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INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
Communication is the process of conveying or transferring messages from one point to another.
Information Destination
Transmitter Channel Receiver
source
Information Source:
The source or information signal can be analog or digital such as the human voice or music or
in binary coded numbers.
The source generates the message to be transmitted.
Transmitter:
Communication Channel:
The channel is the medium by which the electrical signal sent from one place to another. The
channel can be of many forms like co-axial cable, microwave links or an optical fiber.
Depending on the type of communication channel two types of communication will exist.
It uses the communication medium like the simple wires or cables or optical fiber.
Here message transmission capability can be limited.
Receiver:
Periodic Signal:
A periodic signal is one which repeats itself after every time interval T0.
g(t) = g(t+T0)
Non-Periodic Signal:
Signals which do not satisfy the above condition are called non-periodic or aperiodic signals.
0 t
-T 0 T
The spectral characteristics of periodic signals can be studied with the help of Fourier series.
Where ( )= ∫ ( ) dt
( ) = Fourier series coefficients; wo = 2 / T.
1. Linearity:
3. Frequency Shift:
4. Scaling:
Fourier coefficients of x(t) and x(at) are same, but spacing between frequency
components change from wo to awo .
5. Time differentiation:
6. Convolution in Time:
If x(t) is the periodic signal with Fourier coefficients X(K), then average power in
the signal is given by ∑ | ( )|
ie; Power P = ∑ | ( )|
Power of the signal can be obtained by squaring and adding the magnitudes of
Fourier coefficients.
9. Symmetry properties:
The coefficients of the Fourier series of a signal are displayed in a set of two plots in the
frequency domain.
Problems:
1. Obtain exponential Fourier Series for the signal given below. Plot the magnitude and Phase
Spectrum also?
x(t) Periodic exponential pulse
( )= ∫ ( ) dt
wo = 2 / T = 4 and x(t) = for 0 to 0.5 ; ie;
.
( )= dt;
−
. ∫
. ( )
( )=2∫ dt;
= - 2/(1+j4 )[ ( ) . − 0
];
= - 2/(1+j4 )[ ( . ) − − 1];
X(k) = 0.78698/(1+j4 )
Step:2 To express Exponential Fourier Series
( )=∑ . 7869/(1 + 4 )
Step:3 To obtain magnitude and Phase Spectrum of X(k):
X(k) = 0.78698/(1+j4 )
= (0.7869) (1 + (4 ) )/(1 + (4 ) ]
= 0.7869 / (1 + (4 )
and Phase Spectrum is given by
( )
∠X(k) = tan
( )
∠X(k) = − tan−1 [4 ]
Following table lists the calculation of |X(k)| and ∠X(k)
2. Determine the complex exponential Fourier Series for periodic rectangular Pulse train given
below. Plot its magnitude and Phase Spectra.
Solution:
( )= ∫ ( ) dt
/
( )= ∫ /
dt
/
( )= ( ) /
/ /
( )= { − } since wo = 2 / T.
Let us assume the duty cycle of the waveform be T/T0 = 1/5 and amplitude A = 1
sin(k /5)
= 1/5{ } since = sinc
/5
| ( )| Magnitude plot
-10 -5 0 5 10 k
c c
v v
∠ ( ) Phase plot
K
c
v
Figure 1.6 Magnitude and Phase plot
Magnitude spectrum has the shape of ‘Sinc’ function which passes through zero at k = ± 5, ± 10…..
The spectral characteristics of non-periodic signals can be studied with the help of Fourier
Transform.
Fourier transform provides effective reversible link between frequency domain and time
domain representation of the signal.
For non-periodic signals T0 ∞.Hence wo = 0, Therefore spacing between the spectral
components becomes infinitesimal and hence the spectrum appears to be continuous.
( )= ∫ ( ) dt (or)
( )= ∫ ( ) dt
( )= ∫ ( ) dw (or)
( )= ∫ ( ) df
1. Linearity:
2. Time Shift:
5. Time differentiation:
6. Convolution:
If x(t) FT X(w) and y(t) FT Y(w) then
7. Integration:
If x(t) FT X(w) then
∫ ( ) dt FT X (w)
8. Modulation:
If x(t) FT X(w) and y(t) FT Y(w) then
Z(t) = x(t) y(t) FT Z(w) = [X(w) *Y (w)].
10. Symmetry:
E=∫ | ( )| dt
= ∫ | ( )| dw = − ∫ | ( )| df
Problem:
1. Obtain the Fourier Transform of signal e-at u(t) and plot its magnitude and Phase spectrum.
Solution:
( )
X(w) = ∫ −
dt ; X(w) = ∫ ( ) dt = [ ] ie;
( )
X(w) = ; To obtain Magnitude and Phase spectrum Multiply both side by a-jw
X(w) = * = - ;
2+ 2 1
|X(w)| = [ 2+ 2] + [ 2+ 2] = 2 = 2
( + 2)2 ( + 2)
( )
∠X(k) = tan
( )
−
−1 2+ 2
∠X(k) = − tan { } = − tan−1 { } The following fig shows the magnitude
2+ 2
and phase plots for a = 1 and varying w.
0 w
0 w
MODULATION:
Definition:
∗
ie; Antenna height = = = = 150 Km (∵ c = f ; = )
∗ ∗
∗
Antenna height = = = = 150 m.
∗ ∗
(vi) Multiplexing:
If more than one signal uses a single channel then modulation may be used to
translate different signals to different spectral location, thus enabling the receiver to select
the desired signal.
WB FM NB FM
DM – Delta Modulation
Definition:
Amplitude modulation is the process by which the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, but frequency and phase
remains constant.
( ) ( )
We know that sin(wmt) sin(wct) = ;
( ) ( )
VAM (t) = Vc sin(wct) + Vc ma [ ];
The negative(-) sign associated with the USB represents a Phase shift of 1800. This
equation represents the time domain behaviour of AM signal.
