TESTING PROCEDURES FOR RELAYING FUNCTIONS

A Project

Presented to the faculty of the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

California State University, Sacramento

Submitted in partial satisfaction of

the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

in

Electrical and Electronic Engineering

by

Aaron Snelson Wernecke

FALL
2016
 © 2016

Aaron Snelson Wernecke

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

ii
 TESTING PROCEDURES FOR RELAYING FUNCTIONS

A Project

by

Aaron Snelson Wernecke

Approved by:

__________________________________, Committee Chair

Mohammad Vaziri

____________________________
Date

__________________________________, Second Reader

Preetham Kumar

____________________________
Date

iii
Student: Aaron Snelson Wernecke

I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University

format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to

be awarded for the project.

__________________________, Graduate Coordinator ___________________

Preetham Kumar Date

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

iv
 Abstract

of

TESTING PROCEDURES FOR RELAYING FUNCTIONS

by

Aaron Snelson Wernecke

Relaying elements from different manufacturers use different concepts and algorithms to

produce the same results. A significant variety of commonly used relaying elements, that

are used for protection of power system elements, exist in Electro Mechanical (EM),

Solid State (SS), as well as Micro-Processor (MP) based relays. Therefore, it is

advantageous to develop standardized routines for testing of various relaying elements

performing commonly used protective functions offered by EM, SS, and modern MP

based relays. In this project report, a standardized approach to development of test

routines for commonly used relaying elements, using modern test equipment and

software, will be presented, analyzed, and documented. Modern laboratory test

equipment and associated software capable of producing current and voltage signals of

various magnitudes and frequencies necessary for testing relaying elements will be used

for implementation of standardized test routines.

v
Various IEEE papers written by professionals in the field of relaying applications where

utilized. Also the functionality of the Omicron Test Universe software was used to

demonstrate the capabilities of various test set equipment available to perform the

procedures presented in the project report.

The approach presented in the following analysis for testing relay functions can be

utilized as a guideline for development of automated test routines for various types of MP

based relaying elements offered by the industry independent of their make, model, or

manufacturer. Non typical relaying element and concepts that may exist in relays made

for special functions are excluded in the scope of this project report.

_______________________, Committee Chair

Mohammad Vaziri

_______________________
Date

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank all of the professors throughout my education that helped me to

truly understand the material that I was studying.

While going to Solano Community College my teachers in mathematics Will Martinelli,

Svetlana Podkolzina and Dorothy Hawkes helped me through the confusing maze of

Calculus and Differential Equations. In Physics Mr. Johnston and Melanie Lutz where

two of the best teachers you could ask for as far as explaining all the complicated

equations necessary to understand how the universe around us functions.

As I transferred to Sacramento State University, I met many other excellent professors.

Russ Tatro, Turan Gonen, Mohammad Vaziri and Mahyar Zarghami all helped teach the

intricacies of electrical theory and how the power system functions.

Without their assistance I would not have become the engineer that I am today. I owe

them all a debt of gratitude.

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... vii

List of Tables .............................................................................................................. ix

List of Figures ............................................................................................................... x

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION ….……………………………………………………………. 1

2. RELAY TOLERANCES AND TESTING EQUIPMENT .................................... 5

2.1 Relay Tolerances ................................................................................... 5

2.2 Testing Equipment ................................................................................ 7

3. OVERCURRENT ELEMENT TESTING ........................................................... 10

4. VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY ELEMENT TESTING ................................... 16

4.1 Under/Over-Voltage Element Testing ................................................ 16

4.2 Frequency Element Testing ................................................................ 17

5. IMPEDANCE AND DIFFERENTIAL ELEMENT TESTING .......................... 20

5.1 Impedance (Distance) Element Testing .............................................. 20

5.2 Differential Element Testing............................................................... 22

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS ............................................................................... 30

References ................................................................................................................... 32

viii
 LIST OF TABLES
Tables Page

1. List of Relay Elements……………………… . .………………………………. 4

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figures Page

1. Representation of a Ramping Function………………………………………. 11

2. Representation of an Inverse Time Curve……………………………………. 14

3. Representation of the Impedance Plane and Zones of Protection……………. 20

4. Representation of a Differential Slope Characteristic………………….….…. 22

5. Representation of a Basic Differential Element……………………………… 24

6. Representation of the Differential Alpha Plane Characteristic….…………… 27

x
 1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Collaboration between academia and industry has resulted in a new state of the art relay

testing laboratory that has been created at California State, Sacramento (CSUS). This

laboratory is intended to serve as a practical educational environment in support of

classes related to power system protection as well as a research and training center for

graduate students and members of industry. The laboratory utilizes programmable test

equipment that is capable of producing current and voltage signals necessary for testing

different types of EM and MP based relays that are commonly used by the industry. Lab

equipment is capable of testing a large variety of relaying functions, also known as relay

“elements” or “types”, offered by different manufacturers.

