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Gl eagan· press
~ St.Paul, Minnesota, USA
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-83465
International Standard Book Number: 0-913250-90-2
Eagan Press has designed this handbook series as practical guides serving the interests of
the food industry as a whole rather than the individual interests of any single company.
Nonetheless, corporate sponsorship has allowed these books to be more affordable for a wide
audience.
Contents
3. Properties of Emulsifiers • 29
Functions in Food Systems: amphiphilic (polar and nonpolar) nature. emulsification.
foaming. wetting. interactions with other components
Functional Properties: emulsification-HLB • antistaling-complexing with starch. protein aggregation and
solution
Emulsifier Types and Applications: emulsifiers. wetting agents. dough strengtheners.
film formers
Regulatory Considerations
v
6. Frying Fats • 81
Heat Transfer by Fat: mass transfer. temperature gradients. optimum fryer operation
Degradative Reactions During Frying: hydrolysis. oxidation. polymerization. smoking, ignition
Selection of Frying Fat: stability. suitability
Troubleshooting
vi
Functional Properties of
Fats and Oils
wh iten ers, etc. ). The specifications for these fats and oils are generally
more stringent than for fats and oils used in the home. Commercial
equipment and processes are more sensitive to variations in fat charac-
te ristics; the specified properties for the finished product are more
n arrowly defined; and compensating for ingredient variation takes
longer th an in home cooking. The people responsible for efficient op -
eration of such a plant must understand how fat and oil properties
affect production and product characteristics and how to write and en -
force speci fications for these raw ingredients, so that the outcome is
satisfactory both to the consumer and to the owners of the plant.
FUNCTIONS IN PROCESSING
Shortening has an important functional role in processing baked
foods, which is discussed in more detail in Chapter S. It provides stru c-
ture in some products (for example, cookie dough) and lub rication in
others. In coo kie dough and cake batters, shortenin g h ol ds th e fine ly
divided air bubbles th at serve as the nuclei for leavening gases and give
a fin e grain to th e finished product. In roll-in doughs (Danish, puff pas-
try), plastic fat prevents adjacent dough layers from knitting together
during proofing, so the final product has a flaky, many-layered struc-
ture. Fat is the main structural element in the fillings and cream icin gs
used in and on bakery sweet goods of various sorts.
Fat for frying is important in many segments of the food in dustry:
potato chips and corn chips are deep-fried; nuts are roasted; cake
doughnuts, potatoes, and battered or breaded poultry or fish are fried .
The se and other food items depen d n ot only on the heat trans fer prop-
erties of fat, but also on the flavor imparted by the fat . Th e proper
ch oice and corr ect use of fat are necessary to ob t ain acceptable resu lts
in these products.
SENSORY FUNCTIONS
Oxidation - Chemi cal reaction Flavor. Fat con tributes flavor to foods . This is most apparent in fried
in which the double bond on a food s, because absorbed fat becomes an integral part of the finished
lipid molecule reacts with product. The flavor is the result of products of numerous reactions be-
oxygen to produ ce a variety of tween fat and other food components such as proteins an d carbohy-
chemical products. The drates. Oxidation products of fat are also involved, giving a situation
consequences of this reaction
are loss of nutritional value and
th at is extremely com plex in terms of th e n u m ber of po ssible flavo r
formati on of the off-flavors com pou n ds present. Nevertheless, without these com pounds, the prod-
associated with rancidity. uct would not have the characteristics we have come to associate with
fried foods . For example, when a taste panel assesses food fried in com-
Reversion flavor-M ild off- pletely fresh (refin ed) oil, the typical comment is usually something
flavor developed by a refined like "tasteless."
oil wh en exposed to oxygen. Fat or oil can contribute flavor directly, eith er in a po sitive or nega-
Reversion occurs rather easily, tive sense. Olive oil, which has a unique flavor, is prized for gourmet
and th e off-flavor, wh ile
salad dress ings specifically because of the flavor notes it con tributes. On
und esirable, is not as
objectionabl e as rancidity the other hand, if a fat or oil is exposed to air and allowed to oxidize
caused by oxidation. slightly, a flavor often develop s that is referred to as a "reversion flavor."
The ch aracteristics of this flavor differ in different oils ("be any,"
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES \ 3
"grassy," and "metallic" are some descriptive terms used) , but it is in-
variably considered to be negative in terms of product quality.
Texture. Several aspects of food texture (or mouthfeel) are attributable
to fat. It tenderizes the food, making it easier to bite and chew. It also
makes a food feel moister in the mouth. As an example of these two
aspects, consider the texture of steak-compared to a well-marbled
steak, the lean cut of meat is characterized as "tough" and "dry." Oil
also lubricates the food particles, helping to clear them from mouth
surfaces (teeth and palate) more readily.
These tenderizing and lubricating characteristics are primarily attrib-
utable to the liquid fraction of the fat. If the fat mel ting point is much
higher than body temperature, the fat does not melt in the mouth and
the residual solid portion gives a "waxy" mouthfeel, an undesirable
situation. This is particularly noticeable when the fat is a major com-
ponent, as in fillings, icings, and confectionery coatings.
NUTRITION
As mentioned above, a major contribution of fat to the diet is as a
dense, easily stored source of calories. An example is pemmican, tradi-
tionally used by Nat ive Am ericans as rations when on an expedition
(eith er hunting or warfare). Th is was made by mixing shredded jerked Prostaglandins-A group of
specialized lipids that play
meat and dried berries in a container, then pouring melted animal fat important metabolic roles in
over the ble nd. Whil e perhaps less appetizing than the products of the humans . They are formed in
U.S. Quartermaster Corps, pemmican served the same purpose: a stor- the body from dietary essent ial
age-stable, readily transportable source of food energy for consumption fatty acids.
during periods of high energy expenditure.
Fat also makes other positive nutritional contributions. It carries fat-
soluble vitamins (A, 0, and E). Its component fatty acids are metabo-
lized by the body into phospholipids, which are essential parts of cell
mem bran es. With out the proper balance of saturated and unsaturated
fats, the membranes are either too solid or too flu id, and cell integrity is
lost . Finally, certain po lyunsaturated fatty acids are the precursors of
lipid hormones (prostaglandins) that are needed by the body. If the diet
completely lacks these essential fatty acids, certain untoward symptoms
(h air loss, scaly skin, loss of reproductive capability) appear.
Functional Properties
Before beginning the discussion of functional properties, certain Shortening-A type of fat
commonly used terms should be defined: used in baking or frying. The
name comes from the ab ility to
• Fat is a natural lipid material that is more or less solid at room tenderize or "shorten" ba ked
temperature. products.
• Oil is a similar material that is liquid at room temperature.
Margarine-A product
• Shortening (m ain ly a baking term) is a fat or oil th at contains category similar to da iry butter
no water. in composition and color. It
• M argarine is a fat containing up to 20% water as a water-in-oil contains 80% fat, 16% water,
emulsion. and 4% other ingredients such
as salt.
4 / CHAPTERONE
Fatty acid
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTI ES \ 5
nected with their convers ion to a particular group of prostaglandins Carbo xyl group-The
(see Ch apter 9). chemical functiona l group on
one end of a fatty acid. This is
The chemical reactivity of uns atu rat ed fatty acid s is determine d by
the same as a carboxylic acid
the position as well as the number of the double bonds in the molecule. (COOH), wh ich can lose a
Reactivity increases markedly with an increase in the number of double proton and become COO', or
bonds, provided they are conjugated (separated only by one single bond) comb ine with an alcoho l group
or methylene-interrupted (separated by a -CH z- unit) (Box 1-5). If a fatty to form an ester.
acid has two isolated double bonds (separated by two or more methyl-
Aliphati c- Describing a
ene units), its rea ctivity is only slightly greater than that of a fatty acid straight chain of carbons with
that has only one dou ble bond. These differences are important when no branch ing or ring structure.
the fat is sub jected to oxidation and also during the h ydrogen at ion
process. Saturated - Describing a
In m ost naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, the double bonds carbon chain in which the
carbons are connected to each
are in the cis configuration. This means that the carbon chains on the
other by single bonds, drawn
as C-c. It has no carbon-to-
carbon double bonds.
Box 1-3. Saturation
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H 0 Mon ounsaturated -
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Describing a fatty acid that has
H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH one double bond (C=C) in the
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I carbon chain. Oleic acid is the
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H most common of the se.
Stearic acid, C18 :0 (unsaturated) Polyun saturated - Describing
a fatty acid that has more than
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H 0 one double bon d (C=C) in the
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I carbon chain. Linoleic acid is
H-C-C- C-C-C-C- C- C-C=C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C- OH an examp le.
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H Omega fatty acid s-A method
Oleic acid, C18:1 (monounsaturated) of nomenclature that
designate s the number of
carbons between the termi nal
HHHHH H HHHHHH HO
-CH, gro up and the last do uble
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I bond in the fatty acid. This is
H-C-C-C-C- C-C=C- C-C=C- C-C-C- C-C-C-C-C-OH
useful in discussing the
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I physiological role of certain
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Linoleic acid, C18 :2 (polyunsaturated)
Conjugated - Describing a
situation in which do uble
bond s between carbon atoms
Box 1-4. An Omega Fatty Acid occur in a series with one single
There are six carbons between the terminal methyl group and the bond in between (C=C- C=C).
double bond, so linoleic acid is designated an CiJ6 fatty acid. Methyl ene-interru pt ed-
Describing a situation in which
H H H H H H H H H H H H 0
double bonds between carbon
I I I I I I I I I I I I I atoms occur in a series with
H-C- C-C-C-C-C=C-C-C=C-C- C- C- C- C- C-C-OH
two single bonds in between
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I (C=C- C- C=C).
H H H H H HH H H H H H H H H H
L...-.....I ..... --', '-----'
CH=CH
Six carbons
6 I CHAPTER ONE
two sides of the double bond are bent toward each other, and the hy-
drogen atoms on the double bond are on the same side (see oleic acid
in Fig. 1-1). In the trans configuration, the hydrogen atoms on the dou-
ble bond are opposite each other. As a result the chain is nearly straight
(with a slight kink at the double bond), as shown for eIaidic acid in Fig-
ure 1-1. The cis isomers prevail in all the food fats and oils, although
small amounts of trans isom ers occur in fats from ruminants.
Stearic acid
m.p. 69.9·C
C1B:O
Oleic acid
(cis)
m.p. lB.9·C
C1B:l
Elaidic acid
(trans)
m.p. 43.0·C
C1B: 1t
Linoleic acid
(cis, cis)
m.p. -9.S·C
C1B:2
Fig. 1-1. Structure and melting point (mp) of several fatty acids. The types, from
top to bottom are a saturated acid (stearic, Cl8:0), a cis monounsaturated acid
(oleic, Cl8:1), a trans monounsaturated (elaidic, Cl8:1t), and a cis, cis polyunsatu-
rated acid (linoleic, Cl8:2). Note that the melting point is higher for the saturated
fatty acid than for the unsaturated ones and that the fatty acid with a trans double
bond has a higher melting point than the fatty acid with the cis double bond .
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES \ 7
•
the melting point.
Changing a cis to a trans isomer
o
// I pi
Ra-C-O- C-H 2
Ra-C-OH HO-C -H2
in creases the melting point.
These relationships can be seen in Figu re 1- Fatty Acids Glyc ero l Triglyce ride
1. (However, the first po int is not strictly true;
the odd-numbered fatty acids [Zn-e I ] melt Fig. 1-2. Struct u re and for mation of trig lycerides.
about 3°C lower than their even -n um bered
predecessors [2n] . For ins tan ce, C12:0 melts at 44.2°C , C13:0 at 41. 4°C,
and C14:0 at 54 .4°C. Nevertheless, since most natural fatty acids are
even-numbered, the rule can be ta ken as general.) The difference in
Glycerid es-Compounds that
me lting points relates to how well the individual aliphatic cha ins pack have one or more fatty acids
in the crystal state; the closer and more uni form the packing, the atta ched to g lycerol.
higher the melting point.
Th e same chain packing concepts appl y to fatty acid chains wh en
th ey are pa rt of a tr iglyceride, and so the influence of fatty acid charac-
teristics on the melting po int of fat follows the same general rules. The
conversion of a (liquid) vegetable oil to a (semi -
solid) fat by hydrogenation (see Chapter 4) involves TABLE 1-1. Melting Points for Some Pure Trig lycerides
two changes: a decrease in degree of unsaturation Melting Point
and the isom erization of some cis double bonds to Triglyceride Abbreviation" COe)
the trans configuration. Both changes in crease th e
me lting point. Group Ab
Tripalmitin PPP 66
Glycerides. As stated above, fats are este rs, most 555
Tristearin 73
commonly derived from the reaction of a single
molecule of the alco hol glycerol and three Trielaidin EEE 42
molecu les of fatty acids to yield one molecule of a Triole in 000 5
triglyceride and three molecules of water (Fig. 1-2). Trilino lein LLL -13
Wh en the fatty acids are identical, the product is a Group B
simple tr iglyceride. An example is triolein, a ma jor Palmitooleopalmitin POP 37
triglyceride in olive oil, in wh ich all three fatty Palmitooleostearin pas 37
acids are oleic acid. A mixed triglyceride has two or Stearoo leos tearin 50S 43
three different fatty acids joined to th e glycerol.
Gro up C
An example is palmitooleos tearin (usually abb re-
viat ed POS), a component of cocoa butter, in Palm itooleopalmitin POP 37
wh ich R1 is palmitic acid , Rz is ole ic acid , and R3 is Palm itoelaidop-almitin PEP 55
stearic acid. Stearooleos tearin 50S 43
Some connections between triglyceride me lting Stearoelaidostearin SES 61
point and fatty acid composition are disp layed in a P = palmitic acid (C16:0), S = stearic acid (C18 :0), 0 = oleic
Tab le 1-1. The three groups show three different acid (C18: 1, cis), E = elaidic acid (C18:1, trans), L = linoleic acid
relationships. (C18:2, cis, cis). Note how saturation and! or trans isomers in
the compo nent fatty acids raise the melting point of the
• The first group shows the effect of varying triglyceride.
ch ain length, unsatu ration, an d cis-trans b Group A contains simple (monoacid) triglycerides. Examples in
Group B represent 85% of the compos ition of cocoa butter.
isom erization in a simple triglyceride. Group C shows mixed triglycerides.
8 / CHA PTER ONE
FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
So lub ili ty. Fat (triglyceride) is mos tly alip ha tic h ydrocarbon chains and
therefore is soluble in hydrophilic solvents such as hexan e, benzene,
and acetone and inso lub le in water. Natural fats (and oils) contain
sma l1 amoun ts of more h ydrophilic ma terials, e.g., free fatty acids,
Melting point-The monoglycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids, and ox idation products .
temperature at which a solid These are more or less water-solub le, and are removed by washing with
turns into a liquid. Because
water d uring refining.
they are a mixture of
com pounds, fats ap pea r to Melting points. When a pu re chem ical compound is heated, it under-
melt over a range of goes a phase transition from solid to liqui d at a sha rply defined tem-
temperature. A specific melting
perature . When the liquid is cooled, the transition is reversed at the
temperature is determined by
warming a fat and recording
same tem perature. The sharpness of the melti ng point is one test of the
the te mpe rature at w hich an purity of a material. Natural fats, h owever, are n ot pure compounds but
observable event coinciding rather a mixture of trig lycerides made up of a variety of fatty acids.
with conversion to a liquid Thus, fat melting is gradual, and the definition of the melting point is
occur s. dependen t upon the method being used. The various methods are dis-
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES \ 9
Fig. 1-5. Photomicrographs of fat crystals in polarized light. From left to right,
a-crystals, p'-crystals, and p-crystals.
10 / CHAPTER ONE
80
A fat that has the ~' crystal form is smooth and creamy. A
70 fat that has transformed to ~ crystals, on the other hand, has a
Cocoa butter
60 brittle, sandy texture. For most uses, both commercial and in
x
Q) the home, the former characteristics are preferred. Manufac-
'"0 50
E turers of plastic shortenings and margarines use the ~' stability
co
LL 40 of mixed triglyceride fats to produce products with the desired
~
(5 30 creaminess (see Chapter 4).
Cf)
20 --- --- --- -- Solid to liquid ratios. A natural fat is a mixture of triglyc-
10
Ali-purpose shortening - - erides, some solid and some liquid at any given temperature.
The ratio of solid to liquid phase is an important determinant
0
10 20 30 40 of fat functionality. It is expressed as the solid fat index (SFI) or
Ternperature.v C the solid fat content (SFC; the differences between these two
Fig. 1-6. Solid fat index profiles of two fats, terms are discussed in Chapter 2). The SFI profiles for two fats
cocoa butter and all-purpose shortening. are shown in Figure 1-6. All-purpose shortening (e.g., Crisco)
has a relatively flat profile. It is soft enough to be worked at
10°C, yet still retains some solidity at 37°C (body tempera-
Solid fat index-A measure of ture). By contrast, cocoa butter has a high profile with a rather steep
the amount of solid fat in a fat descent. It is quite hard at 25°C, yet is liquid at 35°C. As the name im-
at various temperatures. It is plies, a high SFI value for any given temperature indicates that the fat is
determined by the volume
changes that occur as a result
hard at that temperature. Roughly speaking, at an SFI greater than 35
of melting or crystallization. (for example, butter at refrigerator temperature), the fat is hard and not
This index relates the readily spread, while at an SFI below 10 it is soft and almost liquid. The
proportion of liquid to solid relationship between SFI and functionality in various applications is
fractions in a fat. explored in depth in later chapters.