AM Envelope:
The shape of the modulated signal is called as AM envelope which contains all the
frequencies and is used to transfer the information through the system.
An increase in the modulating signal amplitude causes the amplitude of the carrier
to increase. If message signal is absent, the output is simply the carrier signal.
The shape of the envelope is identical to shape of the modulating signal. The
repetition rate of the envelope is equal to the frequency of the modulating signal.
Figure 1.8 Message signal ,Carrier signal and AM signal
The expression for the AM wave shows that it consists of three terms
(i) I st term represents the carrier wave.
(ii) The IInd term represents a sinusoidal signal at frequency (fc- fm). It is called as lower
sideband. Its amplitude is .
(iii) The IIIrd term represents a sinusoidal signal at frequency (fc + fm). It is called as upper
sideband. Its amplitude is .
Frequency spectrum of AM wave
Amplitude
Vc
. LSB USB .
wm wm
wm − wc wc wm + wc Frequency
Bandwidth = 2 wm = 2 fm
Side Bands:
The side bands are occurs in the frequency spectrum directly above and below the
carrier frequency. Assuming a carrier frequency of fc and modulating frequency of
fm, the upper sideband fUSB and lower side band fLSB are computed as follows.
fUSB = wm + wc ; fLSB = wm − wc
Band Width of AM :
The band width of the AM signal is given by the subtraction of highest and lowest
frequency component in the frequency spectrum.
B = 2fm
Thus band width of AM signal is twice of the maximum frequency of the modulating signal.
Phasor Representation of an AM with Carrier:
Vc ma
+ wm (USB)
2
Carrier Resultant
0 AM Phasor VAM(t)
Vc
-wm
(LSB)
and the resulting phasor is VAM(t) , the vector sum of two side bands with carrier . It
depends on the position of the sideband phasor and carrier wave phasor.
The phasors for the carrier and upper and lower side frequencies combine, sometimes in
phase (adding) and sometimes out of phase (subtracting) .
Modulation index is a term used to describe the amount of amplitude change present
in an AM wave.
Modulation index is defined as the ratio of maximum amplitude of modulating signal to
the amplitude of carrier signal. i.e.,
ma= Vm/Vc
The modulation index should be a number between 0 and 1.
Degree of Modulation:
In AM three types of degree of modulation are available. It depends upon the amplitude of
the modulating signal relative to the carrier.
(i) Under Modulation ( ma < 1 and Vm < Vc )
(ii) Critical Modulation ( ma = 1 and Vm = Vc )
(iii) Over Modulation ( ma > 1 and Vm > Vc )
Here the envelope of the modulated signals does not reach the zero amplitude axis . Hence the
signal is fully preserved in the envelope of the AM wave.
The envelope detector can recover the message signal without any distortion.
Vm
- Vm
ma = 1 when Vm = Vc
Here envelope of the modulated signal just reaches the zero amplitude axis . The message
signal remains preserved,
An envelope detector can recover the message signal without any distortion.
Figure 1.12 Critical modulation
Here both the positive and negative extensions of the modulating signals are cancelled or
clipped out. The amplitude of a baseband signal exceeds carrier amplitude.
The envelope and message signal are not same. This is called envelope distortion. Due to
this envelope detector provides distorted message signal.
An over modulation signal can be recovered using a costly and as well as complex
technique Synchronous detection.
Percentage Modulation:
% ma = * 100
AM POWER DISTRIBUTION:
The modulated wave contains three terms such as carrier wave, LSB and USB. Therefore
the modulated wave contains more power than the carrier had before modulation took
place.
The modulated wave contains extra power in the two sideband components. The amplitude
of the sidebands depends on the modulation index ‘ma’. Therefore the total power in the
modulated wave will depend on the modulation index also.
The total power in the modulated wave will be
VLSB and VUSB are rms value of upper and lower sideband voltages.
Pc = Vc2/ 2R ------(3)
The upper and lower side bands Powers are expressed mathematically as
Pt = Pc + PLSB + PUSB
Pt = Vc2/2R + ma2Vc2/4R
Pt = Vc2/2R[1 + ma2/2]
Pt = 1.5 Pc
Power(w)
LSB Vc USB
. PUSB = ma2Pc/4
Pt/Pc = 1+ ma2/2 ;
ma2/2 = Pt/Pc – 1;
ma = ( / – )
Current Calculations:
Pc – Carrier Power;
Ic – Carrier current;
R – Antenna resistance.
It = Ic [ + ( ) ]/
ma = ( ) −
Transmission Efficiency:
% η =33.3%
Only 33.3% of energy is used and remaining power is wasted by the carrier information
along with the sidebands. The maximum transmission efficiency of the AM is 33.3% .This
means that only one-third of the total power is carried by the sidebands and the rest two-
third is a waste.
Let V1,V2,V3…… etc be the simultaneous modulation voltages with frequencies fm1, fm2,fm3…
Then the total modulating voltage Vt will be equal to the square root of sum of square of individual
voltages
Vt = + + ….
mt = + + ….
Advantages
Application
(i) Low quality form of modulation that is used for commercial broadcasting of both audio
and video signals.
(ii) Two – way mobile radio communication such as citizens band(CB) radio.
(iii) Aircraft communications in the VHF frequency range.
The device which is used to generate an amplitude modulated wave is known as amplitude
modulator. The methods for generation of AM waves are broadly divided into two parts. They are
Based on the power level at which modulation is carried out may be termed as
In general square low modulators are low level modulators while linear modulators are high level
modulators
Carrier signal
Operation:
The modulating signal and carrier are connected in series with each other their sum V1(t)
is applied at the input of the nonlinear devices , such as diode , transistor etc.
When the bandpass filter is tuned to the carrier frequency it allows only wc , (wc - wm) and
(wc + wm) . Neglecting second and higher order terms.