Protective relays have long been used as integral elements for protection of various

power system components such as: lines, transformers, motors, generators, reactors,

capacitors, and others. The main function of a relay is to detect abnormal operating

conditions in the system or the component that it is monitoring and initiate a trip (or

alarm) signal to its associated breaker (or annunciator) to de-energize the component (or

to flag the abnormality) before any damage can occur.

Earlier generations of relays were EM types. While these relays are extremely reliable

and are still in use today, they have limited functionality as they are typically designed to
 2

perform a single task. Also these relays are designed to only monitor one of the phases of

a multiphase system. Thus, for a 3-phase system three separate relays would have to be

utilized in order to monitor all three phases simultaneously.

The next generation of relays were electronic types, also known as Solid State (SS)

relays. In these relays the mechanical functions were replaced with electronic circuitry,

eliminating the problems of wear and tear. SS relays were still limited in their

functionality as they were usually designed for one or maybe two functions as well as

typically only being able to monitor a single phase, limiting the usefulness of their

design.

The modern generations of relays were Micro-Processor (MP) types also known as

numerical or digital relays. This class of relay is capable of performing multiple and new

functions, which were not offered by EM or SS relays. Additional functions/features

include: multiple relaying elements for all 3 phases, “Oscillography and event recording,

multiple setting groups, multiple input/output contacts, metering, monitoring, self-

monitoring, communications and programmable logic” for user designed automatic

functions. [1]

The relay testing laboratory developed at Sacramento State University utilizes

computerized test equipment known as the Omicron® CMC-356 test sets for relay

testing. The test set is capable of producing currents and voltages at varying magnitudes,
 3

phase

angles, and frequencies. This gives the student or researcher the ability to produce any

signals that are necessary to test various types of EM, SS, or MP based relaying functions

that are commonly being used in the industry.

This is important since the industry is still in a transitional mode in utilization of various

types of modern relays in their facilities. While MP relays are becoming more dominant,

EM and solid state relays can still be frequently encountered due to situations where “For

retrofit, it is easiest to replace existing relays with identical types. None of the existing

equipment has to be adapted and the personnel can still deal with the known equipment.”

[2]

The following sections of this project report will discuss developing a standardized

approach for testing various commonly used relay elements that exist in EM, SS and MP

relays. These relay elements are the fundamental units that are employed in practically all

relay protection schemes. These include current elements, voltage elements, frequency

elements, impedance elements and differential elements.

Chapter 2 will cover relay tolerances and testing equipment. Chapter 3 will cover current

elements [3]. Voltage and frequency elements are discussed in Chapter 4 [4, 5].

Impedance and differential elements are handled in Chapter 5 [6]. The conclusion is

presented in Chapter 6.
 4

Table 1 refers to the commonly used relay elements examined in this project report. The

table shows whether the elements are capable of forward/reverse directionality as well as

operating on positive, negative and zero sequence quantities:

Table 1. List of Relay Elements

Element Type Directional Sequence

Instantaneous
50 Y +, -, 0
Overcurrent
Time
51 N +, -, 0
Overcurrent
Under-
27 N +, -, 0
voltage
59 Over-voltage N +, -, 0
Over/Under
81 N N/A
Frequency
21 Distance Y +, 0
87 Differential Y +, -
 5

Chapter 2

RELAY TOLERANCES AND TESTING EQUIPMENT

2.1 Relay Tolerances

The main objectives for testing relays are: to ensure that they are functioning correctly

for the input signals and to determine if the results of the procedure fall within acceptable

tolerances. The tolerances are the limits in the variations of input signals that the tested

element must operate on to be within the specifications given by the manufacturer of the

relay.