/9 I o
II
R2 -C-O-C-H + R-C-OCH 3
/9 I o
II
R3-C-O-C-H 2 R4-C-O-C-H 2
pi
R2-C-O-C-H
p I
R3 -C-O- C-H2
NaK
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Ester cleavage. The ester bonds in fat can undergo a variety of splitting Hydrolysis-A chemical
reactions (Fig. 1-7). Som e of these are important in food applications, reaction in wh ich a molecule
while others have oth er industrial sign ifican ce. splits into two parts. A
Hydrolysis. The addit ion of water yields a free fatty acid an d a free molecule of water also splits
into H and OH, which are
hydroxyl group. Thi s reac tion, called saponification, is usually cat alyzed ad de d to the places where th e
with a base such as sodium hydroxide, and the fatty acid is neutralized original bond was broken . A
to a sodiu m soap. fatty acid is removed from a
Glycerolysis. Glycerol can be the hydroxyl donor, forming a mono- g lyceride by hydrolysis of th e
glyceride with the fatty acid and leaving a mono- or diglyceride behind. ester bond.
This reaction is the basis for making monoglyceride emulsifiers for food Saponification-A chemical
use. In commercial production, a basic catalyst, usually potassium car- react ion caused by add ition of
bonate, is used. alkali in which the fatty acids
A lcoholysis. The reaction of fat with alcohol is usually catalyzed with attached to a glycerol are
an acid such as HCI or a sulfonic acid resin. For example, reaction of fat cleaved off to produ ce soap
with methanol yields the methyl esters of the fatty acids, wh ich are (fatty acid salts) and a glyce rol
molecu le.
used to analyze the com position of the fat by gas-phase chromatogra-
phy. Glycero lysis- A chemical
Interesterification. A free fatt y acid can displace another fatty acid reaction in which glycerol is
from an ester, leaving a glyceride with somewhat changed properties combined with one or mor e
fatty acids to form a glyceride.
because its fatty acid structure has changed. This reaction is used to
change fat properties. Lard, for example, has a nonrandom fatty acid Alcoh olysis-A chemical
distribution in its triglycerides. All the palmitic acid (25% of the total) reaction in which fatty acids
is found in the 2 position. As a result, lard crystallizes rather readil y in react with alcoho l to form an
ester.
the 13 form, wh ich is not desirable for bakery purposes. Heating in the
presence of sodium methoxide or metallic sodium causes the fatty acids Int er est erification - Cha ng ing
to shuffle their positions in th e triglycerides randomly. The resulting fat the positions of the fatty acids
has a low er SFI profile and is stable in the l3' crystal state, giving a more on triglycerid es. This is a
plasti c shortening. Ano ther appli cation involves blending 20 parts fully commercial processing step to
change the physical properties
hydrogenated soybean oil (wh ich forms 13 crystals) with 80 parts refined of a fat .
soybean oil, then interesterifying. The product has the SFI profile ap -
propriate for soft tub margarine, is l3' stable, and has only a trace of Reduct ion- Chan ging an acid
trans double bonds. group on a fatty acid to an
alcoho l group. This is done
Reduction. Fat ester bonds can also be split reductively, yieldin g with meta l redu cing agents to
glycerol and long-chain alcohols. The reductant is an amalgam of create fatty alcohols for
sodium and potassium metals. The resulting fatty alcohols are used to industrial uses.
make various dete rgents and lubricants (waxes) an d are of great
Autoxid ati o n-A reaction in
economic importance. which fats und erg o oxidative
Oxidation. Autoxidation of fats occurs with unsaturated fatty acid chang es d ue to the double
chains. The relative rates of oxi dation of oleic, linoleic, linolenic, and bo nd s in their structure. The
reaction can initiate and
arachidonic acids (wh ich have one, two, three, and four double bonds,
proceed without outside
respectively) are I, 12, 25, and 50. The double bonds in the influences.
polyunsaturated acids are sepa rated by methylene groups and are cis in
their configuration. Free rad ical-An unpaired
electron that is an unstable
Autoxidation is a series of free radical reactions, in itiated and
intermediate in the
propagated by free radicals reacting with methylene -CH2- groups that development of lipid oxidation
are adj acent to double bonds (Fig. 1-8). (A free radical is an unpaired and rancid ity.
electron, indicated as a h eavy do t in chemical formulas. It is a very
reactive species.) At th e begin n ing of the autoxidation process, a
12 / CHAPTER ONE
Peroxyl radical-An hydrogen radical is extracted, and one of the double bonds shifts,
intermediate in lipid oxidation moving the radical site to the outer carbon (reaction 1). Dissolved
in which the fatty acid radical
oxygen adds to this site, generating a peroxyl radical (reaction 2); this
has added two oxygen atoms
and is still a free radical. It is
abstracts a hydrogen from a donor-perhaps another methylene
characterized by the structure group-making a hydroperoxide (reaction 3). The hydroperoxide splits to
COO·. generate two free radicals, a hydroxyl and an alkoxyl radical (reaction
Hydroperoxide-An
4). This cleavage is catalyzed by traces of metal ion such as copper or
intermediate in lipid oxidation iron. The net result is three free radicals, each of which can initiate
in which the fatty acid has another chain of reactions. The rate of reaction is self-enhancing, Le., it
added two oxygen atoms and a is an autocatalytic reaction.
hydrogen atom at the point of The signs of rancidity (musty odors; bitter, disagreeable flavors) are
oxidation. It is no longer a free due to breakdown products of the alkoxyl radical structure. These
radical but eventually degrades products are a variety of aldehydes and ketones derived from breaking
to flavor compounds associated
with rancidity.
the fatty acid carbon chain at the point where it is oxidized. Common
products are heptanal, ethyl hexyl ketone, and the co-aldehyde of
Rancidity-An off flavor in a fat
nonanoic acid.
or oil caused either by
oxidation or by the release of
The reactions described above can occur in the dark, as long as
flavorful fatty acids from the molecular oxygen and an initiating free radical species are present. If
triglyceride. the oil is exposed to light, oxygen may be photoactivated to singlet
oxygen, which can initiate the chain at the second step shown in
Stability-The resistance of a Figure 1-8.
fat source to the formation of In summary, four main factors contribute to autocatalytic rancidity:
rancidity.
• Chain initiation by trace free radicals
Antioxidants-Compounds Chain propagation by molecular oxygen
that can inhibit the • Hydroperoxide cleavage catalyzed by metal ions
development of lipid oxidation.
Chain initiation by photoactivated oxygen.
These factors can be minimized by good manufacturing practices.
The trace free radicals arise from peroxides that are left behind from
inadequate refining and deodorization. Molecular oxygen should be
excluded by processing, transporting, and storing oil under a nitrogen
atmosphere. Metal ions can be kept out of the oil by having properly
designed and maintained equipment, and traces of metal in the oil can
-CH=CH-CH 2CH=CH-
be inactivated by chelation with citric acid. Finally, the exposure of oil
R·~RH to light should be minimal. With these precautions, oil oxidative
stability can be increased several fold.
r
-CH=CH-CH=C H-CH- Oxidative stability can also be increased with antioxidants. These
02 react with the active free radicals, transferring the radical function to
2 the antioxidant (Fig. 1-9). Because of the ring structure of the
00·
I
antioxidant, this radical has low reactivity and does not initiate new
-CH=CH-CH=CH-CH-
reaction chains. However, if free radicals continue to form, due to the
3 Y RH presence of oxygen and trace metals, eventually all the antioxidant will
R·¥+ ,?OH
-CH=CH-CH=CH-CH-
react, and the autocatalytic sequence will develop without hindrance.
Several organic compounds are in use today as antioxidants. They all
have in common the ring structure shown in Figure 1-9, but they vary
4 t"----- ·OH somewhat in the structure of the side groups. The ones approved by the
+ o· Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in foods are:
-CH=CH-CH=CH-CH-
• BHA, butylated hydroxyanisole (shown in Fig. 1-9)
Fig. 1-8. Reactions occurring
during autoxidation of fat. • BHT, butylated hydroxytoluene (as in Fig. 1-9, with -CH3
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES \ 13
replacing -OCH3 )
• TBHQ, tertiary butylhydroquinone (as in Fig. 1-9, with -OH
replacing -OCH3)
• PG, propyl gallate (th e n-propyl ester of 3,4,S-trihydroxy-
benzoic acid).
These may be added to a fat or oil at a maximum level of 0.02%
(sin gly or in combination). They are also allowed in other foods, but
the allo wable maximum usage level varies with the food. The supplier
of antioxidant is the best source of information with respect to particu-
lar food products.
X
genated (e.g., palm oil) to raise the SFI profile. The oleic
oils are also used as is, p rimarily as salad oil or for light- Fatty acid peroxyl radical
duty frying. The linoleic oils may be used as is for salad
3
oil but are usually h ydrogenated to some degree. Light OCH
BHA
hydrogenation gives a salad and cooking oil with in -
creased oxidative stability. Partial hydrogenation under
various conditions gives fats wit h varied SFI profiles
(steep, shallow, humped) for different applications.
This ability to generate a "tailored" SFI profile is unique
tOC(CH
O'
3 )3 OH
-CH=C H-CH=CH -CH-
I
has declined in the United States, the amount of edible tallow and lard
Cholesterol-A fat soluble has also declined. These fats all carry some amount of cholesterol with
compound found in animal them, and because of the connection between dietary cholesterol and
products that is required by
cardiovascular disease, their consumption has declined markedly.
humans, is produced by the
body, and, if present at high
Fish oil. Historically, marine oils have been an important fat source,
levels in the blood stream, is but their use has declined since midcentury. Menhaden oil, in the
associated with increased risk partially and fully hydrogenated forms, has now been approved by the
of diseases of the circulatory FDA for food. Marine oils are rich in long-chain polyunsaturated fatty
system. acids (C20 and up). In' particular, they contain large amounts of (0-3
fatty acids (Le., acids in which the terminal double bond is three carbon
atoms removed from the end of the fatty acid chain). There is some
evidence that these fatty acids have a positive nutritional impact,
probably as precursors to various prostaglandins.
Other components
Phospholipids. Vegetable oils contain 0.1-30/0 phospholipids, which
Phospholipids-Natural are removed during refining. Collectively called lecithins, they comprise
components of fat that have several different chemical forms. Details of lecithin structure are
phosphorous associated with discussed in Chapter 3.
the glycerides. Phospholipids
Waxes. Waxes are found in small amounts in most unrefined oils.
are surfactants that assist in
emulsification.
These are esters composed of a fatty acid linked to a fatty alcohol. A
typical wax, for example, may be made of stearic acid esterified to
Lecithins-A phospholipid stearoyl alcohol. While present in quite small amounts, waxes solidify
found in egg yolk and when chilled and must be removed during refining.
soybeans and also used as a Sterols. Fats and oils contain a few tenths of a percent of sterol. In
food ingredient. It is a animal fats this is mainly cholesterol, while in vegetable oils it is a
surfactant that can stabilize mixture called phytosterol.
emulsions. Hydrocarbons. Most fats contain small amounts (less than 1%) of
hydrocarbons. The most common is squalene, a highly unsaturated
Waxes-Lipid compounds that
compound closely related to carotenes.
are fatty acids linked to long-
chain fatty alcohols. They occur
naturally in unrefined oils.
Sterols-Lipid compounds
found in trace amounts that
have ring structures rather than
the straight chains associated
with fatty acids. Examples are
cholesterol in animal products
and phytosterols in plant
products.
Hydrocarbons-Lipid
compounds found in trace
amounts in fats and oils. They
are unsaturated carbon chains
such as the compound
squalene.
Analytical Tests
of Fats and Oils
Analytical tests are important at every stage in the use of fats and
oils. Measur em en ts made on crude oil help determine some of the re-
fining parameters, wh ile measurements on fat and oil products ensure In This Chapter:
that individual refining steps have been carried out correctly. The fin - Physical Tests
ished product must match the expectations of the customer for that Solid Fat Index/Content
Melting Point
product. The fat processor's finished product specifications are (or
Cloud Point
should be) the same as the customer's raw material specification. To
Oxidative Stability
make these match, both parties (ven dor and buyer) should be using the Fire Danger Points
same tests , performed by qualified analytical personnel. Polar Lipids in Frying Fat
There are two manuals of standard analytical methods for fats and Sensory
oils. At least one, if not both, of these must be on the shelf of the qual- Plasticity
ity control laboratory. These are: . Chemical Tests
• D. Firestone, ed. Official Methods and Recom mended Practices Fatty Acids
of the A merican Oil Chemists Society, 4th ed. AOCS, Iodine Value
Oxidative Degradation
Champaign IL, 1990.
Phosphorus (ResidualGums)
• C. Paquot and A. Hautfenne, eds . IUPAC Standard Methods Unsaponifiable Material
for the Analysis of Oils, Fats and Derivatives, 7th ed . Product Specifications
Blackwell Scientific Pub lications, Oxford , London, UK,
1987. A. Dieffenbacher and W . D. Pocklington, eds., 1st
Supplement, Blackwell, 1992.
Procedures for perfo rm ing most of the tests discu ssed below are given
in one or both of these sources. In some ins tances, no standard method
is availab le, and a pragmatic alternative is suggested. The speci fic
method references for the various tests are given in Table 2-1.
Physical Tests
SOLID FAT INDEX/CONTENT
x
The solid fat in dex (SF!) and solid fat content (SFC) relate to the Q)
"C
c:
percent of shortening that is solid at various temperatures. This curve
can have a variety of shapes; for cocoa butter it is humped, but for some iii
u,
others it is almost straight over most of the range, with a steeper or :2
(5
shallower slope. The wh ole curve cannot be predicted from a de- (f)
termination made at just one temperature; the entire SF! (or SFC) curve
is required in order to understand the properties of the shortening at Temperature. vc
different temperatures. Curves for different fats may cross, so it is
15
Examples of SFI curves.
16 I CHAPTER TWO
incorrect to compare the SFI/C of two fats without giving the tem-
Plasticfat-Fat that contains perature at which the comparison was made.
both solid and liquid triglycerides
The functionality of a plastic fat depends not only on the solids
and at room temperature has a
consistencythat will hold its content, but also on the slope of the SFI/C curve. Meetin g an SFI/C
shape but issoft and pliable. specification implies that the values for a particular batch lie within the
specified ranges and also that deviations from the target values are all
Basestocks-Fats with certain on the same side, either higher or lower. Th is is particularly impor-
composition and melting tant in producing basestocks for blending to produce margarine or
characteristics that are mixed in shortening.
order to get desirable melting The original method for estimating the percent of solids in a fat was
properties in a margarine or based on dilatometry (see Box 2-1: Measurement of Solid Fat Index, and
shortening .
Fig. 2-1); the numbers obtained are referred
to as the "solid fat index." This method is
TABLE 2-1. Methods for Analysis of Edible Fats and Oils time-consuming and subject to bias. More
Test AOCS IUPAC
recently low-resolution nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) has been used to measure
Solid fat index (dilatometry) Cd 10-57 2.141 the relative amounts of liquid and solid fat in
Solid fat content (pNMR) Cd 16b-93 2.150 a sample, based upon the difference in rates
Melting point of relaxation of protons in the two phases
Complete mp Cc 1-25 after the sample has been pulsed. With
Wiley mp Cc 2-38 proper calibration this gives a direct deter-
Dropping point Cc 18-80 mination of the percentage of solid fat, and
Slip point Cc 3-25 the results are termed "solid fat content." The
Cc 3b-92 analysis takes less time than dilatometry, but
Cloud point Cc 6-25 the equipment is more expensive.
Oxidation The relationship between SFI and SFC is a
Active oxygen method Cd 12-57 2.506
function of temperature, type of shortening,
and the level of SFI. Comprehensive studies
Oil stability Index Cd 12b-92
of 46 shortenings across the temperature
Oxygen bomb
range of 10-4S o C and of 13 confectionery
Smoke, flash, fire points Cc 9a-48
fats (hard butters) provided the data for the
Polar lipids in frying fat Cd 20-91 2.507 plots shown in Figures 2-2 and 2-3. For short-
Color enings, the plots are different at different
Lovibond Cc 13c-92 temperatures, while for hard butters, the rela-
Spectrophotometric Cc 13c-50 2.103 tionship is essentially the same at all tem-
Plasticity (hardness) Cc 16-60 peratures. The authors of these figures (1,2)
Fatty acids give tables for interconverting SFI and SFC.
Composition Ce 1-62 2.302 Analytical measurements of SFI and SFC
Polyunsaturated Cd 15-78 2.206 are relatively precise; duplicate determina-
trans Double bonds Cd 14b -93 2.207 tions should agree within ±1 unit. The sug-
Free fatty acids Ca 5a-40 2.201 gested values given in Appendix C for SFI
Iodine value Cd 1-25 2.205 and SFC have rather large tolerances speci-
Oxidation
fied, because it is difficult to control the steps
in shortening production to closer tolerances
Peroxide value Cd 8b-90 2.501
than those given. In any event, it is impor-
Anisidine value Cd 18-90 2.504
tant that the specification be clear as to
Totox number which method is to be used: dilatometry (for
Thiobarbituric acid Cd 19-90 2.531 SFI) or NMR (for SFC).
Phosphorus Ca 12-55 2.421
Unsaponifiable material Ca 6b-53 2.401
ANALYTICAL TESTS \ 17
MELTING POINT
Melting point (mp) usually refers to the temperature at which a pure Dilatometry-A technique for
compound changes from the solid to the liquid phase. In the case of measuring the amount of solid
commercial fats, which are mixtures of triglycerides (and perhaps or liquid in a fat based on
small volume changes that
monoglycerides and other emulsifiers), no sharp change occurs. In fact occu r when going from the
the "melting point" of a fat is more accurately termed a "dissolution solid to the liquid state.
point." To illustrate, fully hydrogenated palm oil (consisting of mixed
triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids) melts at 58-60°C (l35- 140°F) Hard butters-Fats that are
and is added to plastic shortening at 5-10% of the total. The melting very firm at room temperature
point of the resulting fat is usually around 45-47°C (113- 117°F); the and have a high melting po int.
solid fat has fully dissolved in the oil phase at this temperature.