Hence we obtain
Balanced Modulator:
The circuit that is very commonly used for AM generation. In this modulator, two non-
linear devices are connected in the balanced mode.
It is assumed that the two transistors are identical and the circuit is symmetrical. Since the
operation is confined in non-linear region of its transfer characteristics.
The carrier voltage across two windings of a centre – tap transformer are equal and
opposite in phase Vc = V'c. The input to transistor T1 is given by
Vbc = Vc + Vm
V'bc = V'c + Vm
I1 = a1[Vc sinwct+ Vm sin wmt] + a2[Vc2 sin 2wct+ Vm 2sin 2 wmt +2 Vm Vc sinwct sin wmt ] (5)
I1' = a1[-Vc sinwct+ Vm sin wmt] + a2[Vc2 sin 2wct+ Vm 2sin 2 wmt -2 Vm Vc sinwct sin wmt] (6)
This is because I1 and I1' flow in opposite directions in a tuned circuit. K is a constant depending
on impedance and other circuit parameters.
(i) In simple non – linear circuits the undesired non – linear terms (harmonics) are
eliminated by a band pass filter. Hence the band pass filter must be carefully
designed.
(ii) But in a balanced modulator, the undesired non-linear terms are automatically
balanced but at the output we get only the desired terms, so filter design is not
required.
Drawbacks of Non – linear Modulator:
(i) Heavy filtering is required to remove the unwanted terms present in the output of
the modulators.
(ii) The output power level is also very low. Hence a substantial linear amplification is
necessary to bring the power up to the desired level to reduce these problems linear
modulators are used.
In this type of modulators the devices are operated in linear region of its transfer
characteristics thus the relation between the amplitude of the modulating signal and the resulting
depth of modulation is linear.
Switching Modulators:
Basically linear modulators are high level modulators and are arranged so that undesired
modulation products never fully develop and need not be filtered out.
In which the switching action is provided by a simple diode. The input signal is consisting
of message and carrier signal. The carrier wave is applied to the diode is large in
amplitude, so that the switching action of the diode is controlled by carrier.
We assume that the diode acts as ideal switch ie; the diode is forward biased for every
positive half cycle of the carrier. And behaves like a short circuited switch. The signal
appears at the input of the band pass filter.
For a negative half cycle of the carrier the diode is reverse biased and behaves like an open
switch. The signal does not reach the filter, and no output is obtained. Thus the signal is
modulated at the rate of carrier frequency.
The output of band pass filter is tuned to the carrier frequency hence it allows all the Vc
terms and rejects other frequency terms.
The input voltage V1(t)
0 Vc < 0; }
The switching action is equal to multiplication of input signal with periodic signal g(t) with
frequency wc . The Fourier series representation of g(t) can be written as
( )
g(t) = ½ + 2/ ∑ cos[2 (2 − 1)]
( )
( )
= Vc sinwct+ Vm sin wmt * [½ + 2/ ∑ cos[2 (2 − 1)]]
( )
The high frequency and dc components are eliminated by band pass filter thus the resultant output
is given by
Transistor Modulators:
Amplifying devices like transistors, FET etc can provide amplification. Transistor can be used for
generating AM by varying their gain parameters in accordance with the modulating signal.
The modulating signal can be conveniently supplied on any of the three terminals of the device
emitter, base and collector. Accordingly the type of modulator will be called
(i) Emitter Modulation
(ii) Collector Modulation
(iii) Base Modulation
As the name indicates the emitter modulator the modulating signal is injected into the emitter and
the carrier signal is injected in the base.
The resistors R1 and R2 can be used to provide proper biasing. RE & CE can be used for bias
stabilization. The main requirement of emitter modulator is, it needs to operate in both saturation
and cut-off region to produce necessary nonlinearity to generate AM.
Figure 1.19 Emitter Modulator
The amplitude of the modulated signal depends on the carrier and voltage gain of the amplifier. A
small signal class A amplifier can be used as amplitude modulator. When no modulating signal is
present, the circuit operates as linear class ‘A’ amplifier and the output is amplified carrier signal.
When modulating signal is present the amplifier operates nonlinearly and multiply the two signals
as a result of AM is generated. The modulating signal varies the gain of the amplifier at a rate of
modulating signal, thus the depth of modulation is directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
Vo = Av – Vi ---(2)
Vi = Vc sinwct ----(3)
Now substitute the value of Av and Vi in Vo we get ,ie., put eqn 1 and 3 in 2.
Drawbacks:
(i) The amplifier is operated in class ‘A’ mode. Thus efficiency is low.
(ii) The output power is very small. Thus it is not suitable for generating high level
modulation.
In this case, the modulating signal is applied at the collector terminal and carrier signal is
applied at the base hence it is known as collector modulation.
CONSTRUCTION:
Transfer T1 forms RF amplifier in “class C” model for higher efficiency. The carrier signal is
applied at the base of T1. Vcc is the collector supply for biasing. Transistor T2 forms a “classB”
amplifier used to amplify the modulating signal. After amplification the modulating signal appears
across the modulating transformer.
This modulating signal exists in series with the collector supply Vcc. The capacitor “C” offers
very low path for the carrier signal and as such the carrier is prevented from flowing through
modulating transformer Tr1
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
The carrier signal is amplified by the class C modulated amplifier and its amplitude remains
constant equal to Vcc as no voltage exists across the modulating transformer Tr1 in the absence of
modulating voltage.
When modulating voltage Vmsinwmt appears across the modulating transformer Tr1, its voltage
will added with the supply voltage Vcc ,the net effect is a slow variation in supply voltage Vcc.
The slow variation in supply voltage changes the amplitude of the carrier voltage at the output of
the modulated class C amplifier. The envelope of the output voltage is identical with modulating
voltage, and thus an AM wave is generated.
