidity of the well
water is greater than 5 NTU after the cleaning
and rehabilitation stage, remove all the water
and scrub the well lining with a strong
concentration of bleach in water. Allow the well
to refill with water and test turbidity levels
again to ensure compliance.
7. Point of Use (POU)
treatment
Point of Use (POU) or Household Water
Treatment (HWT) is an important option to
avoid waterborne or water source disease in the
immediate stages of an emergency. Those
whose houses have been destroyed may return
during the day to their dwellings and/or help
other families to start clean up, look for their
belongings and save what they can. It is
therefore important to give them the essential
tools to minimise the risk of becoming sick while
they are away from communal safe water
supply sources.

Figure 9: Protection of the top of a well There are different ways to obtain safe drinking
(Godfrey, 2005) water at household level (see Table 2 below). It
is important to avoid contamination by
pathogens during collection, storage and
Check turbidity and pH, referring to Table 2
consumption of water.
below. Following dewatering, cleaning and
repair, allow the water level in the well to return
Regular water quality analysis should be
to its normal position. Measure the turbidity and
routinely carried out to ensure that the
pH levels to check if chlorination will be
population are carrying out the treatment
effective.
Physico-chemical parameters properly. Household water treatment
(HWT) should always be promoted with
Parameter WHO Why? Corrective
GDWQ action appropriate hygiene promotion
pH 6-8 pH of 6.8- If pH is less sensitisation, demonstrations and with visual
7.2 is than 6 add leaflets and other relevant materials in the local
required to hydrated
reduce level lime
language. Refer to „Hygiene Promotion in Flood
of chlorine (calcium Settings‟ (Sow, 2009). Households should
required. hydroxide) continue treating water until they are advised
Turbidity <5NTU High Dewater by local authorities that their supply has been
(20NTU turbidity well and
emergen (>5NTU) rebleach tested and found to be safe.
cy limit) requires well lining

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 Technical Briefing for Emergency
Response Urban Water Supply

Method Description

An important method of water disinfection at household level in health centres, shelters, camps, or for those
affected by the flood who are able to stay at home. A crucial parameter for the use of chemical tablets is the
turbidity of the water: Water < 5 NTU: use normal chlorination tablets
Water > 5 NTU: use a combined flocculation/ chlorination chemical

Different types of chlorine compounds exist in the market. A few mg/litre of chlorine and contact times of at
least 30 minutes generally inactivates >99.99% of enteric bacteria and viruses, provided the water has
Chemical
limited suspended solids.
disinfection
When the turbidity of water is above 5 NTU or cloudy and “dirty” it will be necessary to use a
combined flocculation/ chlorination product such as PuR (Figure 10). PuR allows removal of
suspended organic and mineral matter. The water is normally stirred for a few minutes with the reactive
chemicals and then allowed to stand for half an hour. Through this process, the suspended matter
flocculates and sediments to the bottom of a container from which it can be removed by filtration.
For any type of chemical disinfection, it is important to follow the instructions on the packet.

Following a flood emergency, many families may lack the facilities and fuel to boil water. However, boiling
can be appropriate in areas with enough fuel supply and a cultural tradition of boiling water e.g. to cook
Boiling family meals, or when the taste of water treated with chlorine is not accepted. In the case that stoves are
distributed, particular attention needs to be given to fuel supply and release of toxic gases. Refer to Jetter
(2009) for more information on recommendations on which type of stove to use.

Ceramic filters, sometimes called candles, purify water by allowing it to pass through a ceramic filter
element. Suspended particles are mechanically filtered from the water. To be effective, the impurities held
back by the candle surface need to be brushed off under running water, at regular intervals and the inlet
Ceramic water should have a low turbidity. The filtered water is likely to be free from bacteria, but it is recommended
filters that the water should also be boiled or otherwise disinfected, unless the filter is impregnated with silver
which acts as a disinfectant and kills bacteria. Ceramic filters can be manufactured locally, but are also
mass-produced. They can be costly but have a long storage life and so can be purchased and stored in
preparation for future emergencies.