Capillary melting point-The
Complete melting point. This measurement is also sometimes referred temperature at which a solid
to as a capillary melting point. The sample is introduced into a glass fat turns into a liquid,
capillary tube, which is then sealed. It is then chilled to solidify the fat, measured by warming a fat
then heated in a water bath. The temperature at which the last visible sample in a small tube and
observi ng the temperature at
traces of solids disappear is the complete melting point. It corresponds which the solid character of
to an SFI of O. the fat disappears.
Wiley melting point. Fat is formed into a small disk (in a mold), then
chilled. The disk is slowly warmed (in a water bath), and the melting
Wiley melting point-The
temperature at which a solid point is the temperature at which the disk changes its configuration.
fat turns into a liquid, The official method specifies that the fat should become spherical, but
measured by warming a fat some analysts look for the point at which the sharp edges disappear and
until it loses its shape. the fat takes on a football shape. The change is rather gradual, and
disagreement between analysts is not unusual. For plastic fats, the
Wiley melting point occurs when the SFI is about 2-3. For hard butters,
1.14
--- -- ---
0)
Q)~ 1.08
E
::s
0 1.06
> 1
I
0 1
i.i=
'0 1.04 I
I
Q) 1
Q.. I
(j) 1
1.02 I
I
1
I
1
1.00 I
... -.-~-
0.98 4--.....:.:~-,r---------,-----r------r---....,-------1
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature, C 0
Fig. 2-1. Dilatometry of a commercial plastic shortening (Crisco). The dashed line shows the
extrapolated volume of the liquid fat. The dotted line is the conventional line, placed 0.100
units (7) below the liquid line. The solid fat index (SFI) is the difference (5) between the actual
measured volume (.) and the extrapolated liquid line, divided by T (which is 0.1) and ex-
pressed as a percentage. At 20°C, the sample shown had an SFI of 18.
100 100
90
80 80 ."
70
10°C .: /e/
C
Q)
C
0
60
..... /(.
r'
/ C
Q)
C 60
.
0
0
~
50 0
0 <>: 25°C
0
co
.. .-
u.. u,
40 ./~. 40
:-g :Q
0 o .~. (5
(f)
(f) 30 e
P1/.
20 20
10
. ..:.1~·;·.4
~:~.
o "" e.
40°C
-
o ......
1odiilIIlt----l-_~____l _ _ . l . _ _ - ' - - - - - - I . ._ __'
0
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 20 40 60 80
Solid Fat Index Solid Fat Index
Fig. 2-2. Relationship between solid fat in- Fig. 2-3. Solid fat index (SFI) vs. solid fat
dex (SFI) and solid fat content (SFC) for content (SFC) for confectionery hard but-
plastic shortenings. The data are shown for ters. Unlike that for plastic shortenings, the
10, 25, and 40°C. Tables for interconvert- relationship for these fats shows almost no
ing SFI and SFC are found in the original temperature dependence. Tables for inter-
publication (1). converting SFI and SFC are found in the
original publication (2).
ANALYTICAL TESTS \ 19
the melting point is sharper, and the SFI may be somewhat less.
Dropping melting point. Th e Mettler Ins trument Corporation has in - Dropping melting point-
troduced an instrument that m easures fat mel ting point autom atically. The temperatu re at which a
The fat is pla ced in a cup that has a small orifi ce in the bottom. The cup solid fat turns into a liquid,
measured by warming the fat
is warmed at a const ant rat e. When the fat liquefies, it flows through
until it form s a drop of liquid.
the orifice, forming a drop that interrupts a light beam; th is is the
en dp oint, which is au tomatically registered. No operator atten tion is Slip point-e-The temperature
required during th is process, making the determinatio n more objective at which a solid fat bec omes
than with the other methods. The dropping melting point correspon ds more liquid-like. It is measured
to an SFI of about 1-2. by warm ing a fat sample in a
sma ll tube and observing th e
Slip point. This method is not com m on ly used in the United States but temperatu re at which it
is frequ ently used in oth er cou ntries. The sample is placed in a capillary moves.
tube, but the ends are left open rather than being sealed (as for the
complet e m elting point). After ch illin g, the tube is placed vertically in a Clou d point-The am ount of
water bath an d slowly warmed. Th e slip point is the temperature at time an oil remains clear wh en
which the fat rises a specific distance in th e capillary. It corre sponds to coo led to refrigerator tem pera-
tur e.
an SFI of about 5 (som ewh at less for hard butters).
Active oxyge n method-A
CLOUD POINT proc edure to det ermine how
In some applications, 'mayonnaise and salad dressings in particular, it rapidly an oil or fat oxid izes to
form peroxides.
is important that the oil remain com pletely liquid at refrigerator
temperatures. To test th is capability , the oil is held in an ice bath, and
Peroxide valu e-A number
the time until the first cloudiness appears is noted. A time of 5.5 hr is that indicates the level of
considered minimum, and a cloud point time of 20 hr is quite good. For peroxides in a fat or oil that
monitoring oil during m anufactu re, a rap id test is used. The oil sample has developed as a result of
is ch illed at -60°C (-76°F) for 15 min, then h eld at lOoC (50°F). If no oxidation . Perox ides are
solid m aterial is visible after 30 min, the oil passes the test. cons idered intermed iates in
the lipid oxidation reaction
OXIDATIVE STABILITY scheme .
Resista n ce to autoxidation (see Chapter 1) is important in fats and Oil stability index-An auto-
oils, more so in some applications (e.g., frying fat, cracker spra y oil) mated proced ure for
than in others (e.g., bread shortening) . To measure this resistance, the dete rmining th e speed at
oil is heated in the presence of oxygen, and the length of t im e needed which oxidized products
develop in a heated oil when
for the peroxide value (see below) to reach a specified level is deter-
air is bubbl ed th rou gh .
mined.
Active oxygen method (ADM). Fat oxidative stability is measured by th e
AOM. Air is bubb led through oil or fat held at 97 .8°C. Period ically, oil
sam ples are withdrawn and the peroxide value is determined. The time
requ ired to develop a peroxide con cen tr ati on of 100 meq/kg is the
AOM sta bility of the sample. (Th is meth od is now considered ob solete.
The oil stability index is now stan dard in the industry, although
product specifications still routinely give AOM value s.)
Oil stability index (OSI). The endpoint for oil stability is measured
automatically in this test. Air is bubbled through hot oil, an d one of th e
breakdown products (formic acid ) is carried by the stream of air into
distill ed water in a cell . The machine continuously m on itors con-
ductivity of the water. The time at which it rises sharply is the end
20 I CHAPTER TWO
poi n t of the determin ation . The rate of the autoxidation rea ction
almost exactly doubles with each 10 degree C increase in tem peratur e,
and th e apparatus is usually ope rated at 110°C to shorten te sti ng time.
The resu lts correlate well with AOM values; results obtained at 110°C
are 40-45% of th e AOM numbers (determined at 97.8°C).
Oxygen bomb. The sample is sealed in a heavy-walled container at-
ta ched to a pressure recorder. The bom b is pressurized with O 2 to 100
psi, then placed in a boi ling water bath . The end point is the time when
the sample starts to absorb oxygen rapidly and a sharp pressure drop
Oxygen bo mb- A procedure occurs. It is reported th at oxygen bomb results correlat e better with
to measure the speed at which product she lf life tests (appearan ce of rancidity) than do AOM numbers.
a heated sample consumes Th is method has the added advantage that the whole sample (e.g.,
oxygen due to lipid oxidation. snack crackers) may be used in the test; no prior fat extraction is
necessary.
Smoke point- The
tem peratu re at which a heated
oil begins to give off smoke. FIRE DANGER POINTS
Smoke point, flash point, fire point. Fat is pla ced in a cu p and heated
Flash point- The te mpe rature in a white-walled ch am ber under a strong light. The temperature at
at which a heated oil gives
which wisps of smoke are obse rved is the smoke point. With fur ther
flashes of burning whe n
exposed to a flame. heat in g, a small open flame that is passed over the hot oil causes flashes
of burning fat; th is is the flash point. Upon further heating, eve ntually a
Fire point-The temperature continuous fire can be ignited at the fat surface (fire point). The presence
at which a heated oil burns of free fatty acids, emulsifiers, and bit s of fried food in t he oil all serve
with a flame when ignited. t o lower these temperature points (Fig. 2-4). The flash point is
approximately 140 degrees C (250 degrees F) higher than the sm oke
poin t, and the fire point is 55 degrees C (100 degrees F) higher still .
Smoke point is an important test for fats used in deep frying operations.
If the fat has a relatively low smoke point to start with, the formation
700
-------------- --------- -- --
-- - -.. .. .. 350
600
--- --- -- .. ..
.. 300
LL ........ .... o
0
.... 0
~
500 .... .... ... 250 ~
- ----
::J ::J
~
Q)
~
Q)
a. 400 a.
---- -----
E
Q)
200 E
Q)
I- I-
200
-- - Fire point
100
0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 2 5 10
Free Fatty Acid Concentration, %
Fig. 2-4. Effect of free fatty acid con te nt on the smoke, flash, and fire points of soy-
bean oil.
ANALYTICALTESTS \ 21
of free fatty acids an d fat breakdown products durin g use may lower the
flash point suffici ently that the fat may be ignited by the heating
elements.
Cone stress index- A method Measurement. The method for measuring plasticity uses the ASTM
of measur ing the softness or grease cone penetrometer. The depth to wh ich a standard cone pene-
pliabilityof a fat. trates the fat during 5 sec is measured. DeMan (3) has reviewed work
with this machine. Using a "cone stress index," which is proportional to
l/(depth of penetration)", he found a good relationship with
"spreadability ." This test may be used to write an objective specification
for shortening hardness, for example, for roll-in fats on a Danish or puff
pastry production line.
Chemical Tests
FATlY ACIDS
Composition. Th e fatty acid com position of fats and oils is becoming a
routine test, in large part because of the requirements of th e new food
labelling regul ations . The fatty acids are converted from glyc erides to
m eth yl ester s, then an alyzed by gas-liquid ch rom ato graph y (GLe). Th e
methodology in this area continues to evolve; the cis, trans, and
geometric isomers of monounsaturated fatty acids, for example, can be
separated and measured by GLe. Typical fatty acid compositions of
edible fats and oils are presented in Appendix B.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are legally defined as containing
cis, cis methylene-interrupted double bonds. They are measured as the
oxidation product s (con jugated diene) obtained upon reaction with the
enzyme lipoxygenase. Geometric and trans isomers of PUFAs do not
react with the enzyme.
The concentration of trans double bonds is measured by in frared
spectrophotometry. The sharp absorption peak at 968 cm-! is used to
quantitate the ' amount of trans double bonds in the fat (in a solvent
such as carbon disulfide). Because of the numerous combinations pos -
Free fatty acids-Fatty acids
with an acid group that is not
sible, it is difficult to separate by GLC all th e various cis, trans, and
chemi cally bound to an geometric isomers of PUFAs found in partially hydrogenated vegetable
alcohol group . Usuallyfatty oils.
acids are bound to glycerol to
Free fatty acids. To measure free fatty acid (FFA) con ten t, a sample of
form triglycerides and are
therefore not free. oil is dissolved in alcohol and titrated with alcoholic sodium hydroxide
to a phenolphthalein end point. The resul ts are given as percen t free fatty
Phen olphthalein end po int- acid (%FFA), calculated as oleic acid. Any acidic compound in the
A color indicator used to sample rea cts with the hydroxide. Thus, citri c acid, added to refined oil
determ ine when all the acid as a metal chelator, is ti tra ted and in creases the apparent FFA con te n t.
groups have been reacted with This possible com plication must be kept in mind if a sample appears to
basic group s from sod ium have excessive FFA.
hydroxide added during a
titration.
IODINE VALUE
Iodine value-A test to Chemical basis. Elemental iodine (lz) can add to double bonds in un-
measure the number of double saturated fatty acids. This reaction (with variations that speed up the
bonds in a fat or oil. A higher test) is used to measure fat unsaturation. The results are expressed as
value means more double
bonds.
grams of iodine absorbed by 100 g of fat. The reaction occurs with both
ANALYTICAL TESTS \ 23
as and trans double bonds. Typical iodine values (IVs) are given for
natural fats and oils in Appendix B.
Connection to physical properties. The conversion of a as to a trans
double bond raises the melting point of the triglyceride involved but
does not affect IV. An oil may be hydrogenated to the same IV using,
for example, two different catalysts and conditions, and the resulting
products will have quite different SFI profiles, melting points, plasticity
ranges, and other physical properties. Likewise a soy oil and a cot-
tonseed oil at the same IV have quite different characteristics. Hence, IV
correlates with physical functionality only when one compares the
same starting oils and the same processing (hydrogenation) conditions.
OXIDATIVE DEGRADATION
Peroxide value (PV). Hydroperoxides formed by fat oxidation react
with iodide ions to form iodine, which in turn is measured by titration
with thiosulfate. The resulting PV is expressed as milliequivalents of
iodine formed per kilogram of fat. This is the classical method for
determining the extent of oxidation of a fat. As part of a raw material
specification, it ensures that the ingredient has been properly refined
and handled.
Anisidine value (AV). PV does not measure all the breakdown products
formed from peroxides, in particular the a,~-unsaturated aldehydes.
However, these form a colored adduct with anisidine; the color is
quantitated at 350 nm and converted to AV. The test is seldom used in
the United States but is widely used in Europe, particularly as a part of
Anisidine value-A test to
the Totox number.
determine the amount of
Totox number. A measure of the total oxidation of the fat or oil is the reaction products produced by
Totox number: lipid oxidation.
Totox = A V + (2 x PV) .
Totox number-A measure of
During storage stability testing of high-fat products, it is often observed the total amount of
that PV first rises, then falls (as hydroperoxides decay). Totox, however, intermediate compounds
measures both hydroperoxides and their breakdown products. It tends (peroxides) and end-product
to rise continuously and gives a better measure of the progressive compounds that result from
lipid oxidation.
oxidative degradation of the fat.
2-Thiobarbituric add (TBA) value. TBA forms colored adducts with the 2-Thiobarbituric acid value-
breakdown products formed from fatty acid peroxides. The aldehyde A mea sure of lipid oxidation
products form a yellow pigment with an absorption at 450 nm, while that determines the
concentration of certain end
the 2,4-dienals (for example, from the breakdown of linoleic acid
products of lipid oxidation.
hydroperoxide) give a red adduct with absorption at 530 nm. The test is
quite sensitive, registering the presence of fatty acid oxidative breakdown
products at a very early stage in the development of rancidity.
UNSAPONIFIABLE MATERIAL
Waxes, sterols, and hydrocarbons in fats and oils are generally de -
termined as unsaponifiable material. The weighed sample is saponified
(refluxed with aqueous sodium hydroxide). The cooled mixture is re-
peatedly extracted with petroleum ether and/or diethyl ether. The sol-
vent is removed from the combined dried extracts, which are then
weighed and reported as unsaponifiable material. The content of
unsaponificable material in a properly refined fat or oil is generally less
than 0.5% and is not a problem with respect to quality.
°C SFC OF SFI
10 38 ± 3 50 28 ± 3
15 29 ± 3 70 20 ± 2
20 22 ± 3 80 17 ± 1
25 17 ± 2 92 13 ± 1
30 12 ± 2 104 7±1
35 8±1
40 4 ±1
ANALYTICAL TESTS \ 25
The main reason for expending resources to perform the tests dis-
cussed above is to help the buyer of a fat or oil communicate to the
Specifications-A set of
supplier precisely what is needed. This communication is in the form of
chemical and physical quality
a product (or raw material) specification. It is a written list of tests and requirements that a product or
the desired result for each analysis. It is the buyer's responsibility to ingredient must meet before it
issue this specification. Of course, frequently the actual numbers are is acceptable.
determined through collaboration with the supplier(s). In essence, the
buyer is saying "If you supply a material that meets these specifications,
I will consider purchasing it from you."
A typical specification for an all-purpose shortening is presented in
Table 2-2. This is only a partial specification. The buyer may want to
specify the sources of the oils used to make the shortening, and the
specification should also address such matters as packaging (kind, size),
storage conditions, necessity for Good Manufacturing Practices at all
stages of production, and other matters that are outside the specific
topics covered in this chapter.
A brief comment on the reason for, and importance of, each of the
items listed in Table 2-2 might be helpful.
Peroxide value. Since peroxides are initiators of autoxidation (see
Chapter I), a PV greater than 1 meq/kg indicates that the fat will
have reduced stability in the finished product.
Free fatty acid. The free fatty acids in a fat are removed during re-
fining and deodorizing (see Chapter 4). An FFA level of more than
0.05% indicates that these steps were not properly done, or that
there is a high level of citric acid in the oil.
Phosphorus content. More than 1 ppm phosphorus indicates
incomplete degumming of the oil used to make the shortening. The
residual lecithin promotes autoxidation (rancidity).
AOM and OSI. One or the other of these is included, to ensure that
the shortening has sufficient stability against oxidation for its in-
tended purposes.
• Wiley melting point. This is unimportant for an all-purpose short-
ening but is significant for fats present in high concentration in the
food product (e.g., sandwich cookie filler fats, confectionery
coatings).
Color (Lovibond). This primarily ensures that the oils used to make
the shortening were properly refined and bleached. The exact
numbers depend in part upon the parent oils.
Flavor. If the shortening has any noticeable off-flavors, it should be
immediately rejected. There are many sources for bad flavors, none
of which are acceptable.
Odor. The same comments apply here as for flavor. Any noticeable
off-odor is grounds for immediate rejection of a shipment.
26 I CHAPTER TWO
References
1. van den Enden, J. c., Haighton, A. J., van Putte, K., Vennaas , L. E, and
Waddington, D. 1978. Fette, Seife, Anstrichrnittel 80:180.
2. van den Enden, J. c., Rossell, J. B., Verrnaas, L. E, and Waddington, D. 1982.