The slowly varying supply voltage is given by the amplitude modulated voltage
The modulated power delivered to the output load depends on the input supplied by the supply
voltage and the power dissipation in the collector circuit. Out of the total power in the collector
circuit, only a part of it reaches the output load, the remaining power is lost in the collector circuit.
This loss is due to the collector resistance and other dissipating components.
Pd = Pin – Pout
Pd = Pin{1-Pout/Pin}
COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY:
The ratio of output power and input power in the collector circuit is delivered as collector circuit
efficiency denoted as .
= Pout/Pin -------( 2)
Substitute eqn 4 in 3
This dissipation in the collector circuit increases with an increase in modulation index. This
dissipation generates heat.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
(i) Large modulating power is required when the modulating amplifier used for high
power applications.
(ii) Collector saturation prevents 100% modulation from being achieved with just the
collector being modulated.
Comparison between linear and nonlinear Modulators:
1 Heavy filtering is not required while extracting Heavy filtering is required for extracting the
the desired modulated frequency terms desired modulated frequency terms
2 These modulators are used in high level These modulators are used in low level
modulation modulation
3 The carrier voltage is very much greater than The modulating signal voltage is very much
the modulating signal voltage ie.,Vc>>Vm greater than the carrier voltage ie.,Vm>> Vc
AM Demodulation:
The process of recovering the original modulating signal from a modulated wave is termed as
demodulation or detection.
Types of AM detectors:
Non-Linear detectors:
A device is said to be non-linear if the output is not a linear function of the input amplitude. ie the
device should work in the nonlinear portion of its transfer characteristics .
Low level modulated signal can be detected by using Square law detectors in which a device
operating in the non-linear region is used to detect the baseband signal.
The circuit is very similar to square law modulator, the only difference is a LPF instead of BPF
used in modulator.
A diode can be used as a Square law detector if it is made to operate in the nonlinear portion of its
dynamic V-I characteristics. The dc source Vd is used to adjust the operating point.
When modulated signal is applied at the detector input the operation takes place over nonlinear
region of characteristics due to which the lower half portion of the current waveform is
compressed. This causes envelope distortion.
The average diode current of the detector consists of steady or DC component and all time varying
AC component at the modulation frequency. Therefore the current does not remain constant and
varies with time.
The output of the diode passes through RC combination and the capacitor C bypasses all the
RF(ac) components and modulating frequency terms to flow through the load resistor ‘R’ ,thus
producing the desired detected output.
The distorted diode – current is given by the non – linear (square Law) relation
Substituting eqn 2 in 1
This current is passed through a lowpass filter which allows to pass the frequencies upto wm and
suppress the other higher components. Thus the baseband signal with frequency wm is recovered
from the modulating signal.
I = a2 Vc2/2 + a2 Vc2/2 (2masinwmt)
Distortion:
The nonlinear characteristics of the diode produce additional frequency components. Frequency
entered about wc and 2wc are easily suppressed by using a low pass filter, as they are far away
from wm.
But 2wm is very close to wm and hence it cannot be totally suppressed by the low pass filter.
Therefore component 2wm introduces distortion.
This distortion term 2wm cannot be completely eliminated and is always present as distortion.
Thus a square law detector cannot provide a distortion less AM detection.
Rectifier detector:
( )
And id(t) = ----(3)
( )
= 1/ 2 ∫ d(wct) + ∫ id(t) dwt
( )
= 1/2 { }[−coswct]
The efficiency of detector is calculated by finding the ratio between the average value and peak
value of the modulated voltage.
= * 100 = * 100
/
Thus rectifier detector is not very efficient because it produces only one third of the input signal at
the output. It also produces distortions. Hence to improve the efficiency, heavy filtering is needed.
For this purpose a capacitor is connected across the load.
Linear detectors or Coherent Detector:
A diode is operating in a linear region of its characteristics can extract the envelope of an AM
wave. Such a detector with large carrier is detected by using the envelope detector.
AM signals with large carrier are detected by using the envelope detector. This detector is
extremely popular in commercial receiver circuits because it is very simple and less expensive.
The envelope detector is a simple and very efficient device which is suitable for the detection of a
narrowband AM signal. An envelope detector produces an output signal that follows the envelope
of the input AM signal exactly.
Principle of Operation:
The standard AM wave is applied at the input of the detector. The modulated carrier voltage is
applied to the series combination of a diode and the load impedance consisting of a resistor ‘R’ in
shunt with a capacitor ‘C’.
Since the applied modulated voltage is of large magnitude the operation takes place over the linear
region of the transfer characteristics of diode.
Let us assume that initially the capacitor is absent, the circuit acts as a half wave rectifier. Now
capacitor is introduced parallel to the resistor. For the positive half cycle of carrier signal (i/p) the
diode is forward biased. It will charge the capacitor to the almost peak value of the input voltage.
As soon as the capacitor charges to the peak value, the diode stops conducting. The capacitor will
discharge through R between the positive peaks.
The discharging process continuous until the next positive half- cycle. When the input signal
becomes greater than the capacitor voltage, the diode conducts again and the process repeats itself.
In negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and no current flows. So the capacitor
discharges will continue through resistor ‘R’ at a slow rate, until next positive cycle appears.
The capacitor charges through D and R when the diode is on and it discharges through R when
diode is off. The charging time constant RC should be short as compared to the carrier period 1/fc.
On the other hand the discharging time constant RC should be long enough so that the capacitor
discharges slowly through the load resistance R. But this time constant should not be too long
which will not allow rate of change of the envelope.
The spikes are introduced due to charging and discharging of the capacitor. The spikes can be
reduced to a negligible amount by keeping the time constant RC - large.
There are two types of distortions available in diode detector output.