In testing relaying elements, tolerances usually fall within two classes. The first class of

tolerances are for the pickup values, and the second class of tolerances relate to the

timing of the relay elements. For testing pickup values, the tolerances can usually be

given in current, voltage, frequency, ohms, and power (real/reactive), although other

variables may be encountered. When testing the timing of relay elements the tolerance

can be expressed in terms of seconds or cycles since both are measurements of time. But

when using cycles the timing in terms of seconds depends on the frequency of the system

being tested.

Tolerances in Ohms (such as in distance/impedance elements) or power (such as in

Watt/Var elements), may be specified in terms of Ohms, Watts, and Vars, as well as in

terms of current and voltage. This is because the element is operating either based on the
 6

ratio of current and voltage (such as in distance elements) or based on their product (such

as in Watt/Var elements). Note that the tolerance is the important factor, since it refers to

the variable that operates the relay which may be any of the variables of current, voltage,

frequency, Ohms, or Watts/Vars described.

Some relay elements may also have a setting that is given in per-unit (p.u.) values. If such

cases, it will be necessary to determine how the p.u. value is being calculated. Thus the

necessary current or voltage values can be injected into the relay based on the conversion

from secondary values to p.u. values. This also means the tolerance of such an element

will be given in percentage of the p.u. value that the element is set to.

For timing of elements, seconds and cycles can typically be converted from one to the

other based on the frequency of the system (60 Hz or 50 Hz). An exception arises when

testing frequency elements. Frequency elements are set to trip for abnormal conditions

such as; 61 Hz or 59 Hz on a 60 Hz system. Therefore, then the conversion between

seconds and cycles must be based on the element’s frequency set point in order to

accurately determine the proper delay.

The tolerances of relay elements can be a combination of an offset (which is a plus/minus

tolerance independent of the value being tested), and a percentage (which is a plus/minus

value depending on the setting of the element). Also note that the tolerances in timing of
 7

elements can be a combination of seconds and cycles (where the offset is in terms of

cycles and the percentage is in terms of seconds). Thus, it may be necessary to do

additional calculations to determine what the proper deviances from the nominal value

are in order to verify if the elements operates within acceptable tolerances.

2.2 Testing Equipment

Modern day testing equipment typically involves utilizing a test set, as well as testing

software that is run on a computer that interfaces with the test set. When testing MP

relays, the computer running the test set can also interface with the relay being tested to

help monitor the conditions of the relay during testing.

The software that runs the test set can be programmed with multiple functions for

enhanced testing. In this report, the discussions will focus on utilization of the Omicron

CMC-356 test set and the Omicron Test Universe software package. The software

package is equipped with several modules that are useful for testing. These modules

include Ramping (R) and State Sequencer (STSQ) modules which are used for testing

pickup values and timing respectively. It also includes more specialized modules used for

testing time overcurrent, distance and differential elements among others. Test sets and

their associated software packages are also available from other manufacturers while the

core principals are the same.

 8

A “Ramping” (R) module is used to ramp current, voltage, or frequency from a value

below the pickup setting of the relay element to a value above its setting. This determines

the actual (tested) magnitude of the input variable initiating the trip of the relay element.

The “overcurrent” module is specifically designed for testing the pickup and timing of

time-overcurrent elements as well as their interaction with instantaneous overcurrent

elements. The “State Sequencer” (STSQ) is a module that utilizes different “states” of

operation to determine timing. Thus a pre-fault state is created where the system would

be operating under normal steady state conditions. Then after a specified amount of time

the STSQ switches to a fault condition where the conditions of the test step into an

abnormal condition which would cause the relay to trip. Once the step into abnormal

conditions begins the test set starts a timer. This state continues until a “trip” signal

initiated by the relay is received by the test set to end the state. Using the STSQ module,

the test set is able to evaluate the time difference between the start of the abnormal

condition, and when the relay element initiates its “trip” command. .

For most testing purposes, such as overcurrent, over/under voltage or frequency, the R

function and the STSQ module are sufficient. For testing elements such as impedance or

power where ratio or multiplication of voltage and current is required, the test set has

been designed with the capability of holding either voltage or current at a constant value

to avoid measurement errors as one of the variables approaches zero. It should also be

noted that
 9

the differential module of the test set is capable of comparing “Operate” and “Restraint”

quantities and evaluating the slope of the differential element’s characteristic curve.
 10

Chapter 3

OVERCURRENT ELEMENT TESTING

In the following section overcurrent elements will be discussed. This will include

instantaneous as well as inverse time elements, whether they are non-directional versus

directional in nature and if they operate on negative and zero sequence values. Over as

well as Under current elements in protective schemes can be present depending on the

desired application. The scope of this section is to only cover Overcurrent applications as

they are by far the most prevalent.