J. Am. Oil Chern. Soc. 59:433 .
3. DeMan, J. M. 1983. J. Am. Oil Chern. Soc. 60:82.
4. Sinrarn, R. D. 1986. J. Am. Oil Chern. Soc. 63:667.
Properties of Emulsifiers
Functions in Food Systems
Oil and water do not mix; oil is nonpolar, whereas water is a polar
liquid. If oil and water are shaken together, an emulsion is formed . In a In This Chapter:
familiar example, when a bottle containing olive oil and vinegar is Functions in Food
shaken, the oil phase separates into droplets suspended in the vinegar. Systems
The oil is called the "dispersed phase," while the vinegar is th e Amphiphilic (Polar and
"continuous phase" (Box 3-1). This example is an oil-in-water (O/W) Nonpolar) Nature
emulsion. In other instances, for example, during the production of Emulsification
Foaming
margarine, the water phase is dispersed in droplets in the oil phase,
Wetting
giving a water-in-oil (W/0) emulsion. If the mixture of oil and vinegar Interactions with Other
is left standing for a while, the two phases slowly separate, with the oil Components
droplets rising to the top. The length of time for separation depends on
the size of the droplets-large droplets rise faster than small ones. This Functional Properties
process is called creaming. When the drops contact each other, they join Emulsification-HLB
Antistaling-Complexing
together, or coalesce. The average drop size increases, and eventually a with Starch
phase of oil becomes visible on the top. This is called emulsion Protein Aggregation and
"breakdown." Solution
If an emulsifier is present in the system, the drops formed during
Emulsifier Types and
shaking are smaller and take longer to rise to the top. Thus, a longer Applications
time elapses before the emulsion creams, the droplets in the dispersed Emulsifiers
phase coalesce, and the emulsion breaks down. Emulsifiers are Wetting Agents
sometimes called surfactants, but not all surfactants are effective Dough Strengtheners
emulsifiers. The key point is that good emulsifiers promote the Film Formers
subdivision of the dispersed phase. The phase in which the emulsifier is Regulatory
soluble is usually the continuous phase-a water-soluble emulsifier such Considerations
as Polysorbate 60 promotes an O/W emulsion, while an oil -soluble
emulsifier such as monoglyceride promotes a W/0 emulsion. This
tendency is expressed by the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB), Emulsion-Ahomogeneous
which is discussed later in this chapter. dispersion of two dissimilar
The actions of oil, water, and emulsifier in the situations described immiscible liquid phases. If oil
above can be explained in terms of how energy, both intrinsic and is dispersed in water, it is an oil-
applied, influences the mixture of oil and water. Energy exists at the in-water (O/W) emulsion. If
interface between the two phases (th is is y, the interfacial tension, or water isdispersed in oil, it is a
water-in-oil emulsion (W/O) .
surface tension ). Energy can also be applied from outside in the form of
mixing (e.g., stirring by hand or beating with an electric mixer). Each Creaming-In an emulsion,
time the oil or water droplets are subdivided by mixing, more droplets the collection of the lighter
are created and the amount of interfacial area increases. The lower the phase in the upper part ofthe
mixture (e.g., oil droplets on
interfacial energy is to start with, the larger th e amount of new top ofwater).
29
30 I CHAPTER THREE
Emulsifier-A material that in terfacial area that can be created for a given amount of energy input.
lowers the interfacial ene rgy As the in terfacial area increases, so does the in terfacial energy. However,
between two imm iscible phases this is the energy that makes the droplets resist further subdivision. It
(e.g., oil and water), thus
makes the small droplets want to coalesce into larger droplets, leading
facili tating the dispersion of
one pha se into the other. eventually to separation of the oil and water phases. Added surfactant
decreases the free energy at the oil-water interface, lowerin g interfacial
Surfactant-A chemical tension and slowing the rate of coales cence. This chapter examines this
compound that concentrates at process in more detail.
the interface between two
dissimilar phases such as oil
and water. The surface ten sion AMPHIPHILIC (POLAR AND NONPOLAR) NATURE
is lowered by the presen ce of a As mentioned above, an emulsifier is a type of surfactant.
surfactant.
"Sur factan t" is a coin ed word (from surface active agent) applied to
Interface-A surface that forms molecules that migrate to in terfaces between two physical phases and
the common bo undary thus are more concentrated in the in te rfacia l region than in th e bulk
between two bodies, spac es, or phases. The key molecular cha racteristic of a surfactant is t ha t it is
phases .
amphiphiiic in nature; the lipophilic (or hydrophobic) part of t he
Int erfacial te nsion-The forces molecule prefers to be in a lipid (n on polar) environment an d t he
that cause two dissimilar liq uids hydrophilic part prefers to be in an aqueous (polar) environment (Box 3-
such as oil and wate r to 1). If a surfa ctant is dissolved in either phase of an ordinary mixture of
sepa rate from each other.
oil and water, some portion of the surfactant concentrates at the oil-
Surface ten sion is the force
that causes two dissimilar water interface. At equilibrium, surface tension is lower than in the
phases such as air and water to absence of the sur factan t .
separate. While sometimes The lipophilic portion of food surfactants is usually a long-chain
used interchangeably, fatty acid obtained from a food-grade fat or oil (Fig. 3-1). The
interfacial tension is between hydrophilic portion can be nonionic, anionic (n egativ ely ch arged), or
two liq uids or solids wh ile amph oteric (carryin g both posit ive and negative charges). Cationic
surface tension is between a (positively ch arged) surfactants are usually bactericidal an d somewhat
liquid and a gas.
toxic and are not used as food additives. Examples of the three types are
Amphiphilic- Describing a monoglyceride (n on ion ic), stearoyl lactylate (an ioni c), and lecithin
compound that po ssesses both
lipophilic ("fat-Ioving") and
hydrophilic ("water-loving")
regions.
Li pophilic-Attracted to fat or
nonpolar regions of mo lecules.
oil
This chemical pro perty results
from the occurre nce of CH2 water
group s and the absence of
oxyge n or nitrogen groups.
emulsifier
Hydrophili c-Attracted to
water or polar regions of
molecules. This che mical
property results from the
occur rence of oxygen or OIW emulsion WIO emulsion
nitrogen groups and means Box. 3-1. How Emulsifiers Act in Emulsions
that there is no attra ction to fat
or nonpolar groups.
In an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion, drops of oil are suspended in
water and molecules of emulsifier are gathered at the interface. The
lipophilic part of the emulsifier (the long chain) is associated with
the oil droplet, and the hydrophilic part is associated with the water.
In a water-in-oil (W/0) emulsion, water droplets are dispersed in oil.
PROPERTIES OF EMULSIFIERS \ 31
(amphoteric). The nonionic surfactants are relatively in sensitive to pH Nonion ic- Describing a
and salt concentrati on in the aqueous phase, while the fun ctionality of compound with no positive or
the ionic ty pes may be markedly influenced by pH and ionic strength. nega tive charge.
Anionic-Describing a
EMULSIFICATION negatively charged compound.
Promotion. The formation of an Q/W emulsion is outlined in Figure Amph oteric- Describing a
3-2. If 100 ml of pure vegetable oil plus SOO ml of water are mixed compound such as a protein
vigorously to ob tain an emulsion in which the average diameter of th e that has both positive and
oil globules is 1 urn, th en 600 m- (sligh tly more th an 6,400 ftl) of oil- negative charges.
H OH
-C-C-CH OH non ionic
" 2
HH
an ionic
+
H NH3
Lipophilic chain -C-C-COO- a mphote ric
HH
Hydrophilic end grou ps
Fig. 3-1. Amphi philic mo lecules. The fatty acid chain is the lipophilic (hydr oph o bic)
part. Variou s hydrophilic end groups are shown.
..
Coalescence Stabilization
Fig . 3-2. Emulsification, creaming, coalesce nce, and stabilizati on of a mixture of oil
and water.
32 I CHAPTER THREE
to the ability to lower interfacial tension. GMS (1%) in the oil ph ase
lowers y to 3 erg/ern- but has little effect on coalescence rate, while 12%
PGMS yields a y of 9 erg/em- but gives an emulsion with excellent long-
term stability.
Foam-A gaseous phase, such
FOAMING as air, dispe rsed and held in a
liquid phase, such as wate r.
Whereas an emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible liquids (e.g.,
water and oil), a foam is a mixture of liquid and gas (e.g., water and air).
It involves the same energy considerations as an emulsion: lowering the
interfacial (surface) tension favors foam formation. Small surfactant
molecules dissolved in the aqueous phase promote foaming, and th e
stability of the foam is dependent on the stability of the film of water
between air bubbles. The lipophilic portion of the surfactant enters the
gas phase (rather than an oil phase), but in all other respects the situa-
tion is analogous to that in emulsions.
The foaming agent in foods is often a protein. Proteins are am-
phiphilic molecules; many amino acids have hydrophobic (lipophilic)
side chains, and others have side chains that are ionic, hence hydro-
philic. Normally, proteins such as egg albumin in solution are folded in
such a way that the hydrophobic side chains are buried in a nonpolar
environ m en t in the interior of the molecule, while the hydrophilic side
chains are on the surface of the molecule and interact with the polar
aqueous environment. When air bubbles are introduced into th e solu-
tion by the action of the m ixer, the protein unfolds at the air-water
in terface. The hydrophobic side chains enter the air phase, and the hy-
drophilic chains remain in the water phase. The portions of the pro-
teins locat ed in the aqueous phase hold water, prevent it from draining,
and prevent t h e air bubbles from coalescing and destabilizing the foam.
Whipping aids increase th e ability of the protein t o unfold at the air-
water interface. This effect may be due to denaturation caused by a pH
change (e.g., from cream of ta rtar) or to the presence of a surfactant
(e.g., sodium lauryl sulfate). In either case, the energetics of protein un-
folding become more favorable and the ease of foam formation
increases. On th e other hand, the presence of lipids retards foaming
because the oil molecules migrate to the air-water interface before th e
protein molecules, inhibiting the unfolding of th e protein and thus th e
formation of foam.
WETIING
Hyd ro philic -lipophilic balance
In some surfactants, the lipophilic and hydrophilic t en den cies are (HLB)-A system of classifying
evenly balanced, so these materials do not favor th e subdivision of surfactants or emulsifiers by
either the oil or water phase in a mixture. The hydrophilic-lipophilic bal- how mu ch "water loving " and
how mu ch "fat loving"
ance (HLB) of such emulsifiers is usually around 8-10 (see section on
characte r the molecules have .
HLB below). They promote the spreading of a liquid phase onto a solid On a scale of 0-20, a high
surface, for instance, in the mixing of water and coco a powder. Gener- number means more
ally th e surface is somewhat hydrophobic (e.g., cocoa solids), and the hydrophilic.
emulsifier increases the rate at which water displaces air from the sur -
34 I CHAPTER THREE
face of the particles, enhancing the dispersion of the solid phase into
the water. This functionality is useful in formulating dry drink mixes,
coffee creamers, and similar food products.
Functional Properties
EMULSIFICATION-HLB
The type of emulsion formed is determined by the solubility charac-
teristics of the emulsifier. As a general rule , the continuous phase is the
one in which the emulsifier is soluble. Thus, a soap (e.g., sodium
stearate) promotes an O/W emulsion, while monoglyceride promotes a
water-in-oil (W/0) emulsion. The concept of hydrophilic-lipophilic bal -
ance, or HLB, as a number for characterizing surfactants is an extension
of this general rule. The scale as originally proposed ranged from 0 to
20, the low end signifying an emulsifier that is much more soluble in
oil than in water, and the high end Signifying the reverse. Table 3-1
lists HLB values for some food surfactants. HLB is recommended as a
guide for selecting emulsifier systems, especially for foods such as salad
dressings, whipped toppings, and similar oil/water mixtures that must
retain their emulsified character during a long shelf life, up to one year.
A basic part of the concept is that the HLB of a blend of two emulsi-
fiers is equal to their algebraic sum, i.e., the weight fraction of emulsi-
fier A times its HLB value plus the weight fraction of emulsifier B times
its HLB value. In a test system comprising equal volumes of water and
Nujol (a food grade mineral oil), using blends of various Span (sorbitan
fatty acid esters) surfactants and Tween (polyoxyethylenej, sorbitan
fatty acid esters) surfactants to cover the HLB ranges from 2.0 to 6.5 and
8.5 to 16.5, O/W emulsions were most stable at an HLB of about 12 and
W/0 emulsions at an HLB of about 3.5. In a practical system that in-
cludes other ingredients such as sugar, salt, protein, and other typical
food components, the optimal HLB might be somewhat different, and a
series of tests is necessary to determine the exact blend of surfactants
that gives the best results. As a rule of thumb, W/0 emulsions are stabi-
lized by HLB values in the 3-6 range, O/W emulsions are stabilized by
HLB values in the 11-15 range, and intermediate HLB values give good
wetting properties but not good emulsion
stability. TABLE 3-1. Hydrophilic/Lipophilic Balance (HLB) Values for
Some Food Surfactants
ANTISTALlNG- COMPLEXING Surfactant HLB Value
WITH STARCH
Sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL) 21.0
Starch molecules are polymers composed Polysorbate 80 (PE20 sorbitan monooleate) 15.4
of glucose units (a -D-glucopyran osidyl resi- Polysorbate 60 (PE20 sorbitan monostearate) 14.4
dues ) joined primarily by 1,4 acetal linkages Sucrose monostearate 12.0
(1,6 linkages occur at the branch points in
Polysorbate 65 (PE zo sorbitan tristearate) 10.5
amylopectin). The starch glucopyranoside
Diacetyl tartaric ester of monoglyceride (DATEM) 9.2
(glu cose) is a six-membered ring in the
"ch air" configuration (Fig. 3-4A). The hy- Sucrose distearate 8.9
...=;=:==
droxyl groups project outward to the side of Triglycerol monostearate 7.2
the plane of the ring, while the hydrogen Sorbitan monostearate 5.9
atoms project either above or below this Succinylated monoglyceride (SMG) 5.3
plane. The perimeter of the ring is hydro- Glycerol monostearate(GMS) 3.7
philic, while the two faces are hydrophobic. Propylene glycol monoester (PGME) 1.8
36 I CHAPTER THREE
A B c
H Starch helix
HO ¥
~ _ _- - O
~
H Lipid emulsifier
In solution, the starch ch ain coils to form a helix, with about six resi-
dues per turn (Fig. 3-4B). The result is a hollow cylinder with a hydro-
Helix-A linearlycoiled philic outer surface and a hydrophobic inner surface. The inner space is
structure with a regular pattern about 4.5 A in diameter, and straight-chain alkyl molecules such as
of turns. stearic acid can fit into it (Fig. 3-4C).
In this way, the fatty acid part of emulsifiers such as GMS can form a
complex with gelatinized st arch, retarding starch crystallization in
bread crum b and slowing the process of stalin g. The amount of mono-
glyceride that com plexes with amylose (the lin ear com ponen t of starch)
and with amylopectin (the br anched
4 0 .---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---r- - --;--- --;--- ,
starch com pone n t) is shown in Figure
Legend 3-5. (Other studies report different
• Amylose monoglyceride-starch ratios, but the
35 +-- - - - -
10 Amylopectin pattern is the sam e.) Unsaturated fatty
s:
o
(ij 30 + - -- - - -
acids have a bend produced by the
(jj double bond in the fatty acid chain,
OJ which limits their ability to form the
iii 25 +-- -- - -
0.. complex. The overall picture is that
Ql
:gQl 20 the straight-chain hydrophobic por-
U
tion of em ulsifiers com plexes with
>-
8>15 helical sections of amylose an d amy-
c
o
lopectin, as shown in Figure 3-4C.
2
10
OJ
E PROTEIN AGGREGATION
5 AND SOLUTION
As mentioned earlier, sometimes
o
C14:0
.
C16 :0
,
C18:0
,
C18 :1 C18 :2
hydrophobic regions of the amino acid
Fatty Acid Chain Length side chains in proteins are partially
Fig. 3-5. Amount of monoglyceride complexed by amylose and exposed, even in the fol ded protein.
amylopectin. Variou s monoglycerides rea ct to different exten ts, and These are often referred t o as "hydro-
saturated fatty acids form a bette r complex th an unsat urated fatty phobic patches" on the protein surface.
acids.
PROPERTIES OF EMULSIFIERS \ 37
3, net charge +3
Soluble
"" + emolsifier
~ (3SSL)
1-Monostearin
Fig. 3-7. A typ ical mon oglyceride, 1-monost earin.
PROPERTIES OF EMULSIFIERS \ 39
useful number since, for all products, this equals about 92% of the total
monoglyceride present.
The fatty acid composition of a monoglyceride reflects the makeup of
the triglyceride fat from which it was made. A commercial preparation
of GMS may contain as little as 650/0 stearate if it is made from fully hy-
drogenated lard or as much as 87% stearate if it is made from fully
hydrogenated soybean oil. The other major saturated fatty acid in GMS
is palmitic, and, because hydrogenation is never complete (the iodine
value of GMS is about 5), a few percent of unsaturated (oleic and/or
elaidic) fatty acid is also present. Iodine values for powdered distilled
monoglycerides are in the range of 19-36, and for plastic monoglyc-
erides a typical range is 65-75.
Polysorbates, sorbitan. Heating sorbitol (a sugar) with stearic acid in Polysorbates-A group of
the presence of a catalyst cyclizes the sorbitol and forms an ester, to emulsifiers that each contain
produce sorbitan monostearate (Fig. 3-8A). Other sorbitan esters of im- sorbitans, various types and
portance are the monooleate and the tristearate. Any of the three esters amounts of fatty acids, and
may be reacted with ethylene oxide to give polyoxyethylene derivatives polyoxyethylene chains.
(Fig. 3-8B and C), which are much more hydrophilic than the sorbitan
esters. The monostearate derivative is known as Polysorbate 60; the tris-
tearate is Polysorbate 65; and the monooleate is Polysorbate 80. The
average number of oxyethylene monomers is 20 (n = 20). In the case of
o
H II
HCO-C(CH 2) 16CH3
I
H II
o
HCO-C(CH 2 ) 16 CH3
I
Polyoxyethylene (20)
H(OCH2CH2)n-OCH 0
sorbitan monostearate
H'c~ ~CH
\H H/ 2 (Polysorbate 60)
C--c
HO OH
Polyoxyethylene (20)
sorbitan tristearate
(Polysorbate 65)
OH I
HCH I
HOCH oII
HCH
CH 2-O-C-(CH2 ) 16 CH3
6
I
It----O
HCH I
HOCH
HCH
6 I
n
HCH
HOtH
0 I R OH
HyH II OH H
O-O-C-(CH 2 ) 16 CH3
Polyglycerol Sucrose diester
m 0 nostearate
Fig. 3-9. Polyglycerol esters and sucrose esters.