(i) Diagonal peak clipping
(ii) Negative peak clipping
This type of distortion occurs when the RC time constant of the load circuit is too long. Due to
this the RC circuit cannot follow the fast changes in the modulating envelope. If RC time constant
is too high, the discharge curve becomes approximately horizontal. In that case, negative peaks of
the detected envelope may be completely or partially missing.
The recovered baseband signal is distorted at negative peaks. This type of distortion is known as
diagonal clipping. An optimum value of the time constant has to be chosen which provides a
compromise between the following two facts.
(i) The spikes or fluctuation in a detected envelope should be minimum.
(ii) Negative peaks of detected envelope should not be missed oven partially.
Advantages:
In AM with carrier scheme, there is wastage in both transmitted power and the bandwidth.
In order to save the power in amplitude modulation the carrier may be suppressed, because
it does not contain any useful information. This scheme is called as the DSB-SC-AM.
It contains only LSB and USB terms, resulting that a transmission bandwidth is twice the
frequency of the message signal.
Bandwidth is same as that of AM.
In the above diagram, the carrier signal is supressed. It contains only two side band terms having
the frequency of fc- fm and fc+fm.
Phasor Diagram:
Let us assume the carrier phasor is the reference phasor and oriented in horizontal
direction.
The USB term (AM) maVc/2 cos(wc+wm)t rotates an angular frequency of wm in
anticlockwise direction.
The LSB term (AM) maVc/2 cos(wc-wm)t rotates an angular frequency of wm in
clockwise direction.
The resultant amplitude of the modulated wave at any point is the vector sum of the two
side bands.
USB
wm
o Vc Resultant VAM
-wm
LSB
Power Calculation:
Pt = Pc { 1+ ma2/2}--------(1)
Pt' = ma2Vc2/4R
In DSB-SC 66.7% of power is saved due to the suppression of the carrier wave.
GENERATION OF DSB – SC – AM:
Balanced Modulators:
V'bc = V'm + Vc
= a1 [Vc sinwct +Vm sinwmt] + a2 [Vc2 sinwct +Vm2 sinwmt + 2 Vc sinwct Vm sinwmt]
similarly
= a1 [-Vm sinwmt +Vc sinwct ] + a2 [-Vm2 sinwmt +Vc2 sinwct + 2-Vm sinwmt Vc sinwct ]
Output voltage contains only the two sidebands and the modulating signal. The carrier has been
canceled out. Eqn 5 can be write
Advantages:
Principle of Operation:
Figure 1.33 (a) Illustrating the condition when the Outer diodes are switched on and the inner
diodes are switched off (b) ) Illustrating the condition when the Outer diodes are switched off and
the inner diodes are switched on
The carrier signal acts as switching signal to alternate the polarity of the modulating
signals at the carrier frequency.
Consider the case when there is no modulating signal only carrier signal is present. Diodes
D1 and D2 or D3 and D4 will conduct depending upon the polarity of carrier and will
provide an effective short circuit, thereby providing the signal from reaching the output.
On positive half cycle of carrier diodes D1 and D2 will conduct and a input is connected
through upper portion of output transformer secondary.
If the diodes D1 & D2 are identical, no current flow through the output transformer and no
voltage at the output.
During negative half cycle of carrier diodes D3 & D4 will conduct now the input is
connected to the output through opposite half of output transformers. Again no current
flows through the output transformer, hence output is zero.
When both the carrier and modulating signals are present the carrier signal acts as a
switching signal to alternate the polarity of message signal during positive half cycle of the
carrier. Diodes D1 &D2 conduct while diodes D3 & D4 does not conduct.
During negative half cycle of the carrier voltage diodes D3 & D4 conduct and D1 & D2
does not conduct.
Advantages:
DEMODULATION OF DSB-SC:
Synchronous detection is the process in which the modulated signal is mixed with the
carrier in a non-linear device in a manner that resembles with that of a multiplicative mixer
giving sum and difference frequency components in the output.
The carrier may be generated locally by an oscillator.
The coherent detector uses exact carrier synchronization for retrieving the message signal
from the modulated signal.
The detectors are mainly used for detecting DSB-SC or SSB-SC signals because of their
complicated nature.
The Synchronous detector basically consists of a product modulator with a low pass filter.
The incoming signal is first multiplied with locally generated carrier signal and then
entered through a low pass filter.
It is assumed that the local oscillator is exactly synchronized with the carrier in both
phase and velocity, hence the name synchronous detector.
The low pass filter passes on the first components, while attenuating the second component
Vo(t) = sin(wmt)
Assume the local carrier to have a phase difference with the transmitted carrier.
Dis advantages:
(i) Even though the carrier is suppressed the bandwidth of DSB-SC remains same as
DSB FC
In AM with carrier both the transmitting power and bandwidth are wasted, hence the DSB-
SC-AM scheme has been introduced in which power is saved by suppressing the carrier
component but the bandwidth remains same (ie BW = 2wm).
Further increase in the saving of power is possible by eliminating one sideband in addition
to the carrier component, because the USB and LSB are uniquely related by symmetry
about the carrier frequency so either one side band is enough for transmitting as well as
recovering the useful message.
In addition to that, transmission bandwidth can be reduced into half, if one side band is
suppressed along with the carrier. This scheme is known as SSB-SC-AM.
In order to suppress one of the side bands, the input signal fed to the modulator 1 is 90
degree out of phase with that of signal fed the modulator 2
In the above diagram shows that only one sideband signal is present, the carrier and the upper
sideband signal are supressed.
SSB requires half of the bandwidth of the DSB-SC and use considerably less transmitted power.
BW = fm
The bandwidth of SSB-SC signal is fm same as the bandwidth of the baseband signal.
Power Calculation:
Power in SSB-SC-AM is
In addition to carrier one of the sidebands is also suppressed the power savings is 83.3 % over AM with
carrier.