Overcurrent elements are the most commonly used form of protective function used by

the industry. They can be instantaneous/definite time or inverse time overcurrent

elements. They can also be single (or three) phase, directional or non-directional.

Directionality of the elements is usually determined by comparison of the actuating

current relative to a polarizing voltage or current. The element can assert based on

positive, negative, or zero sequence current values. Relay type (single/three phase),

directionality, and actuating current (positive, negative, or zero sequence) should be

known for proper testing.

The simplest case is an instantaneous, non-directional, single phase, positive sequence

actuating overcurrent relay. In this case only the pickup value of the relay needs to be
 11

known. In order to test the pickup value, a “ramping” function that linearly increases the

current from a value well below the pickup value to one well above is utilized.

During testing, the test set will ramp the current up until a trip is initiated by the relay.

The exact value of the current for which the trip occurred is recorded as the pickup value

of the relay. Figure 1 shows an example of a ramping function. As suggested by the

figure, ramp begins with an offset that holds for a specific length of time at the initial

value that the ramp is set at. The test set will then increment the amplitude of the

actuating signal (in this case current) in pre-determined steps. Once an increment in

amplitude is performed, a delay is implemented where the test set will hold the amplitude

at the specified level to see if a trip signal is received from the relay.

14.5
14.0 Expected Pickup Zone
13.5

13.0
Pickup at 14 Amps
12.5
Increment Delay
12.0

C 11.5
U
R
R 11.0
EN Offset
T
A
2.25
M
P 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0
LI
T TIME (s)
U
D
E
Figure 1. Representation of a Ramping Function
 12

If a trip signal is not received, then the test set will increment the amplitude to the next

level in the ramp and repeat the process. This is performed until a trip signal is received

from the relay at which point the final level of the amplitude of the signal will be

recorded as the pickup value and compared to the tolerance of the relay for acceptability.

When choosing the increment and delay variables shown in Figure 1, careful

consideration should be made to ensure that the step size in the ramp is smaller than the

tolerance of the element. If it is larger, then there is a possibility that the test set will skip

past the pickup value of the element and not sense the pickup until it has already ramped

to a level outside of the tolerance zone. Time delay should be selected so that it is long

enough for the element to have adequate time to initiate the trip signal and close (or open)

the associated contact.

If the instantaneous element is directional, then a polarizing signal (voltage or current)

must also be applied along with the actuating current. The phase angles between the

actuating current and the polarizing signal (voltage or current) are compared to a per-set

angle known as the Maximum Torque Angle (MTA). The line perpendicular to the MTA,

known as the “zero torque line”, defines the boundary where the relay determines if the

current is in the forward or reverse direction.

 13

The MTA is a preset value depending on the application in EM and SS relays. “A

commonly used connection type for directional phase overcurrent relays is the 90 degree

connection in which the polarizing voltage as compared to the actuating current at its

unity power factor positon at 90 degrees. (VBC vs. IA for A phase real)” [3]. This design

is to ensure existence of adequate polarizing voltage for the directional phase overcurrent

relay (to be able to respond as a back up to the ground relay) during a single phase to

ground fault. A directional ground overcurrent relay with a different concept will also

respond to the same fault.

For testing a time-overcurrent element, the “overcurrent” module of the Omicron® test

set software known as “Test Universe” will be used. The overcurrent module can be

programmed for the time delays associated with various types of current vs time inverse

curves offered by commonly used relays. Figure 2 shows samples of inverse

characteristic for 2 different time dials (TD).

 14

Figure 2. Representation of an Inverse Time Curve

The inverse time curves are based on equations such as the one suggested by Equation

(1).

B D E
t = TD �A + M−C + (M−C)2 + (M−C)3 � (1)

Where M is the pickup value, TD is the time dial and A, B, C, D, and E are constants.