PROPERTIES OF EMULSIFIERS \ 41
WETfING AGENTS
Lecithin. Commercial lecithin is usually a by-product (often term ed a
"gum") from the refining of crude soybean oil. Figure 3-10 shows the
m ain surface-active components of soy leci thin, which are present in
approximately equal amounts. Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and
phosphatidylcholine (PC) are amphoteric surfactants, and phosphatidy-
lin osit ol (PI) is anionic. PC has a hi gh HLB valu e, PE an in term ediate
HLB value, and PI a low HLB value. The HLB
of the natural blend is in the range of 8-10,
formi ng either O/W or W/O em ulsions, al-
RCOO-CH 2 Ethanolamine
though neither type is very stable. Interme- I
diate-HLB emulsifiers are excellent wettin g RCOO-CH
agents, and this is a major application for Choline
lecithin. I 9-
The em ul sifyin g pro p erties of lecithin can H2C-O-P-O- H OH
II
be improved by ethanol fractionation. PC is
soluble in ethanol; PI is rather insoluble; o
and PE is partially soluble. Adding lecithin
Phosph atidyl- Inositol
to ethanol produces a soluble and an
in soluble fraction . The phosphatide co m po-
sitions of the two are : 1) ethanol-soluble
fraction: 60% PC, 30 % PE, and 2% PI and 2) OH OH
ethanol-insoluble fraction: 4% PC, 29% PE,
and 55 % PI. The soluble fraction is a good Fig. 3-10 . The main components of soy lecithin. Each compound
indicated is present at about 30% of the total weight of the
O/W emulsifier, wh ile the insoluble portion phospholipid. Other minor components includ e Iysolecithins
st abilizes W /0 emulsions. (having only one fatty acid chain) and phosph atidylserine.
42 I CHAPTER THREE
DOUGH STRENGTHENERS
A dough strengthener is added to bread formulas to improve dough
Dough strengthener-An machinability, bread quality, and loaf volume. A test of the dough-
ingredient such as a surfactant strengthening capabilities of a surfactant is to subject the proofed loaf
that is added to a dough in low to mechanical abuse before putting it into the oven. For example, the
levelsto improve the dough
properties.
pan containing the proofed dough is dropped three times (fro m about 4
in.) onto the countertop. Then the doughs are baked, depanned, and
cooled, and the volume is measured. This test is designed to simulate
the rough handling that proofed doughs often receive in a commercial
bakery, such as sudden starts and stops on the conveyor line or being
struck by a loading or unloading bar. In one test, using surfactant at a
level of 0.25% (flour basis), calcium stearoyl lactylate (CSL) gave the
best volum e improvement (approxim ately 260 ern" in a l-lb loaf).
Ethoxylated monoglyceride (EMG) was the second most effective; Poly-
sorbate 60 and SSL were about equivalent (about 210 em "): and succiny-
Sodium stearoyl
lactylate
(SSL)
Ethoxylated
monoglyceride
(EMG)
Fig. 3-11. Dough strengtheners commonly used in the baking industry today.
PROPERTIES OF EMULSIFIERS \ 43
FILM FORMERS
Unlike most fats, in which the a crystal phase readily transforms to
W, certain emulsifiers solidify in a sta ble a- crystalline (waxy) form . The
main examples in com m ercial use (Fig. 3-12) are acetyl -monoglycerides a -Ten ding emulsifiers-OiI-
soluble emu lsifiers that form a
(AcMG), lactyl-monoglycerides (LacMG), and propylene glycol
solid film at the oil-water
monoesters (PGME). At concentrations above a certain level, these a- interface.
tending emulsifiers form a solid film at the oil-water interface. This phe-
nomenon, and its usefulness in cake production, is discussed in Chap-
ter 5. The addition of a second surfactant may en h an ce film formation;
a mixture of PGME and stearic acid (80:20) is a stronger film -former
than pure PGME at the same weight con cen tration.
oII
C-O-C- H
I 2
Acetyl-monoglyceride
H-C-OH
~ I (AcMG)
H C ......C-O-C-H2
a
oII
C-O-C-H
I 2
Lactyl-monoglyceride
H-C-OH
H ~ I (LacMG)
,
H C-C ......C-O-C-H 2
,
OH
oII
C-O-C- H Propyl ene glyco l
I 2
HO-C-H monostearate
I (PGMS)
C-H,
Fig . 3-12. Structu re of severa l a -ten din g emulsifiers th at form solid fil ms at the oil-
water interface under the p rop er conditions of tem perat ure and concentration.
44 I CHAPTER THREE
Degumming. Dry gums are soluble in crude oil but become oil-insolu-
ble upon hydration. The degumming process is enhanced, and the
rehydration rate is accelerated, by the addition of phosphoric acid (and
sometimes citric acid) to the water. After mixing and contact time suffi-
cient to hydrate the gums, these are separated by centrifugation. Good
control of the amount of water and acid, the temperature, and the
length of contact time is required to achieve the maximum extent of
degumming, while minimizing oil losses and maximizing product qual-
ity.
Neutralization. Crude oils contain free fatty acids from natural hy-
drolysis of the triglycerides. These are removed by the addition of aque-
ous sodium hydroxide solution, which converts the fatty acids to water-
soluble soaps. The soap solution is removed, either by simply draining
it off or by centrifugation. After the solution is removed, the oil is
washed once or twice with water to ensure the removal of all traces of
soap and is dried.
Dewaxing. Sunflower and corn oils contain relatively large amounts of
waxes that must be removed so that the oil does not cloud when refrig-
erated. The oil is cooled to SoC, mixed with water containing a surfac-
tant, and allowed to stand for several hours. If neutralization is done at
this temperature, the soaps wet the wax crystals and bring them into
suspension in the aqueous phase. Alternatively, sodium lauryl sulfate is
Bleaching-Removing colored added to the water to serve the same purpose. The aqueous wax suspen-
substances from an oil by
absorbing them onto a solid
sion is removed by centrifugation.
material such as clay. Bleaching. Colored substances and oxidation products are removed by
bleaching. Bleaching earths are natural clays (bentonites) treated with
Fig. 4-1. Soybeans at several stages of processing. (Courtesy Buhler Inc., Minneapolis, MN)
REFINING AND PRODUCTION \ 49
fatty acids , but the live steam also causes some hydrolysis. Under opti-
mum conditions, at equilibrium the oil contains 0.02-0.04% free fatty
acids and 0.3-0.5% monoglycerides.
If the oil is to be hydrogenated to make basestocks for shortening or
margarine manufacture, the deodorization step is often skipped at this
po int and the oil is stored under nitrogen. The blended basestock oils
are deodorized just before being chilled to make the plastic fat (see
section on blending of basestocks below).
ANIMAL FATS
Adipose tissue. Nearly all animal fats (lard, tallows) are recovered by
rendering, which is the extraction of fat or oil by heat. The two general
methods are dry and wet rendering.
Rendering, dry-Heating and In dry rendering, the tissues are heated and dehydrated until brittle,
dehydrating animal tissue to and the fat cells break and release the fat . The frying of bacon, to cite a
extract and separate the fat. familiar example, is essentially a dry rendering process. This method is
This process results in products typically used for inedible products in which flavor and color are sec-
with increased color and flavor, ondary and the production of larger quantities of high-quality residue is
so it is not commonly used for
the prime objective. Final recovery is completed by pressing the residue,
edible animal fats.
either in h ydraulic or continuous-screw presses.
Rendering, wet-Heating In wet rendering, the fat cell walls are destroyed by steam under
animal tissue by steam under pressure, and the released fat is skimmed from the top of the water or
pressure so the fat is released to separated by centrifugation. This method is used to obtain edible fat
allow separation. products in which color, flavor, and keeping qualities are of prime im-
portance.
Lard is usually not deodorized. The best grades are produced by wet
rendering and have a mild, unobjectionable flavor. Tallow, on the other
hand, is generally dry rendered and has a strong meaty flavor , which is
removed by steam deodorization.
Milk fat. The process of converting fat globules found in the milk of
domesticated animals to an edible fat food is of great antiquity. Butter
is a water-in-oil (W/0) emulsion containing about 20 % water and
therefore is susceptible to mold growth. In many tropical regions, the
Ghee-The fat rema ining when butter is melted and the water removed to give a food oil called ghee,
the wate r and other which is more stable in storage than butter. Although butter consump-
components are removed from tion in the United States has decreased in the past 50 years , worldwide
butter. Also termed anhydrous it is still the number two edible fat , exceeded only by soybean oil in
milk fat, it is nearly 100% fat. quantities consumed.
The fat globules in milk are stabilized by a surface layer of lipopro-
tein. Cream (at 40 % fat content) is agitated in a churn, which ruptures
lipoprotein membranes and brings about coalescence. At some point,
the oil in water (O/W) emulsion inverts, forming a W/0 emulsion. The
temperature is well below the melting point of fat, and the solid flakes
of butter are suspended in the excess buttermilk. The butter pieces are
collected and further processed, e.g., salt may be added. The mass is
mechanically worked to improve crystal characteristics, then formed as
desired and refrigerated for storage.
If the cream is from fresh milk, the product is called sweet cream but-
ter. Alternatively, the cream may be cultured (inoculated with certain
REFINING AND PRODUCTION \ 51
bacteria) and ripened (stored 24-48 hr), which increases the concentra-
tion of acids such as lactic acid and numerous flavor compounds
(diacetyl an d other ketones). Cultur ed butter is usually unsalted an d
sold for commercial use, such as a roll -in fat for croissants. Sweet cream
butter is generally lightly salted and is preferred for direct consumption.
MARINE OILS
Historically, marine oils meant oil from both fish and wh ales, but
today essentially all marine oil is obtained from fish (men h aden, pil-
chard, herring, and other spe cies). Marine oils m ake up about 2% of the
annual world consumption of fats and oils and are especially important
in countries in northern European, the west coast of South America,
and Asia.
Rendering. The fish are netted at sea, refrigerated, and brought to a Dried fish meal-The material
central processing plant. They are steam-cooked, after which the liquid remaining when fish tissue is
(oil and water) is rem oved by hydraulic presses. The water (con tain in g heated to remove the fat and
soluble protein) is removed by centrifugation and added back to th e then dried.
press cake. Dried fish m eal is exceptionally high in protein and is a very
valuable animal feed supplement. Hydrogenation-The chemical
process of adding hydroge n
Refining. The crude oil is refined using the same steps as for vegetable atoms to th e double bonds
oils, in cludin g wint erizin g (see below) to remove triglycerides with high between carbon atoms in a
melting points. Marine oils contain a relatively large amount of long- fatty acid. The result is the
ch ain (up to C26) polyunsaturated fatty acids . Partial hydrogenation conversion of a do uble bond
converts them to fats that are useful in the manufacture of margarine (unsatu rated) to a single bond
(saturated).
and shortening because they strongly stabilize the Wcrystal structure.
make end products having greatly varied physical and chemical charac-
teristics.
Hydrogenation forms isomeric unsaturated fatty acids that have
properties (especially increased melting point) different from those of
the naturally occurring acids . Such isomers originate from the follo wing
reactions:
• Addition of hydrogen at a double bond
• Conversion of the natural cis for m to the trans form
• Migration of the double bond.
Hydrogenation is performed batchwise in cylindrical vessels made of
carbon stee l. Th e height of these reactors is almost twice their width,
and they have a high-speed agitator and internal baffles to disperse the
hydrogen gas, he ating and cooling coils to properly control the reaction
temperature, and an in let port to introduce hydrogen gas. The progress
of the reaction is followed by measuring the refractive index of oil sam-
ples. At the desired end point, the oil is cooled an d the catalyst is re-
moved by filtration.
Refr active ind ex-A physical
property of a substan ce that Selectivity. Selectivity during hydrogenation is based on the fact that
relates to how light is refracted the greater the degree of unsaturation of a fatty acid, the greater its
from the mate rial. Usually used chemical reactivity (ability to add hydrogen). Thus, linolenic acid
to indirectly measure some (C18:3) is hydrogenated before linoleic acid (C18:2), wh ich in turn is
other property such as
concentration .
hydrogenated before oleic acid (C18:1). The relati ve reaction rates of
the usual unsaturated fatty acids are: olei c acid , 1; linoleic acid, 50;
isolin oleic (double bonds at the 9,10 and 15,16 positions), 5; and lino-
len ic acid, 100. (Isolin oleic acid is produced by h ydrogenation of lin o-
len ic acid at the middle [12,13] double bond. Its low reactivity is
because the double bonds are isolated.) These relat ive rates may vary
depending upon the particular catalyst being used.
Hydrogenation conditions are said to be selective or nonselective.
Th e parameters that correspond to these conditions are listed in Table
4-1. A single change in any of the process parameters, with the others
held constant, affects react ion selectivity, extent of trails isom er for-
mation, and reaction rate. These differences, taken together, produce
changes in the solid fat in dex (SFI) pro-
file of the hydrogenated fat. Because SFI
TABLE 4-1. Hyd rog enatio n Cond itions Affecting Selectivity is the key to the properties of th e mar-
garine or shortening produced from
Reaction Selective Nonselective the hydrogenated fat, there is a strong
Parameter Hydrogenation Hydrogenation
connection between hydrogenation
Temperature High Low reaction con ditions and final product
H2 pressure Low (1 atm) High (>3 atm) quality.
Agitation Low High The amount of unsaturation, as re-
flected in its IV, does not alone deter-
Catalyst concentration High (0.05% Ni) Low (0.02% Ni)
mine the shape of the SFI profile. This
Catalyst type Selective Nonselective
is illustrat ed in Figure 4-4, wh ich
Trans-isomer formed High amount Low amount shows soy oil samples hydrogenated
SFI" curve shape Steep Shallow under selective and nonselecti ve con-
a So lid fat ind ex. ditions to the same IVs. Nonselective
REFINING AND PRODUCTION \ 53
60 ----,---..... ----------------r--:---------,
Nonselective, 81 IV
. Selective, 82 IV
Nonselective, 59 IV
. Selective, 59 IV
50 -.--------------~_=___---L-~-------J
40 ----.-----------------------...:::lIIII~.---------__I
X
Q)
"tJ
c
co 30
1.L
----t--------=- -------------------"r--------'lIIIIlII"------I
\
~ \
o
Cf)
\
\
\
20 ----t----------------=~oo=_____o,____----------_----I
10----.----------------~--------------------__I
O-t----.......,..------,.---..,..----..,....----..,..-~II--.,._--....,._--...._o\'
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Temperature, C
0
Fig. 4-4. Solid fat index (SFI) profiles of soy oil hydrogenated under selective and
nonselective conditions. The selectively hydrogenated samples have a steeper,
humped profile (higher SFI at low temperatures, lower SFI at high temperatures)
than the nonselectively hydrogenated samples at the same iodine value (IV).
54 I CHAPTER FOUR
SHORTENINGS
Shortenings are anhydrous fats (u n like ma rgari ne s, whi ch contain
wat er) used prim arily in baking. By proper selection of basestocks,
almost any desired SFI pro file can be obtained, according to the re-
quirements of the application.
Production of plastic shortenings and table-grade margarines utilizes
the same equipment, and the same principles apply to both pro ducts,
wit h one exception. Because margarine contains at least 17% aqueous
phase, all processin g equipment must be constructed of sta inless steel,
wh ereas sh ortening production may utilize hea t exchangers constructed
of carbon stee l. However, all new in st allations use sta in less steel units .
40
<, - - - - - - Basestock # 1
'
---
--- Basestock #2
35 ..... Shortening
,, <,
30
,
,, ' .."
--- ~
, ,, <,
~ 25
""0
C
10 20 ,,
~
LL
:Q ,,
(5 15 ,,
(f) ,
.. ..
"'.. ..~
10 -
5
.. ..
..
.. ..
-. -,
..
-,
-,
o I , , , , I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Ternperature. vC
Fig. 4-5 . Blending of basestocks to make an all-pu rpose shortening . Basestoc k no . 1
was selectively hydrogenated, basestock no . 2 was nonselectively hydrogenated,
and the hard flakes wer e fully hydrogenated (solid fat index >80 at all tem pera-
tures). The all-purpose shortening co mpr ised 27% of basestock no . 1, 27% of bas-
estock no. 2, 12% hard flakes, and 34% refined, bleached, deodorized oil.
REFINING AND PRODUCTION \ 55
Votating-A process that Votating. The name "Votator" designates the equipment originally de-
mixes, cools, and wh ips air or signed by the Girdler Corporation, but the term "votating" has come
other gas into a fat. into common use for the process of converting melted fat into a plastic
shortening (or margarine). The closed, continuous Votator system, in-
troduced in 1937, allows chilling and working the product under condi-
tions of maximum sanitation and efficiency. The apparatus consists of a
scraped-surface heat exchanger chilling unit, or "A" unit, jacketed for a
direct-expansion-refrigerant system such as ammonia or Freon, and a
larger "B" unit in which the shortening undergoes further crystalliza-
tion.
The temperature of the melted oil blend is adjusted in a precooler;
then the oil is chilled in the A unit to IS -20°C in 10-20 sec. The high-
melting triglycerides begin to crystallize into crystals that quickly trans-
form to needles. Most of the crystallization occurs in the B unit, where
low-speed agitators break up the initial crystals, providing seeds for
further crystal formation. The temperature of the fat rises S-10°C due to
release of heat from the crystallization. Little or none of the crystal
formation should occur in the final package. Nitrogen gas is introduced
into the oil as it enters the A unit. A pressure relief valve at the end of
the B unit adjusts the gas pressure so that the shortening contains 12-
15% Nz (by volume) as it is extruded into the final packaging. The dis-
persed gas gives the desired white color as well as providing some pro-
tection against exposure to oxygen (air) during storage.