Generation of SSB-SC:
The quality factor of a single side band filter depends on the carrier frequency, the
frequency separation between sidebands, and the desired attenuation level of the unwanted
sideband. Q = fc (log-1S/20)1/2 / 4∆
Where Q-Quality factor, fc –carrier frequency, S- dB level of suppression of unwanted
sideband, ∆ – frequency separation between the side bands.
In the block diagram, the output of balanced modulator is DSB-SC signal, which is passed
through a sharp cut off filter to eliminate the undesired side band.
The filtered signal is up converted in a mixer (the second balanced modulator) to the final
transmitter frequency and then amplified before being coupled to the antenna.
Linear power amplifiers are used to avoid distorting the side band signal.
For a satisfactory performance of the system the following two requirements have to be
satisfied.
(i) The pass band of the filter should be same as that of the desired sideband.
(ii) The separation between pass band and stop band in the filter should not
exceed twice the maximum frequency component present in the baseband.
The important requirement of this method is the unwanted sideband and whose nearest
frequency component is separated from the desired sideband by twice the lowest
frequency component of the modulating signal.
Initial modulation takes place in the balance modulator at a low frequency (such as
100kz) because of the difficulty of making adequate sideband filters at higher
frequencies.
For transmitting high frequencies, the Q of the tuned circuits must be very high otherwise
Q is to be raised further and after a particular limit, increase in Q is not possible.
To overcome this problem the selective filter it has been replaced by mechanical or
crystal filters which may be used in the frequency range of 500 KHz to 80MHz
respectively.
Mechanical filters are often used because of the following advantages.
(i) Small size
(ii) Good band pass characteristics
(iii) Very good attenuation characteristics.
(iv) Adequate upper frequency limit.
The crystal filters may be cheaper but are preferable only at frequencies greater than
1MHz.
The balanced mixer is similar to the balanced modulator except that its sum frequency is
away from the crystal oscillator frequency.
In the mixer, the frequency of the crystal oscillator is added to the SSB signal, thus the
frequency is increasing to the desired value of transmitting frequency.
The mixer is usually followed by a linear power amplifier to raise the amplitude of the
SSB signal without distortion.
Class ’C’ amplifier is not used because it will distort the signal. Class ’A’ amplifier is less
efficient. Hence Class ’B’ amplifier is used which is more efficient than Class ’A’ output.
One of the modulators receives the input signal directly and another receives with a phase
shift of 90°
The carrier signal is passed through the second modulator with a phase shift of 90° and the
another modulator receives the signal directly.
The carrier signal is cancelled out in this circuit by both of the balanced modulators and
the unwanted sidebands cancel at the output of the summing amplifiers (Adder).
Vm(t) = Vmsin(wm+ )t
Vm(t) = Vm cos wmt ---(4)
Merits:
De Merits:
In spite of these merits, the phasing method is less popular than the filter method. The reason is
that the following constraints should be precisely met in order to suppress the carrier and undesired
sideband.
(i) Each balanced modulator need to be carefully balanced in order to suppress the carrier.
(ii) Each modulator should have equal sensitivity to the baseband signal.
(iii) The carrier phase shifting network must provide an exact 90° phase shift at the carrier
frequency.
It is the modification of the phasing method ie; overcome the limitation of phasing method
It is required AF phase shift network to operate over a large range of audio frequencies but
also retains the advantages like its ability to generate SSB at any frequency and use of low
audio frequency.
However this method is not used often commercially because of its complexity.
Modulators BM1and BM2 both have the un shifted modulating signal as inputs. One
balance modulator takes the audio frequency sub carrier with a 90° shift from the
oscillator.
Second balance modulator BM2 receives the sub carrier signal directly from the oscillator.
Instead of trying to phase shift the whole range of audio frequencies, this method
combined with AF carrier which lies in the middle of audio frequency.
The low pass filter at the output of BM1 and BM2 with cut off frequency ensures the input
to the balanced modulator BM3 and BM4.
The output of BM3 andBM4 gives the desired sideband suppression.
Figure 1.41 Block diagram for Weavers Method
Vm(t) = Vm sinwmt--------(1)
The low pass filter in the BM1 and BM2 eliminates the upperbands of the modulator.
Assume Vm = Vo = 1
Other two terms are cancelled each other because it is out of phase with each other.
Vo = 2cos(wc + wo - wm)t
The final RF output frequency is fc + fo-fm which is essentially the lower sideband of RF carrier
fc +fo .If the upper side band is desired, interchange the inputs of carrier to BM3 and BM4 in which case
the final RF carrier fc – fo.
Advantages:
(i) It does not require a sideband filter or any wide band audio phase shift network.
(ii) Correct output may be maintained without use of critical parts or adjustments.
(iii) Low frequency signals are also used.
(iv) Side bands may be easily switched.
Disadvantages:
Synchronous detector:
The output of the non linear device acts as multiplying device is given by
The first term of the output is modulating frequency signal that is passed on to the output. The
second component is a RF component and is attenuated by the filter.
Assume the local carrier to have a phase difference with the transmitted carrier.
For a SSB-SC signal with lower sideband only. The input signal is
After low pass filtering all wc and 2wc terms are filtered thus the output will be
The synchronous detection is effective only when locally generated carrier is properly
synchronized with the transmitted carrier.
In eqn 3 the output signal is multiplied by either cos ∅ and sin∅ .
When ∅ is time independent, there is no distortion rather there is only attenuation.
But in general ∅ randomly varies with respect to time due to random variation of
propagation media. This causes undesirable distortion in the detected output.
In order to avoid distortion, and to ensure exact synchronization, a pilot carrier is inserted.
This is separated at the receiver and is used to synchronise the carrier.
Advantages:
(i) Bandwidth of SSB is half of DSB-SC –AM (ie Bandwidth = fm). Thus twice the number
of channels can be accommodated at a given frequency spectrum.
(ii) The power of the suppressed carrier and sideband is saved. Hence transmitter power
requirement in SSB is reduced.