With proper curve, pickup value, and time dial as input, several points along the curve

can be tested. The module can also test based on negative or zero sequence currents as

needed. The easiest way to test for negative sequence element would be to inject ACB

currents on a relay designed to measure ABC values as positive sequence. For zero

sequence elements, all three phases can be set to the same angle to create zero sequence
 15

current. Note that the pickup values for negative and/or zero sequence values may need to

be divided by 3 if the relay element uses 3I2 (or 3I0) as the pickup.
 16

Chapter 4

VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY ELEMENT TESTING

4.1 Under/Over-Voltage Element Testing

Voltage elements can be instantaneous, definite time, or can have an inverse-time

characteristic like their current element counterparts. Normally, only instantaneous and

definite time elements are utilized. “Protective devices should operate as fast as possible

to minimize the undesirable effects of faults to customers and equipment. Instantaneous

or fast time operations will have less undesirable effects as compared to inverse operating

time characteristics for voltage elements.” [4] Similar to current elements, voltage

elements can be based on positive, negative or zero sequence input values. They can also

be based on the voltage of a single phase, or all three phases.

Three phase voltage elements can take positive, negative or zero sequence quantities as

their pickup values. There are also elements that only take voltage magnitude of all three

phases independently regardless of their phase angles. In this case a voltage dip/rise in

any of the 3 phases below/above the pickup value and the tolerance of the element will

cause a trip.

For testing positive, negative and zero sequence voltage elements, the angles between the

three phases can be varied to create the proper sequence when compared to the pickup
 17

value to initiate tripping. For example, to create negative sequence voltage the phase

angles between any two phases may be swapped. For zero sequence the phase angles of

all three phases should be equal to each other

4.2 Frequency Element Testing

The frequency of the voltage input signal is varied to determine pickup and timing values

of a frequency element. To determine pickup, the frequency is varied through a ramping

function, where in this case the frequency, rather than magnitude, of voltage is varied.

For the timing of a frequency element the test can be a bit more complicated. Some MP

relays determine the timing of a frequency element in terms of seconds, while others

resolve the time delay in terms of cycles. If the timing is in terms of cycles then the

period of the test frequency needs to be taken into account to determine the correct time

delay in seconds. According to Stringer, “There are two separate timing operations

occurring simultaneously--that of the relay and the one for the test set.” [5] “The test set

may provide a 58-Hz signal to the relay while it is timing at 60 Hz. Thus, the timing

results must be converted to the appropriate timing base for accurate analysis of the

results.” [5]

For example, consider an over-frequency element that is set to trip at a frequency of 61

Hz with a time delay of 60 cycles. A STSQ module is used that starts with a voltage at

the
 18

frequency of 60 Hz and then steps to a voltage at the frequency of 62 Hz and begins

timing. At a frequency of 62 Hz, a time delay of 60 cycles would yield:

60 cycles
62 Hz
= 0.9677 seconds (2)

That is, the time delay is slightly less than 1 second, which is the time delay when the

system was operating at 60 Hz before the abnormal condition occurred. The opposite is

true when testing under-frequency elements. If the frequency of testing was to be at 58

Hz, then the time delay would become:

60 cycles
58 Hz
= 1.0345 seconds (3)

The difference between the time delay when the system is operating at 60 Hz and 62 Hz

(or 58 Hz) may seem minimal, because the time delay itself is relatively short in duration

at 60 cycles. If the time delay becomes larger, then the calculation error described above

becomes more significant. For example, if the over-frequency element in the above

example had a delay of 3600 cycles instead of 60 cycles, then the time delay in seconds

would become:

3600 cycles
62 Hz
= 58.0645 seconds (4)

Noting that the time delay would be 60 seconds when the operating frequency is 60 Hz.

This shows that the discrepancy between the measured time delay (based on a 60 Hz

system) increases as the time delay (measured in cycles) increases as the “testing

frequency” deviates from 60 Hz. This can lead to erroneous time delay measurements

when testing the timing delays of frequency elements. Similar errors can be encountered
 19

when the testing frequency becomes lower than the nominal frequency of 60 Hz and long

time delays are employed. The solution is to convert the delay which is specified in

number of cycles into a delay in terms of seconds based on the testing frequency. With

the time delay converted into seconds, an accurate measurement of the delay of the

element would be possible.

A solution is to convert the delay in terms of cycles into the one in terms of seconds

based on the test frequency as it deviates from the pickup value of the element. That way

an accurate measurement of the delay of the element is possible.