MARGARINES
Formulations. Standard margarine contains at least 80% fat; the rest is
a skim milk, whey, or water solution containing salt and flavors. In
preparing margarine, there are six steps:
1. Blending basestocks plus other oil-soluble components
REFINING AND PRODUCTION \ 57
FRYING OILS
The subject of frying fats is discussed in detail in Chapter 6. This
chapter briefly outlines the processing for producing different kinds of
frying fats.
Consumer grade. Most home deep-frying is done with salad oil from
the supermarket shelf. Because these are usually just winterized RBD
oils, their frying stability is not high, and they are not used many times
or held at high temperatures. A good grade of salad oil suffices, ' al-
though peanut or cottonseed oil is generally considered preferable to
soy or sunflower oil for this use.
High-stability commercial fats. These may be either plastic fats or liq -
uid oils, depending upon the desired characteristics in the finished
product. Frying fat has a higher SFI profile than most shortenings (see
Appendix C), but its melting point is not much higher than body tem-
perature. These characteristics are obtained by selective h ydrogenation
of the base oil.
Frying oils are made by hydrogenating oil to reduce most of the
polyunsaturated fatty acids to monounsaturated acids. After hydrogena-
tion, the oil is fractionated to remove the high-melting trigl ycerides.
The oil remaining has a melting point around room temperature and
h igh oxidative stability; one commercial product specifies that its oxi-
dative stability by the active oxygen method is 350 hr minimum. In dry
fractionation, the hydrogenated fat is melted, then cooled under con-
trolled conditions. The oil and solid phases are separated by filtration.
In solvent fractionation, a solvent (e.g., hexane or acetone) is added to
the warm fat . This expedites crystallization and subsequent filtration.
Of course, the solvent is stripped from both phases after separation.
REFINING AND PRODUCTION \ 59
Troubleshooting
Plastic Fats
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Oil on carton Storage at high temperature Keep warehouse below 35°C (95 °F).
Grainy shortening Crystal formation Store below 35°C.
Use some W-tending fat in the oil formulation.
Difficulty in creaming Fat too hard (or soft) for proper Hold fat at application temperature (about 25 °C
or in rolling-in the fat fun ctioning [77°F]) for 24 hr before use.
Make sure SFI" specification suits the application.
Dough tea rs d uring Fat is too hard at low temperatures Decrease SFI specification at low temperature.
roll-in Make sure shortening was properly tempered .
Fat oils ou t during Fat is too soft at high temperatures Increase SFI specification at high temperature.
roll-in Make sure shortening was properly tempered.
Imp roper color Yellow ish cast Inadequate bleaching by manufacturer.
Partial transformation to p phase.
"Vaseline" streaks in the shortening Improve N2 dispersion during manufacture (probably
does not affect functionality).
Bulk Oils
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Rancid, reverted Auto xidation, high peroxide value Manufa cturer must perform proper deodorization.
flavor Fill headspace in all storage tanks with N2 gas.
Rapid d evelopm ent High peroxide value when oil was Ensure proper b leaching and deodorization by
of rancid flavor in used supplier.
product Store oil under N2 gas .
Don't allow contact of oil with metal (iron, copper).
Include chelators (citric acid) and antioxidants in oil.
In-Plant Oil Plasticization
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Fat from plasticizer is Fat temperature too hig h Cool oil before enter ing plasticizer.
too soft Increase capacity of the coo ling unit of plasticizer.
Not enough crystals form ed during Increase residence time in crystallizer.
plast icization Specify higher SFI profile for oil.
Inadeq uate immobilization of the oil Increase amount of stable sou rce oil.
phase
Fat from plastic izer Fat temperature too low Decrease amount of cooling applied to crystallizer.
is too hard Specify lower SFI profile for oil.
Fat consistency varies Solids in sto rage tan k are settling Raise sto rage temperature to t he complete melting
du ring run po int.
Install adequate stirrer in tank. (Make sure it does not
whip air into the oil!)
60 I CHAPTER FOUR
61
62 I CHAPTER FIVE
~j~-~.~)~
pand (but they remain within the
swollen granules). During cooling,
the solubilized amylose recrystal- Cooling
lizes, allowing the bread crumb to
7~(?-
become firm enough for slicing.
The amylopectin branches recrys-
tallize over a period of several days,
causing the granules to harden and
leading to crumb firmness (Fig. 5-2). Fresh baked
Shortening reduces the firmness
Reheating
of the bread throughout its storage
life. By the fifth day of storage,
bread containing shortening has
the same firmness as the control
bread during the third day. In
other words, its acceptability is ex-
tended by 1-2 days (Fig. 5-3). Plastic
shortening contains approximately
250/0 solids at room temperature, so
3% refined, bleached, deodorized
(RBD) oil gives the same softening Stale bread
effect as 40/0 plastic shortening. Fig. 5-2. Changes in starch molecules in bread. Immediately out of the
Certain emulsifiers also slow the oven, both amylose (straight chains) and amylopectin (branched structures)
staling rate. Monoglycerides of sat- are swollen and randomly oriented. During cooling (1 hr), the amylose
molecules begin to align and crystallize. During staling (several days), amy-
urated fatty acids (for example,
lopectin realigns and reforms crystallites.
64 I CHAPTER FIVE
monostearin) are the most effective, but many other emulsifiers that
contain saturated fatty acids (e.g., stearoyllactylate) also have some ac-
tivity. The linear hydrocarbon part of the fatty acid chain forms a com-
plex with the helical star ch molecules. When this complex involves the
Shortening in bread branched chains of amylopectin, it interferes with am ylopectin recrys-
slows staling and tallization, thus slowing the development of firmness (Fig. 5-3). This
increases the interaction was discussed more fully in Chapter 3.
bread's shelf life.e The properties of the protein (i.e., denatured gluten) in bread may
also alter during storage and possibly contribute to staling. While some
research has been done in this area, the role of protein in sta ling is not
clear at this time. More work may lead to a better understanding of how
some emulsifiers might retard staling by interacting with the protein in
baked bread.
Crumb strength. The solid fat portion of traditional bread shortening
(e.g., lard or all-purpose shortening) provides dough strength during
proofing and resistance to sh ocks during transfer from the proofer to the
oven. It also strengthens the sidewalls of baked bread, minimizing
"keyh olin g" of the finished loaf. When RBD oil is used to replace plastic
shortening, this strengthening effect is maintained by the addition of
Proofing-A step in preparing
yeast-leavened produ cts in
sodium stearoyllactylate or DATEM esters to the dough, up to the legal
which the dough is warmed maximum of 0.5% (flour basis) . In the continuous bread process, hard
and allowed to rise. It takes flake is melted into the warm oil being pumped to the developer to
place after an initial fermenta- provide strength.
tion and before baking ,
600..---------------------------,
Consumption period
_.- - -'--'
-' ,
-_:_-
400 --- ---.
........ ....
,->4% Shorteni~_ - - - -
en ,
en , ., ..... ' :
Q)
c 300 -
E
....
u:
-- ... -'--.
,
, "./
..... .
". -
." .
_- - 1'
-
-_-:"""
% Monoglyceride :
.. '
,
,
-_.__ . _-_ ._--_
__ __..
-: -> - :
200 - --:....:.. . <.,.<. .. -:...
~~/ :
./
/ " //
/ "
,'
I
.'
/' /
..
'
---:.. _- ,
",' ...
100 . /
/ ,
/ ,
,
OL---.........-----:'----'------:---.........--~--___:'
o 2 3 4 5 6 7
Day
Fig. 5-3. Effect of shortening and monoglyceride on bread soft ness during sto rage.
Shortening decreases firmne ss by a constant amount throughout storage. Mono-
g lyceride doesn't change initial firmness, but it slows the rate at which crumb firm -
ness develops.
BAKERY PRODUCT APPLICATIONS \ 65
LAMINATED DOUGHS
Laminated doughs are the basis for numerous specialty bakery prod- Laminated dough-A dough
ucts, from Danish to Napoleons, from croissants to phyllo dough. The system that has horizontal
base dough may be either rather rich and sweet or lean. After develop- layers of dough separated by
layers of fat, resulting in a flaky
ment, the dough is divided into pieces (weigh in g 10-16 lb) and retarded
baked product.
(held at 5-rC, or 40-4SOF) for 2-4 hr. The dough is then rolled out into
a rectangular shape; shortening is spread over two-thirds of the dough; Dough development-The
process of forming gluten from
and the dough is folded in thirds to give three layers of dough separated wheat flour with the addition
by two layers of fat (called a "book"). The amount of shortening ranges of water and mixing.
from 17 to 36% of the dough weight, depending upon economics and
Retardation of dough-A
the desired product quality. The book is then rolled out again into a cooling step that slows down
rectangle. It is folded in thirds, and the process is repeated until the de- the development of dough
sired final number of laminations is reached. The rolling process warms and the growth of yeast and
the dough, and usually the book is returned to the retarder partway allows fats to become more
through the process for cooling. solid.
Equipment has been developed to perform this process automati-
cally. The shortening is extruded onto a continuous dough sheet or co-
extruded with dough, and then various mechanical methods are used Specifications Common
to obtain the desired number of laminations. Just as with the manual to All Good-Quality
method, the proper selection of fat is important to obtain a good qual- Fats and Oils
ity laminated dough.
Chemical characteristics
Danish. Roll-in shortening or margarine for laminated doughs must Peroxide value: 1 meq/kg
have a broad plastic range. Fat consistency should match dough consis- maximum
tency at retarder temperatures and at room temperature or above. If the Free fatty acid (as oleic
fat is significantly harder than the dough at the cool temperature, then acid): 0.05% maximum
when a retarded dough is rolled out, the fat is likely to tear holes in the Phosphorus content: 1
dough sheet. If the fat is softer than the dough at room temperature, ppm maximum
then as the dough mass warms up (during laminating) the shortening Physical characteristics
soaks into the dough, the adjacent dough layers knit together, and the Color (Lovibond): 1.5 R,
layering effect is lost. 15 Y maximum
The proper plasticity of roll-in fat requires a relatively shallow SFI Flavor: Bland
profile and stabilization in the P' crystal phase. The melting point of Odor: Neutral when
the fat must be higher than the proofing temperature. If the proof box warmed
temperature is above the fat melting point, the fat layers turn to oil.
This allows the dough layers to knit to-
gether during proofing, and the final
Puff Paste Margarine Specifications
product is less flaky than desired. As a
general rule, the complete melting point AOM stability: 200 hr
should be about 5 degrees C (9 degrees F) Oil stability index: 80 hr Solid fat profiles:
higher than proof box temperatures. Wiley mp: 54 ± 2°C °C SFC OF SFI
Moisture content: 18% 10 47 ±4 50 34 ±3
Puff pastry. The formation of large voids Salt content: 2% 15 40 ±4 70 30 ±3
between dough layers in puff pastry prod-
ucts is due mainly to the evaporation of 20 33 ±3 80 27 ±2
water in the roll-in margarine. The marga- 25 27 ±2 92 22 ±2
rine is divided into small pieces, thinly 30 21 ±2 104 16 ±1
sheeted between dough layers during roll- 35 16 ±1
in. In contrast to Danish dough, a con- 40 " ±1
tinuous fat layer is not desired, so initially 45 7±1
66 I CHAPTER FIVE
Sheeting-Stretching dough the margarine is spotted on the rectangle of dough in individual pieces
horizontally to develop the rather than in a continuous layer. The individual fat pieces must main-
gluten structure. tain their integrity through proofing, until the pastry is baked. Thus the
SFI of puff pastry margarine is h igher than that of roll-in margarine.
Baker's margarine-A product The "book" is usually rolled and folded twice (rather than three times as
similar in composition to butter for Danish) giving about 18 laminations. This produces the flakiness
but containing hydrogenated
vegetable oil rather than but-
and open texture characteristic of puff pastry.
terfat. Croissants. The traditional roll-in fat for croissants is unsalted butter,
and this is still used in the highest quality product. Butter contributes
both flavor and color to the final product. Because of its rather steep SFI
For laminated doughs, curve, the temperature range for rolling-in is rather narrow, about 18-
the complete melting 20°C (6S- 68°F). This may necessitate retarding between each rolling
point should be step, depending upon the amount of heat generated by working the
5 degrees C dough. Proofing temperatures must not exceed the melting point of
(9 degrees F) higher butter (approxim ately 36°C, or 97"F). Baker's margarine works well dur-
than the proofing ing roll-in, but the flavor of the baked croissant is inferior to that of
temperature. butter croissants. Puff pastry margarine or shortening can be used but
leaves a "waxy" taste because of it s high SFI at body temperature.
YEAST-RAISED DOUGHNUTS
Shelf life. Yeast-raised doughnuts are fried in hot fat. During frying, a
certain amount of fat is absorbed into the doughnut. This fat softens
the doughnut crumb and extends the shelf life of the finished product.
The keeping quality of the doughnut is directly related to its fat con-
tent, up to the point at which the doughnut has a noticeably "greasy"
texture and flavor. The factors that govern extent of fat absorption are
similar to those for cake doughnuts, which are discussed in more detail
below.
and yielding a lower final cake volume. Those that don't escape may
form tunnels in the cake. In sum, if the original batter contains many
small air cells, the final cake will have larger volume and a fine (close)
grain. If the original air bubbles are fewer and larger, the final cake will
have less volume and a coarse (open) grain. The shortening used plays a
large role in determining the degree of subdivision of the air.
In the usual (retail bakery) three-stage process of cake production, the
shortening and sugar are combined and mixed. During this step, the air
is dispersed in the solid phase. Then the eggs are incorporated, followed
by the flour, liquids, and other ingredients. During the first, creaming Creaming-High-speed mixing
step, the plastic shortening entraps air bubbles. In the presence of an of a plastic shortening contain-
ing sugar in order to incorpo-
emulsifier such as monoglyceride, these bubbles are divided into nu-
rate air.
merous small air cells by the action of the beater. The shortening must
be solid so that the bubbles don't escape but also plastic so that it can
fold around each air pocket. This is best accomplished by a plastic
shortening crystallized in the ~' phase. If the shortening has trans-
formed into the ~ phase, the large plates of solid fat are much less effec-
tive in entrapping the air. A good shortening for this type of cake batter
production has the SFI profile of all-purpose shortening, containing
about 40/0 monoglyceride.
The influence of emulsifier in promoting air dispersion, and the ef-
fect on final cake characteristics, is demonstrated in Figure 5-4. The
emulsified shortening contained monoglyceride at 4.50/0, a typical level
for cake shortening. Other emulsifiers
also give good results. Thus, sucrose
esters have shown functionality in
some tests. An emulsifier system (13%
each, by weight, of Polysorbate 60, sor-
bitan monostearate, and plastic mono-
and diglycerides, hydrated in 61% water)
used at 2% of the flour weight along
with an unemulsified plastic shortening
gives better volume and finer grain
than a control cake made with high-
ratio emulsified shortening.
It is possible to make cakes in a one-
stage production process, in which all
the ingredients are added at once and
the batter is mixed in a single step. In
this case, the air is entrapped in the wa-
ter phase rather than in the shortening.
To form this air-in-water foam, which is
then stabilized by proteins contributed
from flour and eggs, it is necessary to
prevent the defoaming action usually
associated with fats and oils. This is ac-
Fig. 5-4. Photomicrographs of cake batters. A, Plastic shortening, no
complished by including an a-tending emulsifier, batter specific gravity 0.85 q/rnl. B, Plastic shortening, 4.5%
emulsifier in the shortening. Typical monoglycerides, batter specific gravity 0.81 q/rnl, The dark areas in A
ones used are propylene glycol and B show finely dispersed air bubbles contained in the fat phase. C
monoesters (PGME), acetylated mono- and 0, Cakes baked from A and B, respectively.
68 I CHAPTER FIVE
Cake and Icing Shortening Specifications glycer ide (AcMG), or lactylated mono-
AOM stability: 75 hr
glyce ride (LacMG), at a concentration
of 7-10% of the plastic shortening. A
Oil sta bility ind ex: 30 hr Solid fat profiles:
number of other emulsifiers have also
Wiley mp : 46 ± 1°( O( SF( OF SFI been used, including Polyso rbate 60,
a -Monoglycerid es: 3.5% for 10 44 ± 4 50 32 ± 3 ste aroy llactylic acid, and sucrose ester s,
cake; 2.5 % for icing 15 35 ± 3 70 25 ± 2 but most commercial cake emulsifiers
20 28 ± 3 80 22 ± 1 (an d consumer cake mixes based on
25 22 ± 2 92 16 ± 1 these systems) utilize PGME and AcMG.
30 17 ± 2 104 " ±1 Cakes made with oil as the shorten-
35 " ±1 ing are more tender than those made
40 7±I with a pla stic shortening. The cake
gives an impression of moistness wh en
eaten, even after storage for a week or
longer. In commercial cake production, unfortunately, oil cakes are of-
ten too tender to withstand the necessary handling along th e produc-
ti on line. However, ten dern ess is highly desirable fro m t he cons um er's
sta n dpoin t, and so packaged cake mixes for home use are usually made
with oil as the shortening. Durin g the preparation of cake batter from
such a mix, the air is incorporated as a foam, which is stabilized by the
soluble proteins that are present (i.e., egg white, soluble flour protein).
However, as is well known, oil destabilizes protein foams. (For instance,
egg whites cannot be wh ipped into a meringue if there are traces of oil
pre sent in the bowl or on the beaters.) Th is problem is overcome by the
use of a -tending emulsifiers.