(iii) No carrier is transmitted, hence possibility of interference with other channels are avoided.
(iv) Because of narrow bandwidth of SSB, the effect of noise at the receiver circuits is reduced.
This gives better quality of reception in SSB.
(v) It eliminates the possibility of fading.
Dis Advantages:
(i) Transmission and reception of SSB becomes more complex and the required performance
standard is very high.
(ii) SSB receivers require precise tuning than conventional AM receivers.
Application:
Let us consider the modulating signals of very large bandwidth (such as Video signals,
TV, Telegraphic signals and high speed data signals) having the very low frequency
component along with high frequency signal.
These components give rise to sideband, very close to the carrier frequency which are
difficult to remove it.
Thus it is not possible to go till the extreme and fully suppress one complete sideband in
case of television signals.
The low frequency component of video signal contains the most important information of
the picture and any effort to completely suppress the lower sideband would result in phase
distortion at these frequencies.
This difficulty is overcome by a scheme known as vestigial sideband modulation (VSB).
In VSB, the desired sideband is allowed to pass completely. Whereas just a small portion
(called trace or vestige) of the undesired sideband is allowed. The transmitted vestige of
the undesired sideband compensates for the loss of the wanted sideband.
VSB is a compromise between DSB – SC and SSB-SC. It inherits the advantages of
DSB – SC and SSB-SC but avoids the disadvantages.
Where the plus sign corresponds to the transmission of a vestige of the upper sideband and the
minus sign corresponds to the transmission of a vestige of the lower sideband.
The signal m’(t) in the quadrature component of S(t) is obtained by passing the message signal
m(t) through a filter whose frequency response (f) satisfies the following requirement.
Transmission Bandwidth:
The product modulator generates DSB-SC signal from the message and carrier.
The band pass filter is designed in such a way that it passes one sideband almost
completely and passes a portion (vestige) of other sideband.
The output of the band pass filter is VSB signal.
Demodulation of VSB:
The first step in coherent detection process involves multiplying the modulated signal by a
locally generated sinusoidal wave which is synchronous with the carrier wave.
V(t) = S(t) . Vc' coswct ------(1)
Fourier transform of V (t)
V(f) = Vc'/ 2[ S(f-fc) + S(f+fc)] ------(2)
V(f) = Vc'/ 2[Vc/2 {M(f-2fc) H(f-fc)+M(f) H(f-fc)} + Vc/2 {M(f) H(f+fc)+M(f+2fc) H(f+fc)}]
It will be passed through LPF, the higher frequency terms are eliminated.
Advantages of VSB-SC:
(i) It has bandwidth greater than SSB but less than DSB-system.
(ii) Low frequencies near fc are transmitted without any attenuation.
(iii) The filter required need not have a sharp cut – off.
Application of VSB-SC:
VSB is used in television for transmission of picture signal since low frequencies near fc
represent significant picture details.
Consider a modulated wave S1 (t) whose spectrum is centred on a carrier frequency f1 and
the requirement is to translate it upward in frequency such that its carrier frequency is
changed from f1 to a new value f2. This requirement may be accomplished using mixer.
Mixer is a device that consists of a product modulator followed by a band pass filter.
Depending on whether the incoming carrier frequency f1 is translated upward or
downward, there are two different conversion techniques.
Up conversion
Down conversion
Mixer has a product modulator and a BPF. The product modulator generates desired
modulated signal and its output is passed through the BPF to select the required frequency
band, thus the resultant required frequency translated signal is obtained.
Up conversion:
In this case the translated carrier frequency f2 is greater than the incoming carrier
frequency f1. The required local oscillator frequency fo is defined as
f2 = f1 + fo ; fo = f2- f1.
Down conversion:
In this second case the translated carrier frequency f2 is smaller than the incoming carrier
frequency f1. The required local oscillator frequency fo is defined as
f2 = f1 - fo ; fo = f1- f2.
The shaded part of the spectrum defines the wanted modulated signal S2(t) and the un
shaded part of this spectrum defines the associated image signal .
In this case the translated carrier frequency f2 has to be larger than W (ie one half of the
bandwidth of the modulated signal) to avoid sideband overlap.
In this case the mixer is referred to as frequency down converter.
Each signal input is passed through a low pass filter which is remove the high frequency
components that do not contribute much toward signals representation, but are capable of
disturbing other message signals that share the common channels.
These LPF may be omitted only if the input signals are sufficiently band limited initially.
Modulators:
The filtered signals are applied to modulators which shift the frequency range of the
signals. So as to occupy mutually exclusive frequency intervals.
The frequency translations are obtained from the carrier supply.
The most widely used method of modulation in FDM is SSB modulation, which in the
case of voice signals requires a bandwidth that is approximately equal to that of original
signal.
In practice, each voice input is usually assigned a bandwidth of 4 KHz.
The band pass filters following the modulators are used to restrict the band of each
modulated wave to its prescribed range.
The resulting band pass filters output are next combined in parallel to form the input to the
common channel.
At the receiving terminal, a bank of band-pass filters with their inputs connected in parallel
is used to separate the message signal on a frequency spectrum.
Finally the original message signals are recovered by individual demodulators.
Generally non- linear distortion is produced by non- linear elements in the channel.
Practical channels and electronic devices such as amplifiers often exhibit non- linear
transfer characteristics that result in non- linear signal distortion.
Non- linear devices, in general act linearly when the input x(t) is small. But distort the
signal when input amplitude is large.
To investigate the nature of non- linear distortion let us assume that the transfer
characteristic of the non- linear device can be modelled as
Y(t) = a1x(t) + a2x2(t) +a3 x3(t) + a4x4(t) +……… -------(1)
The higher powers of x(t) in this equation gives rise to the non-linear distortion.