Another complexity encountered when testing frequency elements is the delay between

detection of a faulted condition and the actual closure of output contact. This can depend

on the actual time when the test set initiates the frequency change to the relay. “The

frequency change can occur at either a positive-going zero crossing, a negative-going

zero crossing, or at the point on the waveform when the test is initiated” [4]. Also “The

timer is normally stopped upon the sensed operation of an external contact. Each test set

utilizes an input contact from the relay to stop its timer. The test set may require as much

as 8 ms to sense the contact input before its timer is stopped.” [4]

 20

Chapter 5

IMPEDANCE AND DIFFERENTIAL ELEMENT TESTING

5.1 Impedance (Distance) Element Testing

Impedance relay elements require both voltage and current inputs to measure impedance.

The impedance being measured by the relay is plotted on an impedance plane as shown

by Figure 3.

X (IMAGINARY Z) Zone 2 Reach

Forward Direction
(Zone 1 & 2) Zone 2
Line Angle
Zone 1 Reach

Zone 1

R (REAL Z)
Zone 3 Reach Zone 3

Reverse Direction
(Zone 3)

Figure 3. Representation of the Impedance Plane and Zones of Protection

The points near the origin refer to small values of impedance, while points lying away

from the origin indicate larger values. Depending on the phase angle of the current as
 21

compared to that of the voltage which is normally taken as the reference, the measured

impedance by the relay could be in the forward or reverse direction as shown by Figure 3.

There are two options for testing an impedance element. One is to hold the current

constant while varying the voltage. This is useful when measuring impedance values that

are close to the origin. As the voltage becomes increasingly small, the value of

impedance also follows as indicated by Equation (2).

Voltage V
Impedance = Current , or Z = I
(5)

The other option is to hold the voltage constant while varying the current which is better

suited for larger impedance values.

Note that there are settable time delays for different impedance zones of protection, with

Zone 1 being instantaneous while Zones 2 & 3 have finite settable time delays. Also note

that for EM relays the speed of the relay depends on the location of the fault relative to

the relay with the following typical boundaries:

“For faults at the relay location, with operating currents greater than 50 Amperes the

relay will operate in 0.5 cycles on a 60 Hz basis.” [6] For faults between 85-90% of the

relay reach setting and at an operating current of 10 amperes the relay will operate in 2-3

cycles on a 60 Hz basis.” [6] “Below 10 amperes or between 90% and 100% of the relay

reach setting, the relay operating time is indeterminate.” [6] SS and MP based relays are

immune to these effects since their operations are independent of mechanical devices.
 22

5.2 Differential Element Testing

Commonly used differential elements operate based on what is defined as a slope

characteristic. Two variables, the “operate current” and “restraint current”, are plotted on

a graph and the operating zone falls above the characteristic line as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Representation of a Differential Slope Characteristic

The slope that defines the operation of the element is typically given as a percentage.

Thus for a slope of 25%, the equation of the characteristic line is given by Equation (3).

Ioperate = 0.25 (Irestraint ) for Ioperate > 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (6)

Where Ioperate and Irestratint are scalar quantities.

 23

With the “trip” region above the characteristic line shown by Figure 4, the element will

operate for all values above its pickup and when Ioperate is greater than 25% of Irestraint .

The pickup value defines the minimum value Ioperate must attain for operation. To better

understand how the differential element functions, let’s assume that the Ioperate and

Irestraint values are defined as:

Ioperate = �I��⃗1 + I���⃗2 � (7)

Irestraint = �I��⃗1 � + �I���2⃗� (8)

where I1 and I2 are defined as shown by Figure 5. For testing the pickup value of a

differential element, only one current input to the relay is necessary. For example if I��⃗1 (or

I���⃗2 ) is set to zero, then the ratio of the operate current to the restraint current will always

equal 1 (or 100%) which always places the element in the operating region. To test the

slope, using the facts given by Equation (7) & Equation (8) about operate and restraint

currents, we can start at a point where the two currents are 180° out of phase with each

other. Then we proceed with ramping the phase angles between the two currents from

being 180° out of phase with each other to being in phase with each other. Eventually a

point will be reached where the operate current rises above the characteristic line and into

the operate region.

 24

Restraint Coil
Dashed
Arrows:
Normal i1 i2
Condition or i1 i2
Out of Zone
Fault Operating Coil
Bold Arrows:
In Zone Fault
Protected
Device

I1 I2

Figure 5. Representation of a Basic Differential Element

Note that Ioperate must always be above the pickup value. To explain the process assume

the pickup value is 0.3 pu, the slope is 25%, with the following restraint conditions.