Table 2: Household water treatment techniques

crisis, door-to-door (sometimes making use of

Household storage facilities: Delivery
of PVC (plastic) buckets with covers and
storage containers should be included in
the non food item (NFI) kits delivered
during the first stage of an emergency. If not
needed, these buckets can alternatively be used
for cleaning activities.
boats during the floods) or positioned in
strategic places at “kiosks”. It is recommended
to check with the vendors if they need
chemicals or any support to be able continue
their water delivery service, and to monitor
the quality of the water that is supplied
and hygiene of their transport and storage
containers.

8. Bottled water/water
vendors
Distribution of bottled water is another
immediate option to provide safe drinking water
supply for survival in the initial stages of an
emergency. Sometimes bottled water is
provided at low cost to governments and
responding agencies, by the bottlers
themselves. However, it is still usually
expensive compared with other sources. In
some countries, local water vendors sell water
in bottles or in sealed plastic bags prior to a Figure 10: Queuing at a water “kiosk” during
floods in Haiti, 2008

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Technical Briefing for Emergency
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References
Godfrey, S (draft revised 7.1.2005). Cleaning and
disinfecting wells. WHO Technical Notes for
Emergencies. Prepared by WEDC
http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/who_Technical_notes_for_eme
rgencies/1%20-
%20Cleaning%20and%20disinfecting%20wells.pdf
International Rescue Committee (IRC) (s.d.).
Environmental Health Field Guide, 3rd Edition.
Jetter J, A. P. (2009). SolidFuel Household Cook
Stoves: Characterization of Performance and Emissions.
Biomass and Energy.
Oess, Dr. A (2009). Water Supply in Rural Flood
Settings. Global WASH Cluster Technical Briefing for
Emergency Response.
www.humanitarianreform.org/Default.aspx?tabid=770
Reed, B (Draft revised 7.1.2005 b). How to measure
residual chlorine in water. WHO Technical Notes for
Emergencies, N° 11. Prepared by WEDC
www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/envsan/
chlorineresid.pdf
Reed, B (Draft revised 7.1.2005 a). Rehabilitating water
treatment works. WHO Technical Notes for
Emergencies, N° 6. Prepared by WEDC
www.searo.who.int/LinkFiles/List_of_Guidelines_for_He
alth_Emergency_Rehabilitating_water_treatment_work
s.pdf
Smith, M (2009). Lessons learned in WASH Response
during Urban Flood Emergencies. A Global WASH
Cluster Lessons Learned Paper.
www.humanitarianreform.org/Default.aspx?tabid=770
Sow, S (2009). Hygiene Promotion in Flood Settings. A
Global WASH Cluster Technical Briefing for Emergency
Response.
www.humanitarianreform.org/Default.aspx?tabid=770
WHO (2006). Guidelines for drinking-water quality,
third edition, incorporating first and second addenda
www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/wsh0207/e
n/
11
Urban Water Supply
Author: Dr. Andrea Helena Oess, Care
Series Editor: Louise Boughen, ACF-UK
This technical briefing has been produced under the
Global WASH Cluster Technical Learning Project to
support WASH sector learning and improvement. The
Technical Learning Project is led by ACF-UK on behalf of
the Global WASH Cluster. with the support of the
following Steering Group agencies: ACF, Care, CRS,
Oxfam, REDR, UNICEF and WEDC. The project team
includes ACF, Care, Oxfam and WEDC.
Copyright © Global WASH Cluster 2009
Global WASH Cluster, UNICEF New York, 3 UN Plaza,
New York, NY 10017, USA
Email: washcluster@unicef.org
Web: www.humanitarianreform.org/WASH
The Global WASH Cluster, led by UNICEF, was
established as part of international humanitarian
reform, and provides an open, formal platform for all
emergency WASH actors to work together.
First trial edition 2009
All rights reserved. This material is copyright but may
be reproduced by any method without charge for
educational purposes but not for resale. Formal
permission is not required for such uses, however, the
Global WASH Cluster should be informed of any such
reproduction. For copying in other circumstances or for
re-use in other publications, or for translation or
adaptation, prior written permission must be obtained
from the copyright owner.
The interpretations and commentaries expressed in this
briefing do not necessarily reflect positions of the
Global WASH Cluster members.
The Global WASH Technical Learning Project
http://www.humanitarianreform.org/Default.aspx?tabi
d=770
Revised: 15th September 2009