50 ~
I
. I
40 I
.jao°F
F,
DYNES
30 .I I
CM. I
..'. I-ACETYL,3-MONOSTEARIN
20
- TE NSIOMETER DATA
10
These emulsifiers form a solid film at the oil-water interface (Fig. 5-5)
when dissolved in the oil above a certain concentration. This solid in-
terfacial film segregates the oil from the water phase, so it cannot dest-
abilize the protein foam . A definite relationship exists between tem-
perature and the minimum bulk concentration of the emulsifier neces-
sary to produce an interfacial film (Fig. 5-6). The addition of a second
surfactant may enhance film formation; a mixture of propylene glycol
monostearate (PGMS) and stearic acid (80:20) is a stronger film former
than pure PGMS at the same total weight concentration. A common
system for oil cakes is 10-14% PGME plus 1-2% stearic acid dissolved in
the oil.
CAKE DOUGHNUTS
Air incorporation. In a cake doughnut batter, the degree of subdivision
of air entrapped in the shortening phase has much to do with the
openness of grain in the final doughnut. Thus, for the same reasons as
discussed above, an emulsified cake shortening is generally used. Leci-
thin is also frequently incorporated into the dry mix formula at 0.25-
0.5% of total mix weight. This aids in wetting the dry mix during batter
preparation.
Frying and fat absorption. About half the fat in the fried doughnut is
absorbed from the fryer during frying. In a typical situation, the weight
of fat absorbed is approximately equal to the weight of water lost to
evaporation. This is exp lained in more detail in Chapter 6. The degree
of fat absorption is influenced by emulsification during frying. For ex-
ample, emulsifiers such as Polysorbate 60 or ethoxylated monoglyceride
help give a finer grain in the finished doughnut, but they also expedite
the evaporation of water and pickup of fat. The free fatty acid (FFA) in
the frying fat also is an emulsifier. In absolutely fresh fat, with an FFA
of less than 0.1 %, fat absorption is minimal, and the resulting product
is less tender and lacks flavor. As FFA increases (due to hydrolysis) dur-
ing repeated uses of the fryer, absorption increases. Usually an FFA con-
tent of 0.25-0.75% in the frying fat is considered optimal. In a con-
tinuously operated system, where fresh fat is added to replace th at re-
moved by absorption, this level of FFA is readily maintained. If frying is
intermittent, however, the FFA level may exceed 1%, producing exces-
sive fat absorption. Ingredients that hinder water evaporation (e.g., pro-
teins and water-binding fibers) lower fat absorption by the doughnut.
The temperature of the frying fat influences crust color and fat ab-
sorption. Generally a temperature of 188-193°C (370-380°F) is recom-
mended. A lower temperature results in a pale crust and excessive fat
pickup. A higher temperature gives a dark crust (and possibly incom-
plete internal cooking, if the frying time is shortened) and also hastens
frying fat degradation, which can result in higher fat absorption. Good
temperature control on the fryer is imperative.
The physical characteristics of the frying fat markedly influence the
eating characteristics of the finished doughnut. If the fat has a rather
h igh SFI curve and a high mel ting point, the cooled doughnut has a
solid texture and a dry mouthfeel. On the other hand, if a high-stability
70 I CHAPTER FIVE
COOKIES
Air incorporation and cookie spread. Air bubbles entrapped in the
shortening phase of a cookie dough serve as nuclei for leavening gas
during baking, as in cakes. Thus, if a fine-grained cookie (for example, a
soft sugar cookie) is desired, an emulsified shortening should be used.
For a thin, crisp cookie, a lightly hydrogenated oil may give the best Cookie spread
product characteristics. For most wire-cut cookies, an all-purpose short- is influenced by
ening works well. the interaction
The amount of shortening influences cookie spread, but in a way of shortening
that is related to the sugar content of the dough. Detailed studies, using and sugar.
a sugar cookie test formula, lead to the following generalizations:
• When sugar is used at 50% of the flour weight, increasing shorten-
ing from 35 to 55 % (flo ur basis ) increases spread about 25%.
• When sugar is used at 90% of the flour weight, increasing shorten-
ing from 35 to 55% decreases spread about 10%.
Other formula variations (e.g., the addition of whole egg) also
change the amount of influence of shortening on spread, as does the
use of different kinds of fats. Thus the safest statement is that each
situation is different, and the best way to evaluate the effect of fat level
on spread is by experimentation.
CRACKERS
Cracker formulas vary quite widely, with a range of 8-12% shorten-
ing (flour basis ) in the dough. The fat used is typically an all-purpose
plastic shortening, which serves to lubricate the gluten sheet, reducing
horizontal shrinkage when the dough is sheeted and cut.
Spray oil. Because crackers are baked to a very low moisture content of
about 2%, they give a dry mouthfeel wh en eaten. In the case of snack
crackers, this is undesirable. This type of cracker is typically sprayed
with an oil while hot, to give a product that clears the mouth surfaces
more readily. The usual application level of spray is 15-17% oil, relative
to the unsprayed cracker.
72 I CHAPTER FIVE
the SFI profile of the fat. This profile must meet three requirements:
• The blend must have a soft consistency, so that it can be extruded Basecake-The baked product
onto the basecake or wafer or spread onto the cake. or surface to which a filling or
icing is applied.
• The filling or icing must be firm at room temperature and below, so
that the basecakes or wafers don't slide when the cookie or cake piece is
eaten.
• The fat must melt almost completely at mouth temperature, so that
it does not have a waxy mouthfeel.
Sandwich cookies. Fat usually represents
about 30-40% of the filling, and the solid Sandwich Cookie Filling Fat Specifications
fraction of filler fat gives body to the filling. AOM stability: 100 hr Solid fat profiles:
The plastic range of filler fat is narrow. The Oil stability index: 40 hr DC SFC DF SFI
mixed filling is somewhat warm (aro un d Wiley mp: 39 ± 1DC
DC DF 10 53 ± 4 50 38 ± 3
30 or 86 ) for easy extrusion. When the
15 39 ± 3 70 24 ± 2
sandwich cookie is cooled to room tem-
perature, the cream sets up to the firm con- 20 28 ± 3 80 18 ± 1
sistency needed to prevent sliding of the 25 21 ± 2 92 9±1
basecakes in the package. To achieve these 30 11 ± 1 104 <2
goals , the SFI profile of a filler fat is rather 35 5±1
steep, higher than that for all-purpose 40 <1
shortening at low temperatures and lower
at high temperatures. The SFI specifications
given in Table 5-1 for sandwich cookie and wafer filler fats are only
typical examples. Bakeries will often adjust their specifications upward
or downward to compensate for differences in temperature between
seasons or geographical locations and to fit their equipment and proc-
essing conditions.
Sugar wafers. Sugar wafer filling is similar to Wafer Filler Fat Specifications
sandwich cookie filling, except that finely
AOM stability: 100 hr
ground scrap from the wafer trimming op-
Oil stability index: 40 hr Solid fat profiles:
eration is generally added. In the production
Wiley mp: 35 ± 1DC DC SFC DF SFI
of filled wafers, it is crucial that the fat crys-
tal structure be W. If the shortening has 10 76±6 50 55 ± 4
started to convert to ~ crystals, the resulting 15 60 ± 5 70 39 ± 3
oiliness causes the wafer sheets to slide dur- 20 45 ± 5 80 29 ± 3
ing transport and cutting. Also, ~ crystals set 25 32 ± 4 92 4±1
up more slowly than W crystals, causing de- 30 17 ± 2 104 <1
lays between the extruding and cutting op- 35 1 ±1
erations. 40 <1
Cake icings, fillings. Cake icings and fill-
ings are similar in formulation to cookie fill-
ings, but they are typically more highly aerated. Cookie fillings may
have a specific density in the range of 0.8 -1.1 g/ml, whereas creme fill-
ings for cakes are often whipped to a specific density of 0.5. This aera-
tion is promoted by emulsifiers in the shortening. Monoglycerides are
commonly used, but, surprisingly, a high level of monoglyceride de-
creases the stability of the aerated filling. The optimum level is around
2.5% in the shortening. Addition of other emulsifiers, for example 0.9%
74 I CHAPTER FIVE
Troubleshooting
The key to troubleshooting shortening-con n ected problems with bakery products is un derst andin g
the proper function of sh ortening in promoting th e desired product ch aracteristics, then determinin g
to what exte nt t he problem reflects in correct shortening propertie s. The trouble spot m ay be anywhere
in the entire pro cess (formulation, mixing, pro cessing, bakin g, or storage), so a certain amoun t of de-
tective work is required to pinpoin t ch anges th at might help solve the problem. The troublesh ootin g
table starts wit h observable sympto ms. Table 5-1, showing typical bakery shortening properties, will
help in determini ng some of the causes of those symptoms.
BREAD
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Side wall we akne ss Low crumb st ructural strengt h Increase hard fat in sho rteni ng to at lea st 0.3%
("keyho le" cross section) and elasticity (flou r basis).
Add dough strengthe ner (SSL, DATEM) up to legal
limit of 0.5% (flou r basis).
Increase amou nt of flour in th e liquid pre ferm ent.
Open g rain Inad equate gluten strength and Chec k to make sure mixing tim e is op t imu m for th e
dev elop men t flour an d formulation .
Add dough streng thener (SSL, DATEM) up to legal
limit of 0.5% (flou r ba sis).
Low volume (som etim es Inadequat e g lute n st reng th Add dou gh stren gt he ne r (SSL, DATEM) up to legal
noted when substitu ting limit of 0.5 % (flour bas is)
oil for plastic
sho rte ning )
Poor oven -spring Increase shortening in fo rm ula to at least 3% (flour
basis).
LAMINATED DOUGHS
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Doug h teari ng during Sho rte ning much ha rde r than Use sho rte ning with a low er SFI profile.
roll-in th e do ugh
Shorte ning is brittle Make sure sho rte ning is in pro pe r P' p hase (not
gon e to p du e to warm sto rage temperatures, or
improperly tem pe red by manufactur er).
Dough too soft Decrease do ugh abso rpt ion. Make sure do ugh is
adequate ly retarde d befo re rolling in.
Loss of flakine ss in final Sho rtening complete ly m elting Use a shortening with a me lting po int higher t han
product in proofbox proofing temperatures.
Sho rten ing is too soft during Use sho rte ning wit h a high er SFI profile.
roll-in Return do ug h-fat "book" to retarder b etween
shee ting steps.
Insufficient number of layers in Increase number of sheeting steps.
final dough
76 I CHAPTER FIVE
YEAST-RAISED DOUGHNUTS
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Poor surface appearance Doughnut too shiny Use frying fat with a higher SFI at room tem pera-
ture.
Doughnut too du ll Use frying fat with a lower SFI at room tem perature.
Doughnut too dar k Fryer temperature is too high.
Doughnut too light Fryer temperatu re is too low.
Doughnut has blistered surface Fryer temperature is too high.
Doughnut is overproofed before frying.
Shelf life is too short Inadequate fat absorption Lower temperature of frying fat, and fry longer.
Be sure frying fat is adequately tem pered (FFA level
0 .25-0.75%).
Add 0 .5% monoglyceride to base dough.
CAKES
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Tunnels in the cake Inadequate emulsification Use a shortening with a good level (3.5-5%)
monoglyceride.
Add emulsifier with a high HLB (e.g., 0.25% Poly-
sorbate 60) to shortening.
Batter too warm Cool batter during mixing.
Batter viscosity too low Decrease amount of water in batter for mul a.
Low volume, with a dip in Inadequ ate emu lsification Use a sho rte ning with a good level (3.5- 5%) of
the cente r monoglyceride.
Air bubbles in batter are too Increase first-stage creaming (thr ee-stage produc-
large (not adequately dispersed tion).
du ring mixing) Increase ho ld time in mixing head (co ntin uous cake
production).
Poor foam stability (in oil cakes) Increase level of a -tending emulsifier (PGME, AcMG)
to 12-14% of oil shortening.
Add 1- 3% soluble protein source (egg white, milk
protein).
Cake flour gelatinizing too late Use cake flour with a lower flour pH.
during baking
Excessive peaking, top Insufficient shortening Increase shortening level in base formula.
cracking
Cake batter viscosity too high Increase amount of water in batter formula.
Cake flour gelatinizing too early Use cake flour with a higher flour pH.
during baking
Textu re problems Cake is tough Increase shortening level in base form ula.
Cake is too tender Decrease shortening level in formu la.
BAKERY PRODUCT APPLICATIONS \ 77
CAKE DOUGHNUTS
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Excessive fat ab sorpti on Cold batter Use warmer water duri ng batter mak e-up .
Batter viscosity too high Increase amount of water in batter formula .
Under mixed Increase mixing time to fully hydrate ingredients.
Fryer temperatu re too low Raise fryer temp erature to recommend ed level.
Make sure heater can keep up with rate of batter
d eposition.
Fat breakdown (high FFA) Iffryer not in continuous use, lower fryer tem pera-
tu re between fries.
If continuo us, match doughnut pro du ction with
fryer size to get complete fat turnover in 8 hr.
Excess emulsificatio n Reduce emulsifier amount in d oughnut formula.
Low fat abs orption Hot batter Use cold water (or ice) to reduce batter tem pera-
tu re.
Batter viscosity too low Reduce water in batter formula .
Over mixed Decrease mixing tim e.
Too mu ch floor tim e befor e de - Balan ce batch size and mixing sch edule with rate of
positing production in fryer.
Fryer temperature too high Lower fryer temperature to recommended level.
New (untempered) fat When refilling fryer (after cleaning ) use old (not de-
graded) fat equ al to one-fourth of fryer cap acity.
If old fat is not available, add 1Y2 oz free fatty acids
per 100 Ib new fat (0.1 % FFA).
Sugar won't adh ere Frying fat SFI too hig h Use frying fat with lower SFI at room temperat ure.
Doughnut sugar fat SFI too high Use a fat in th e sugar with lower SFI profile.
Doughnuts too cool when Sho rten coo ling tim e before d oughnuts ente r sugar-
coating ing tumbler.
Warm coo ler air, wit h infrared heaters.
Sugar disappears during Frying fat SFI too low Use frying fat with high er SFI at room temperature.
she lf life
Doug hnuts too warm wh en sug - Lengthen cooling tim e before sugaring .
ared Coo l air in cooler.
Excess moisture in pa ckag e Coo l doughnuts before packaging . Do not sto re in
warm war eh ouse.
Use packaging material that is more water permeable.
Poor surfa ce appearan ce Doug hnu t too shiny Use frying fat with a high er SFI at room temperature.
Doughnut too dull Use frying fat with a lower SFI at room temperature.
Doughn ut too dark Fryer temperature too high.
Doughnut too light Fryer temperature too low.
Doughnut has a blistered surface Fryer temperature too high.
78 I CHAPTER FIVE
COOKIES
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
-----------
Rotary molded cookies Shortening SFI too high
----
Use shortening with a lowe r SFI pro file.
don 't release from die Substitu te oil for a small por tion of sho rte ning.
Dough too cold Adjust wat er temperature to raise do ugh tem pera-
ture.
Wire cut cookies extrude Inad equate lubrication
unevenly Insufficient shortening Increase oil in dough formula.
Shortening is too hard Use shortening with a lowe r SFI profile.
Substitute oil for a sma ll portion of sho rtening.
SNACK CRACKERS
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
----
Rancid odor, taste Spray oil is oxidizing Use a spray oil with AOM of 100 hr minimum .
Specify add ition of anti oxidants (BHA, BHT, TBHQ)
to spra y oil.
Metal ion contamination of Specify add ition of chelato r (citric acid) to spr ay oil.
spra y oil
Im proper b ulk storage of oil Fill headspace of storage ta nks with N2 gas.
Surface appea ranc e
Too shiny Spray oil melting po int too low Use spray oil with complete mp of about 30°C
(86 °F).
Too dull Spray oil SFI too high at room Use spray oil with SFI abou t 5 at 25°C (77°F).
temperature
SANDWICH COOKIES
I
81
82 I CHAPTER SIX
source (i.e., fat) can recondense on the other side of the void, thus ef-
fectively transferring heat en ergy to the interior of the doughnut.
Micelles- Structures in which
similar or dissimilar molecules
Fat-soluble em ulsifiers aid the transfer of water from product to fat
are arranged in an orderly by promoting formation of water micelles in the fat. (Thes e are small
manner. water-in -oil emulsions.) In h ot fat, they are ext rem ely tiny, but when
frying fat is cooled after use they often app ear as a h aze. Th e sign ifi-
cance of mi cellization is that it helps water penetrate the h ot fat and
promotes fat hydrolysis. Th e surface-active free fatty acids, then, are a
two -edged sword; they promote heat transfer to the product, but they
also promote fat degradation.
Fat absorption. As water migrates out of the food, it leaves voids on the
Surface-active free surface of the solid food components along which a thin layer of fat
fatty acids help migrates (Figure 6-1B). This pro cess enhances h eat transfer as discussed
heat transfer to the above. The fat remains in the product interstices after removal from the
product but also fryer and form s a significant part of the fini shed pro du ct. Table 6-1
promote hydrolysis gives the content of certain foods before and after frying.
and thus The cha racteristics of the frying fat are important aspects of produ ct
degradation qu ality. In doughnuts and fried snacks, the absorbed fat tenderizes the
of the fat . product. In all cases, the flavor of the product is strongly influenced by
the flavor of the fat. The solid fat index (SF!) profil e of the fat also
affects eating quality. If the solids content of the fat is rath er high at
body temperature, it will leave a waxy mouthfeel. On the othe r hand, if
the SF! is low at room temperature, the product will look greasy or oily.
If the fat lacks adequate stability, or if it has been abu sed by improper
management of the frying equipment (see the section on fryer
operation below), product crust color m ay suffer and off-flavors and
odors may be introduced.
implications for the frying process and product quality. Frying in new
fat is very difficult. The lack of surface-active materials hinders steam
escape, fat absorption, and heat transfer. Break-in fat works somewhat
better but still gives inadequate fat absorption. Fresh fat gives good
quality; fat at this stage is optimum for cake doughnuts, for example.