Firstly, the slope can’t exceed 1 (or 100%). Secondly, the equation for the restraint

current is the same as presented in Equation (5). Finally, the magnitudes of I1 and I2

remain equal.

For values above pickup of .3 pu, such as Ioperate = 0.5 pu, Equation (3) shows that for the

25% slope, Irestraint = 2 pu. The next step is to divide the restraint current in half (1 pu) and

apply that as the magnitude of both I1 and I2 since they are equal in this example. By

ramping the phase angles between I1 and I2 as explained above the pickup is found to be:
 25

|1∠0°+1∠151.045°| pu
|1∠0°|+|1∠151.045°| pu
= .25 pu (9)

The phase angle of 151.045° was found using simple geometric equations since the

magnitude for I1 and I2 are held constant.

With some relays like the SEL-311L, the slope characteristic described above is not

utilized. Instead, what is known as an “alpha plane” characteristic is used. When utilizing

a SEL-311L relay for differential protection, it should be realized that the relay is

specifically designed for line differential protection. The relays are only equipped with

the capability to monitor 3 current inputs from 3 Current Transformers (CTs) in a 3 Phase

system (1 CT per phase). In order to determine a differential current in a 3 Phase system a

minimum of 6 CTs are necessary (2 CTs per phase). To determine the differential current

for each phase it is necessary to compare 2 independent current signals from 2 separate

CTs for each phase.

It is necessary to have two SEL-311L relays, each placed at one end a two-terminal

power transmission line to monitor and compare the line current in each phase at both

ends. For proper measurement of the differential current entering at one end leaving

from the other end of the line, it is necessary that the two SEL-311L relays are able to

communicate with each other through a communications channel, which in modern

schemes is a fiber-optic channel. It is also necessary for the test sets feeding the current

signals to the relays at each end to be synchronized with one another when performing
 26

the test. This is necessary since both the magnitudes as well as the phase angles of the

current signals at each end must be compared with the same signals at the other end to

properly determine the differential value. If the test sets are not synchronized when the

test begins, there is the possibility of an unintentional phase difference between the

current signals generated by the test sets at each end. “The Line Differential protection

element (87L) requires time-aligned current signal from the local and remote terminals. If

the line has more than 2 terminals, then naturally, the scheme will need to be injected at

all the different terminals simultaneously in order to test it. This means that not only the

current signals must be applied at multiple terminals but, the injected current signals must

be applied with controlled phase and timing with respect to one another.” [7] If the

current signals being injected by the different test sets into the multiple relays are not

synchronized with each other, then it is possible that a false differential current will be

generated due to the phase angle differences between the test sets.

Note that latency in the communications channels can also create a false reading in the

measured differential current. However latency can be compensated for by considering an

estimated maximum possible error that could be produced into the calculations. A

“buffer” zone can be created between operate and restraint characteristic of the

differential element. This will ensure that the differential element will not trip for false

readings due to communication latency.

 27

The SEL-311L utilizes what is known as an “alpha plane” to determine operate and

restraint regions of the differential element. The alpha plane consists of real and

imaginary axes, where the vectors presented on the plane are a ratio of the remote (IR ) to

local (IL ) current signals. A representation of the alpha plane is presented in figure 6.

Im
1

External
Faults and
Load Current

Restraint Operate
-1 Region Region 1
Re

-1

Figure 6. Representation of the Differential Alpha Plane Characteristic.

It should be noted that the “local” current signal in this case is the current signal to be

measured by the local SEL-311L relay that is connected directly to the CTs and

measuring current through its current inputs. The “remote” current is the current being

measured by the SEL-311L remote relay that is connected to the local relay through a

communications channel.

Considering that in a 2 terminal transmission line, the current flowing into the local

terminal of this line is 180° out of phase with the same magnitude as the current flowing
 28

out of the remote terminal (assuming no intermediate shunt loading), then the ratio 𝐼𝐼���⃗ ��⃗
𝑅𝑅 /𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿

will have a value of 1 at 180° on the alpha plane. This is the point on the plane when the

line is carrying normal load or external fault currents. This also locates the point on the

part of the plane which is considered as the restraint region.

