Kepler’s equation
For specific applications of Kepler’s equation, see anomaly M from the time and the mean motion n by the
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. formula M = n(t − t0 ), then solve the Kepler equation
In orbital mechanics, Kepler’s equation relates various above to get E, then get the coordinates from:
Kepler’s equation solutions for five different eccentricities between
0 and 1
geometric properties of the orbit of a body subject to a
central force.
It was first derived by Johannes Kepler in 1609 in Chap-
ter 60 of his Astronomia nova,[1][2] and in book V of
his Epitome of Copernican Astronomy (1621) Kepler pro-
posed an iterative solution to the equation.[3][4] The equa-
tion has played an important role in the history of both
physics and mathematics, particularly classical celestial
mechanics. 2.1
1 Equation
Kepler’s equation is
where M is the mean anomaly, E is the eccentric anomaly,
and e is the eccentricity.
The 'eccentric anomaly' E is useful to compute the posi- E = iH
tion of a point moving in a Keplerian orbit. As for in- to obtain
stance, if the body passes the periastron at coordinates x
= a(1 − e), y = 0, at time t = t0 , then to find out the posi-
tion of the body at any time, you first calculate the mean M = i (E − e sin E)
1
Kepler’s equation is a transcendental equation because
sine is a transcendental function, meaning it cannot be
solved for E algebraically. Numerical analysis and series
expansions are generally required to evaluate E.
2 Alternate forms
There are several forms of Kepler’s equation. Each form
is associated with a specific type of orbit. The standard
Kepler equation is used for elliptic orbits (0 ≤ e < 1). The
hyperbolic Kepler equation is used for hyperbolic orbits
(e ≫ 1). The radial Kepler equation is used for linear (ra-
dial) orbits (e = 1). Barker’s equation is used for parabolic
orbits (e = 1). When e = 1, Kepler’s equation is not asso-
ciated with an orbit.
When e = 0, the orbit is circular. Increasing e causes the
circle to flatten into an ellipse. When e = 1, the orbit is
completely flat, and it appears to be a either a segment
if the orbit is closed, or a ray if the orbit is open. An
infinitesimal increase to e results in a hyperbolic orbit with
a turning angle of 180 degrees, and the orbit appears to
be a ray. Further increases reduce the turning angle, and
as e goes to infinity, the orbit becomes a straight line of
infinite length.
Hyperbolic Kepler equation
The Hyperbolic Kepler equation is:
where H is the hyperbolic eccentric anomaly. This equa-
tion is derived by multiplying Kepler’s equation by the
square root of −1; i = √−1 for imaginary unit, and replac-
ing
2 4 NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION OF INVERSE PROBLEM

2.2 Radial Kepler equation InverseSeries[Series[M - Sin[M], {M, 0, 10}]]

InverseSeries[Series[M - e Sin[M], {M, 0,
The Radial Kepler equation is: 10}]]

These functions are simple Taylor series. Taylor series

where t is time, and x is the distance along an x-axis. This
equation is derived by multiplying Kepler’s equation by
1/2 making the replacement
√ cations. Alternatively, Kepler’s equation can be solved
E = 2 sin−1 ( x)
representations of transcendental functions are consid-
ered to be definitions of those functions. Therefore this
solution is a formal definition of the inverse Kepler equa-
tion. While this solution is the simplest in a certain math-
ematical sense, for values of e near 1 the convergence is
very poor, other solutions are preferable for most appli-
numerically.

and setting e = 1 gives The solution for e ≠ 1 was discovered by Karl Stumpff in
1968,[7] but its significance wasn't recognized.[8]

1
t(x) = [E − sin(E)] . 3.2 Inverse radial Kepler equation
2
The inverse radial Kepler equation is:
3 Inverse problem
[ ( ( ( )
∞
∑ 2
t 3 n d n−1 3 ( −1 √ √ ))− 23 n
Calculating M for a given value of E is straightforward. x(t) = lim r n
sin ( r) − r − r 2
r→0+ n! dr n−1 2
However, solving for E when M is given can be consider- n=1

ably more challenging. Evaluating this yields:

Kepler’s equation can be solved for E analytically by
Lagrange inversion. The solution of Kepler’s equation 1 3 3 23 4 1894 5 3293 241809
given by two Taylor series below. x(t) = p− p2 − p − p − p − p6 −
5 175 7875 3931875 21896875 62077640
Confusion over the solvability of Kepler’s equation has To obtain this result using Mathematica:
persisted in the literature for four centuries.[5] Kepler
himself expressed doubt at the possibility of finding a InverseSeries[Series[ArcSin[Sqrt[t]] - Sqrt[(1
general solution. - t) t], {t, 0, 15}]]