Fourier transform of eqn 1 is
Y(f) = a1x(f) + a2x*x (f) +a3 x*x*x (f) + ………-------(2)
Now if x(t) is band limited in w, the output of linear network will contain no frequency
beyond |f| <W
But in non-linear case the output includes x*x(f) which is band limited in 2W, x*x*x(f)
which is band limited in 3W and so on.
The nonlinearities have therefore created output frequency that was not present in the
input.
Furthermore since x*x(f) may contain components for |f| < W . This portion of the
spectrum overlaps that of x(f).
By using filtering technique the added component at |f| > W can be removed.
But there is no way to get rid of the added components at |f| < W. These in fact constitute
the nonlinear distortion.
Therefore the non- linear distortion appears as harmonics of the input of the wave.
If the input is sum of the two cosine waves say cosw1t +cosw2t.then the output will contain
harmonic distortion in terms at frequencies 2f1, 2f2 , cross product terms (intermodal
distortion) at frequency f1±f2 , f1±2f2, 2f1±f2 and so forth.
These sum and difference frequencies are designated as intermodulation distortion
generalizing the intermodulation effect
If x(t) = x1 (t) +x2(t) then Y(t) contains the cross product of x1 (t) x2 (t).
In the frequency domain x1 (t) x2 (t) becomes x1 (f) * x2 (f) even though x1 (f) , x2 (f) may
be separated in frequency, x1 (f) * x2 (f) can overlap both of them producing cross talk.
Crosstalk:
It occurs when one signal cross over the frequency band of another signal due to non-linear
distortion in the channel.
The non-linear distortion is of particular concern in
(i) Telephone transmission system
(ii) In systems where a number of different signals are multiplexed and
transmitted over the same channel.
Remedy:
To minimize the non-linear distortion is to keep the signal within the linear operating
range of the transfer characteristics
It can be accomplished by two non-linear devices (1) Compressor (2) Expander.
A compressor essentially the amplitude range of an input signal. So that it fails with in the
linear range of the channel.
If the compressed signal falls within the linear range of the channel, the signal at the
channel output is proportional to Tcomp[x(t)] which is distorted by the compressor but not
the channel.
Ideally then the expander has a characteristics that perfectly complements the compressor.
So the expanded output is proportional to Texp{Tcomp[x(t)]} = x(t) as desired.
The joint use of compressing and expanding is called compensation.
Problems:
(1). A 400 Watt carrier is modulated to a depth of 75% Calculate the total power in the modulated
wave?
Solution
ma = 75% = 0.75
Pt = 400[1+(0.75)2/2]
Pt = 512.4W
(2). A broadcast radio Tx radiates 10kw when the modulation percentage is 60. How much of this is
carrier power?
Solution
ma = 60% = 0.6
Pc = 10000/[1+(0.6)2/2]
Pc = 8.47Kw
(3). A Tx radiates 9kw without modulation and 10.125 kw after modulation. Determine depth of
modulation?
Solution
ma = ?
ma = 0.5
(4) A 1MHz carrier with an amplitude of 1 volt peak is modulated by a 1KHz signal with ma = 0.5
sketch the voltage spectrum?
Solution
Given
1V
0.25V 0.25V
Solution
Given
(6). A modulating signal 20 sin(2 * 103t) is used to modulate a carrier signal 40 sin(2 * 104t). Find
out (i) Modulation index (ii) Percentage Modulation (iii) Frequencies of the sideband components
and their amplitudes (iv) Bandwidth of the modulating signal (v) Also draw the spectrum of the
AM wave.
Solution
Given
fm = 1kHz
fc = 10kHz
Side band voltage(Upper & Lower) = (ma Vc)/ 2 = 0.5 * 40/2 = 10V
(v) Spectrum
40V
10V 10V
9 10 11 Frequency in kHz
(7) For an AM DSB-SC wave with peak un modulated carrier voltage Vc = 10V, a load resistance R L
= 10 Ω and a modulation co-efficient ma=1. Determine
Solution
Given
Carrier voltage Vc = 10 V
Load resistance RL = 10 Ω
ma = 1
= 100 /2*10
Pc = 5w
= 1*5 / 4 = 1.25w
Power
Pc = 5w
1.25 w 1.25 w
Frequency in (Hz)
Vmax = 22 V ; Vmin = 2V
Determine (a) Peak amplitude of the upper and lower side frequencies (b) Peak amplitude of the un
modulated carrier (c) Peak change in the amplitude of the envelope. (d) Co-efficient of modulation (e) %
of modulation.
Solution
Given
Vmax = 22 V
Vmin = 2 V
(e) % ma = 83%
(9). For an AM DSB-SC Tx with an unmodulated carrier power Pc = 100w that is modulated
simultaneously by three modulating signals with co-efficients of modulation m1 = 0.2 , m2 = 0.4 and m3 =
0.5. Determine (a) Total co efficient of modulation (b) Upper and Lower Side Band power (c) Total
transmitted power.
Solution
Given
mt = 0.67
(10). The antenna current of an AM transmitter, modulated to a depth of 40% by an audio sine wave is
11 A. it increases to 12A as a result of simultaneous modulation by another audio sine wave. What is the
modulation index due to this second wave?
Solution
Given
(a) It = Ic ([1 + ( ) /2
Ic = It / ([1 + ( ) /2
= 11 / ([1 + (0.4) /2
Ic = 10.58 A
mt = 0.76
m2 = −
m2 = √0.76 − 0.4
m2 = 0.646.
(11). A 1000kHz carrier is simultaneously AM modulated with 300Hz, 800Hz and 1.5kHz audio sine
waves. What will be the frequencies present in the output?
Solution
Given
Frequencies in the output – fc , fc+fm1, fc+ f m2, fc +f m3, fc-f m1, fc-f m2 , fc-f m3.
(12). How many AM broadcast stations can be accommodated in a 100kHz bandwidth if the highest
frequency modulating a carrier is 5kHz.
Solution
Given