If the currents being measured locally and remotely are equal in magnitude and phase,

then it would mean that the currents are both flowing into the protected line and an

internal fault has occurred in the zone of protection. This would place ���⃗
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 /𝐼𝐼��⃗𝐿𝐿 at a value of

1 at 0° on the alpha plane which makes it a point in the operate region of the differential

element. However, there are certain factors that may make an internal fault not lie

exactly at 1 ∠0° on the alpha plane. These factors include:

• The source voltage and the source impedance angles

• Communication channel asymmetry

• CT saturation

The source voltage and the source impedance angles can add up to a 20° phase shift.

Channel asymmetry can add an additional 21.6° shift, as well as CT saturation which can

add another 40°. Thus the operate zone should encompass a region of +/- 81.6° around

the 0° axis to ensure that all of these effects have been considered. This renders the rest

of the alpha plane as the restraint region of the element.

Another fact that needs to be taken into account is the CT ratio that the local and remote

relays are connected to. In an ideal situation the CT ratios would be equal, but this is not
 29

always the case. Therefore during normal operations the local and remote relays may be

measuring different magnitudes of current on the secondary of the CTs that they are

connected to, even though the primary side values are the same. This is taken into

account in the relay settings, which contain information about the local as well as the

remote CT settings. However this must also be taken into account when test currents are

injected into the two relays during testing. For example the local relay may have a setting

for its CT ratio that is twice that of the remote CT ratio. Thus when injecting current into

the relays using two separate test sets, the current being injected into the local relay

should be half of the current being injected into the remote relay. This will correctly

emulate the situation where the magnitudes of the primary currents are considered equal

by the local and remote relays as they communicate with each other.

All factors discussed above need to be considered when testing the differential elements.

Determination of the restraint region versus the operate region is the first step. Then the

differences in CT ratios between the relays at each terminal must be accounted for. The

final step is determining the currents necessary to be injected by each of the test sets into

the relays to create the proper ratios of 𝐼𝐼���⃗ ���⃗

𝑅𝑅 /𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 that will lie within the operate and restraint

regions of the alpha planes.

 30

Chapter 6

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Various types of relay elements require different approaches for testing. Some elements

only require magnitude and frequency of one variable such as voltage or current for

operation and testing. Voltage, frequency and non-directional current elements are

examples of such elements. Other elements may require inputs from two variables of

voltage and/or current. Directional overcurrent relays require taking a polarizing variable

which maybe current or voltage. Impedance elements take both voltage and current

inputs, and some differential elements need to compare two current inputs.

Caution must be exercised for proper determination and testing of time delay functions in

some frequency relays. This is due to different methods of time delay calculations

(seconds versus cycles) that are employed by various relays.

In this project report, standardized approaches for testing commonly used EM, SS, and

MP based relaying elements, using modern test equipment was presented, analyzed, and

documented. The approach can be utilized as a guideline for development of automated

test routines for various types of MP based relaying elements offered by the industry

independent of their make, model, or manufacturer. While this project report only covers

the commonly used relay elements in protection schemes, it was also intended to serve as
 31

an introduction to many of the potential problems that may be encountered during the

relay testing process.

 32

References

[1] C. Mozina et al., "Commissioning and maintenance testing of multifunction digital

relays," Pulp and Paper Industry Technical Conference, 2004. Conference Record of

the 2004 Annual, 2004, pp. 182-191.

[2] C. Mozina and M. Young, "Multifunction digital relay commissioning and

maintenance testing," in IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 50-

58, Sept.-Oct. 2005.

[3] J. Blackburn and T. Domin, "Phasors and Polarity" in Protective Relaying –

Principals and Applications, 3rd ed. Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press, 2007, ch. 3,

sec.3.6 – 3.8, pp. 64 -71

[4] O. O. Gencer, S. Ozturk and K. Karaarslan, "Performance of an over/under voltage

relay at non-sinusoidal conditions," MELECON 2006 - 2006 IEEE Mediterranean

Electrotechnical Conference, Malaga, 2006, pp. 1102-1105.

[5] N. T. Stringer, "Dynamic testing of frequency relays," in IEEE Transactions on

Industry Applications, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 766-777, Jul/Aug 1996.

 33

[6] J. S. Thorp, A. G. Phadke, S. H. Horowitz and J. E. Beehler, "Limits to Impedance

Relaying," in IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-98, no.

1, pp. 246-260, Jan. 1979.

K. Lee, D. Finney, N. Fischer and B. Kasztenny, "Testing considerations for line

current differential schemes," Protective Relay Engineers, 2012 65th Annual

Conference for, College Station, TX, 2012, pp. 389-400.