3.1 Inverse Kepler equation 4 Numerical approximation of in-

The inverse Kepler equation is the solution of Kepler’s verse problem
equation for all real values of e:
For most applications, the inverse problem can be com-
∞ ( (( )n )) puted numerically by finding the root of the function:

 ∑ M n3 d n−1
θ

 lim √ , e=1
 n! θ→0+ dθ n−1 3
θ − sin(θ)
( ( ) f (E) = E − e sin(E) − M (t)
)n )
n=1
E=
d n−1 (
∞
∑
 Mn θ

 lim , e ̸= can
1 be done iteratively via Newton’s method:
 n! θ→0+ dθ n−1 θ − e sin(θ) This
n=1

Evaluating this yields: f (En ) En − e sin(En ) − M (t)

En+1 = En − = En −
f ′ (En ) 1 − e cos(En )
 1 1 5 1 43 Note that
1213E and M11are in units of radians in13this compu-
151439

 x + x3 + x + x7 + x9 tation.
+ x +is repeated until desired
x accuracy
1
+ · · · | xis= (6M ) 3 , e

 60 1400 25200 17248000 This
7207200000iteration 12713500800000
E= obtained (e.g. when f(E) < desired accuracy). For most

 3 2 5 elliptical
3
+ 54eorbits
2
+ e)anMinitial
7 value of 4E+
0 = M(t)3is+sufficient.
243e2 + e) M 9

 1 e M (9e + e) M (225e (11025e 4131e
M− + − For + + ··· , e
1−e (1 − e)4 3! (1 − e)7 5! (1 orbits
− e)10with e >7!0.8, an initial value(1of
−Ee)013
= π should 9!
[9]
be used. A similar approach can be used for the hyper-
These series can be reproduced in Mathematica with the bolic form of Kepler’s equation. In the case of a parabolic
InverseSeries operation. trajectory, Barker’s equation is used.
 3

5 See also
• Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

• Kepler problem
• Kepler problem in general relativity

• Radial trajectory

6 References
[1] Kepler, Johannes (1609). “LX. Methodus, ex hac Phys-
ica, hoc est genuina & verissima hypothesi, extruendi
utramque partem æquationis, & distantias genuinas: quo-
rum utrumque simul per vicariam fieri hactenus non po-
tuit. argumentum falsæ hypotheseos”. Astronomia Nova
Aitiologētos, Seu Physica Coelestis, tradita commentariis
De Motibus Stellæ Martis, Ex observationibus G. V. Ty-
chonis Brahe (in Latin). pp. 299–300.

[2] Aaboe, Asger (2001). Episodes from the Early History of

Astronomy. Springer. pp. 146–147. ISBN 978-0-387-
95136-2.

[3] Kepler, Johannes (1621). “Libri V. Pars altera.”. Epitome

astronomiæ Copernicanæ usitatâ formâ Quæstionum &
Responsionum conscripta, inq; VII. Libros digesta, quorum
tres hi priores sunt de Doctrina Sphæricâ (in Latin). pp.
695–696.

[4] Swerdlow, N. M. (2000). “Kepler’s Iterative Solution to

Kepler’s Equation”. Journal for the History of Astronomy
31: 339–341. Bibcode:2000JHA....31..339S.

[5] It is often erroneously claimed that Kepler’s equation

“cannot be solved analytically"; see for example here.
Other authors make the absurd claim that it cannot be
solved at all; see for example M. V. K. Chari, Sheppard
Joel Salon 2000 Technology & Engineering.

[6] Hall, Asaph (May 1883). “Kepler’s Problem”. Annals of

Mathematics 10 (3): 65–66.

[7] Stumpff, Karl (1 June 1968). “On The application of Lie-

series to the problems of celestial mechanics”. NASA
Technical Note D-4460.

[8] Colwell, Peter (1993). Solving Kepler’s Equation Over

Three Centuries. Willmann–Bell. p. 43. ISBN 0-943396-
40-9.

[9] Montenbruck, Oliver; Pfleger, Thomas (2009). Astron-

omy on the Personal Computer. Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg. pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-3-540-67221-0.

7 External links
• Kepler’s Equation at Wolfram Mathworld
4 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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