Optimum fat gives th e best performance in most restaurant frying of
french fries, meats, vegetables, etc. Degraded fat is "over the hill" for
good frying, usually giving excessive crust coloration and fat absorp-
tion. In many countries, a fat with a polar lipid content greater than
27% is now illegal, and fat that has reached this stage must be dis-
carded. Runaway fat, of course, has been subjected to excessive degra-
dation; it should never be seen in properly managed fryers.
Fat turnover. As fat is removed from the fryer by absorption, it is re-
placed with more fat. The food removes polar lipids (oxidized fat,
polymers, free fatty acids) along with triglycerides, and these are all To extend the life
replaced with nearly pure triglycerides. The fryer should be managed so of the fat, the fryer
that this replacement serves to keep the oil in the desired stage for good should be turned
frying. The size of the fryer (fat capacity) should be matched to the rate down to about
of food throughput (which affects fat absorption). For commercial 155°C (310°F) when
doughnut frying, for example, this match should give one complete fat not in use for an
turnover during one 8-hr shift. Other products having different fat extended time.
absorption and throughput rates would have different turnover rates in
a fryer of the same capacity. The time for one complete turnover should
be no more than 24 hr.
In many operations (e.g., restaurants and fast-food stores), frying is
intermittent, not continuous. When the fryer will not be in operation
for a period of time, the heat should be turned down ·to about ISSoC
(310°F). Lowering the fat temperature by 30 degrees C decreases the rate
of degradation eightfold. This extension of useful fat life more than
compensates for the delay in reheating the fat before the next frying
operation.
Filtration. During frying, solid particles appear in the fat. These may be
pieces that have broken off from the surface of the food or soluble
protein or starch carried into the fat (along with evaporating water) and Passive filtration-Running
material through a filter using
then carbonized. These particles collect on heat exchanger surfaces, gravity.
interfering with heat transfer. They also contribute to continuing
degradation reactions. They should be removed by passive filtration,
using a steel mesh or filter paper, sometimes with the addition of dia -
tomaceous earth (filter aid). This type of filtration is applied to fat
during the break-in and fresh stages .
Active filtration is applied to fat during the op timum and degraded
Activ e filtrati on -Using stages. Adsorbent materi als that remove soluble compounds (polar lip -
pressure to force mat erial ids, polymerized materials) extend the optimum lifetime of the fat.
through a filter. Examples of such materials are a -cellu lose, silica gel, alumina, magne-
sium and calcium silicates, and activated carbon. Circulation of hot fat
through the adsorbent bed sh ould be continuous for maximum effec-
tiveness.
HYDROLYSIS
Water, introduced into the fat from the food, causes hydrolysis of the
ester bonds in the fat, producing diglycerides, monoglycerides, and free
fatty acids . The latter two materials are emulsifiers, which, as noted
above, are promoters of fat hydrolysis. Micelliz ation of water keeps it in
the fat phase for a longer tim e, which also in creases hydrolysis. In
addit ion, hydrolysis is catalyzed by alkaline materials. For this reaso n,
the fryer must be thoroughly rinsed wit h acid (e.g., Vinegar) and water
after being cleaned with alkaline cleaning aids.
OXIDATION
Oxidation at the double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids leads to the
formation of a variety of polar compounds: aldehydes , ketones, acids,
peroxides, etc. These materials, wh ich are all surface active, change the
frying performance. The aldehydes and ketones react with proteins in
the food and increase cru st color formation . Oxygen from the air is the
rea ctive species; it is introdu ced into the fat in several ways :
• Splashing, as product or fresh fat is added to the fryer
• Turbulence, wh en foam bubbles break
• Air introduced through leaks in the continuous filtration
apparatus
• Diffusion at the surface of the fat .
Metal ions (e.g., iron, copper, and manganese) catalyze oxidation
reactions. Copper is particularly effective in this regard and should never
be used for frying equipment. In particular, breaks in screens, chains, and
other parts must n ever be repaired using an y type of brazing.
FRYING FATS \ 87
POLYMERIZATION
Unsaturated fatty acids can be chemically joined (polym erized) by
various reactions. -Oxidation products (for example, epoxides) can
readily react to form dimers. Polyunsaturated chains can undergo direct
polymerization. The practical result is that the fat contains some
percentage of polymerized trigl ycerides. As this process progresses, the
fat can actually form a va rn ish that deposits on the metal surfaces of
the fryer. The po lymeric materials are foam stabilizers; as their concen-
tra tion increases, the fat foam s more readil y when food is fried. As with
oxidation, po lymerizatio n is catalyzed by metal ions.
SMOKING, IGNITION
As the free fatty acid concentration in fryin g fat increases, the tem-
perature of the smoke, flash, and fire points (see Chapter 2) decrease.
Notice back in Figu re 2-4 that the par-
ticular sample of fresh oil studied
Specifications for Frying Oils
originally had a smoke point of 212°C
(414°F) but that 1% free fatty acid All Oils
lowered the smoke po int to 152°C • Peroxide value: 1 meq /kg maximum
(314°F). The flash point was about 138 • Free fatty acid (as oleic acid): 0.0 5% max imum
degrees C higher and the ignition • Phosp horus co ntent: 1 ppm maximum
po int 56 degrees C higher yet (250 • Color (Lovibond): 1.5 R, 15 Y maximum
and 100 degrees F). Th is pa rticular • Flavor: Bland
work used the direct addition of free • Odor: Neutral when warmed
fatty acids to make these meas-
urements. In an actual fryer, many of Light Duty Frying Oil
the oxidation products also lowe r • AOM stability: 25 hr • Solid fat profiles:
these danger po in ts, and fryer fires are • Oil stability index: 10 hr °C SFC of SFI
by no means unknown. The best way • Smoke po int: 225°C 10 <5 50 <5
to avoid th em is to prevent deg- 15 <2 70 <1.5
radation of fat. 20 <1 80 0
25 0
Selection of Frying Fat High -Stability Frying Oil
STABILITY • AOM stability: 200 hr • Solid fat profiles:
• Oil stability index : 80 hr DC SFC OF SFI
The ch ief characteristic required of • Smo ke point: 235°C 10 65 ± 4 50 47 ± 3
frying fat is good stability with respect • Wiley mp : 38 ± 1°C 15 51 ±4 70 32 ± 3
to oxidation and polymerization. This
20 37 ± 3 80 25 ± 2
means that the content of unsaturated
25 24 ± 3 92 12 ± 1
fatty acids, particularly polyunsatu-
30 16 ± 2 104 <2
rated fatty acids , must be min imized,
35 7±1
consisten t with the SFI requirements
for the fat in the finished product. For 40 <1
ligh t-duty fryin g (h om e or occasional
restaurant), wh ere the fat is used once and then discarded, a refined,
bleached, deodorized (RBD) vegetable oil will suffice. For heavy-duty,
continuous frying, the oil must at least be lightly hydrogenated to
remove linoleni c acid ; more often it is partially hydrogenated to de-
88 I CHAPTER SIX
crease the linoleic acid. Heavy-duty frying oils (m elti n g point less than
25°C) are available. These are made by partial hydrogenation of vegeta-
ble oil, followed by fractionation to remove high-melting solid frac-
tions. Partially h ydrogenated vegetable oils with melting points from 35
to 45°C (95- 113°F) are used , for example, in doughnut and snack frying
operations. Frying fats and oils with a wide variety of melting points,
SFI profiles, and AOM specifications are available from commercial
suppliers.
Additives increase fat stability and frying performance. Citric acid is
commonly added to shortenings to chelate deleterious metal ions (iron,
copper, manganese), to prevent their promotion of autoxidation.
Antioxidants (BHA, BHT, TBHQ) are added to delay the onset of rapid
peroxide formation. Finally, dimethyl silicone may be used to inhibit
foam formation.
SUITABILIlY
While fat stability is important to the operation of th e fryer, proper-
ties of the fat itself influence the consumer appeal of the finished
product and must be taken into account.
SFI profile and finished product. The solid fat content that absorbed
fat has at the temperature of consumption influences its quality. For
example, some potato chip makers believe their chips are more appeal-
ing if they have a dry surface appearance (SFI >10 at room temperature),
while other manufacturers prefer a shiny appearance (m eltin g point at
or below room temperature). Similar differences of opinion are held
with respect to many other breaded and battered fried foods.
On the other hand, for sugaring doughnuts, the absorbed fat must
have the proper SFI at the temperature of application. If it is too hard
the sugar won't adhere, while if it is too soft the oil will penetrate the
sugar layers, giving a poor appearance.
Flavor. A second factor to consider is fat flavor. Most of these flavor
notes arise from the interaction of fat with proteins and carbohydrates
during frying. However, individual oil sources can also contribute
characteristic flavors after some use. Thus, soybean and cottonseed oils
are characterized by a metallic note; corn oil gives a mild corn note;
peanut oil has a nutty note; canola and sunflower oils are very mild;
and palm oil gives a sweet pumpkin flavor note . These are generally
quite delicate com pared to the other flavors in fried food, but if a slight
"off-flavor" is detected in a product fried in RBD or lightly hydrogenated
oil, it may be worthwhile to try some other oil source.
FRYING FATS \ 89
Troubleshooting
FAT ABSORPTION
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Excessive fat pickup Low fryer temperature Make sure thermostat is prop erly calibrated.
Decrease food load; use smaller batches or slower
addition.
Increase capacity of heating element
Clean heat element tubes to prevent insulation by
food particles or polymerized fat.
High free fatty acid content in oil Increase rate of production to increase fat turnover.
Improper food formulation Decrease emulsifier level in formula .
Add protein source to formula .
Use water-binding fiber sou rces in food or co ating .
Degraded oil Replace oil more often .
Cool fryer between uses.
Include an active in-line filter in the system.
Inad equ ate fat pickup High fryer temperature Make sure thermostat is properly calibrated .
Low free fatty acid content in oil Lower production rate.
If necessary, add 0.1-0.3% free fatty acids.
Low emulsifier content Increase emu lsifier level in formula .
Fresh, untempered oil When refilling fryer after cleaning, use at least 25%
tem pered oil.
PRODUCT COLOR
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Product is too light Low fryer temperature Make sure thermostat is properly calibrated.
Decrease food load; use sma ller batches or slower
add ition.
Increase capaci ty of heating element.
Clean heat elemen t tubes to preve nt insulation by
food particles or po lyme rized fat.
Excess moisture in food Drain thoroughly before add ing to fryer.
Food too co ld when add ed to fryer Thaw frozen food before adding to fryer.
Cooking time too short Adjust cooking cycle, production timing.
Product is too dar k High fryer temperature Make sure thermostat is properly calibrated .
Degraded oil Replace oil more often.
Cool fryer between uses.
Include an active in-line fil ter in the system.
90 I CHAPTER SIX
FAT PROBLEMS
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Foaming Overheating Make sure thermostat is properly calibrated.
Inadequate turnover Increase ratio of food load to fryer capacity.
Food particles present Filter fat more often, or install contin uous filter.
Clean fryer more often; be sure proper methods are
used .
Formation of polym erized fat Include chelators (citric acid) in frying fat.
Prevent splashing wh en food is loaded or removed .
Lower fat temperature when fryer is not in use.
Install active-filter co ntinuous filtration system.
Sm oking Fryer is too hot Make sure th ermosta t is p roperly calibrated.
Set the rmostat to lowe r te m perature .
Fatty acid con tent too high Remove excess water (or ice) from food before
adding .
Increase rate of fat turnover.
Lowe r fat temperature w hen fryer is not in use.
Ensure adequate rinsing after cleaning; use acidified
water for at least one rinse.
Food particles present Filter fat more often , or install co ntin uous filter.
Clean fryer m ore ofte n; be sure proper methods are
used .
Chocolate and
Confectionery Coatings
Function of Fats and Oils
in Enrobing Compounds In This Chapter:
FLAVOR, TEXTURE Function of Fats and
Oils in Enrobing Com-
Confectionery coat in gs include all of those fat-based formulations pounds
that are melted and applied to some sort of solid food and then solidify Flavor, Texture
to form the coatin g. The process, generally called enrobing, is applied to Fat Crystallization
a wide variety of foods: nuts, nougats, flavored gels, cakes, doughnuts,
cookies, sugar wafers, ice cream bars , fruit pieces; and almost anything Chocolate Coating
Origin, Manufacture,
that the manufacturer thinks will be enhanced by the addition of the
Processing
flavor and texture of the coa ting.
Chocolate Types
The primary purpose of the coatin g is to be a flavor carrier, and the Usage
most popular flavor is chocolate. When other flavors are used, the car- Extenders
rier fat is either cocoa butter alone or a bland fat derived from another
source, with flavors (e.g., vanilla or strawberry) added. Compound Coating
The coating fat has two primary textural requirements: it must be Lauric Fats
Other Fat Sources
rather hard at room tem perature so that it doesn't soften or melt during
storage and handling, and it must have a melting point close to body Troubleshooting
temperature so that it doesn't leave a waxy mouthfeel. In th ese respects,
cocoa butter is considered the model, although its melting point (32-
35°C) is a little low for some purposes. When used to coat baked prod-
ucts, confectionery fat melts in the mouth and provides the desired lu-
brication and palate-clearing properties.
Enrobing-The process of cov-
ering a base food material with
FAT CRYSTALLIZATION a melted coating that hardens
to form a solid surrounding
Proper crystallization of the fat on the enrobed piece is important to
layer.
finished product quality. The main requirement is that the surface be
glossy, with the desired shade of brown. Chocolate coating will often Cocoa butter-The fat from
develop a dull, dusty white appearance during storage, known as cocoa beans used in choco late.
"bloom ." This phenomenon comes from changes in the polymorphic It has a sharp melting point just
crystal structure of the fat. It has many causes: improper tempering of below body temperature.
the coating, the use of incompatible fats, improper conditioning of the
centers before coating, poor temperature conditions during enrobing, Bloom-A dusty white appear-
large temperature fluctuations during storage, and others. The proper ance on the surface of choco-
control of these factors to prevent blooming is discussed below (see the late caused by the formation of
certa in types of fat crystals.
sections on usage and troubleshooting).
91
92 I CHAPTER SEVEN
TABLE 7-1 . Polymorphism and Melting Points of Co coa Butter In Chapter 4, fats were described as under-
Phase Form Melting Point, °C going two crystal phase transitions, from a to
y I , 7.3
Wto ~, durin g plasticization of melted fat.
This sequence applies to nearly all edible fats,
a II 23.3 with one major exception, namely cocoa but-
Mixed (a + 13') III 25.5 ter, which has at least four main cryst al struc-
W IV 27.5 tures. Rapid coolin g of full y melted cocoa but-
~ V 33.8 ter produces a highly disordered crystal called
Seg regated (~ + ~)' VI 36.3 the y phase; upon subsequent slow heating,
the transition proceeds through a, W, and ~
a ~ crystals with two different melting points .
crystals. Two other forms have been identified
by X-ray cryst allography. The first is now
con sidered to be a mixture of a and ~ crystals, and th e second occurs
when the ~ phase segregates into lower- and higher-melting fractions.
In addition to having Greek names, th ese forms are designated by the
Roman numerals I-VI , which can be con fusin g. Table 7-1 summarizes
the relationships and melting points for th e various phases.
In ch ocolate, the preferred crystal phase is the stable ~ (V) form . If
th e chocolate is not tempered properly, or if other operating parameters
(discussed below) are not correct, the cocoa butter crystallizes in one of
the intermediate forms. Phase transformations oc-
cur during storage, and the surface appearance
ch an ges from smooth and glossy to dull. Eventually
the whitish bloom appears. However, in coatings
made with fats other than cocoa butter, th e fat al-
ways crystallizes in th e ~ phase. Because of the sta-
bility of this phase, such coatings are resistant to
bloom formation .
Chocolate Coating
Chocolate is the consuming public's most-
favored food flavor. Chocolate is the favorite flavor
of ice cream; chocolate chip cookies are the number
one seller; most candy bars are enrobed with a
chocolate-flavored coating; and fine milk or dark
chocolate is considered the ultimate in elegant con-
fections. Because chocolate is a high-fat item, its
successful use in food manufacture depends on
proper manipulation of its fat properties.
flavor, which are blended by cocoa processors to make the wide variety
of available cocoas. Nibs-The insides or kernels of
Cacao trees bear pods with a thick outer shell (Fig. 7-1), containing cacao beans when the hulls are
20-40 beans (seeds) embedded in a thick mucilage. The ripe seed pods removed.
are cut from the trees, split open, and set on racks for three to five days,
Chocolate liquor-The solid
during which natural fermentation converts the mucilaginous gums
mass obtained when the
into alcohol and vinegar. This drains away, leaving the moist beans, ground, Iiquified cacao nibs are
which are then sun-dried (Fig. 7-2) to a moisture content of 7-9%. The cooled.
dry beans are bagged and shipped to the processor.
After destoning, the beans are roasted. A light roast gives a product
with an acidic flavor, while a heavy roast yields a strong flavor. Most
beans receive a medium roast. The shells are removed, leaving the nibs.
These are ground in crushers, where frictional heat melts the fat. The
liquid mass is poured into molds and allowed to solidify. The product is
chocolate liquor.
Fat makes up over half the weight of chocolate liquor (Table 7-2).
This fat is cocoa butter. By mechanical pressure, some of the fat is re- Press cake-The solid residue
moved. The solid residue is presscake, which, when ground, yields cocoa remaining when cocoa butter is
powder. Removal of 75% of the fat gives presscake that contains 22- removed from chocolate liquor
24% fat, which is used to make breakfast cocoa, to flavor dairy prod- by pressing.
ucts, and in home baking. Removing 83% of the cocoa butter yields a
presscake having 15-17% fat, which is ground to make a cocoa often
used by retail bakers. The cocoa powder usually purchased for wholesale
bakery applications contains 10-120/0 fat, which is obtained by remov-
ing about 89% of the cocoa butter from the chocolate liquor.
Cocoa flavor and color reside in the solid portion of chocolate liquor;
the cocoa butter is nearly flavorless and colorless. It is also the more
expensive portion. From 100 lb of chocolate liquor, the processor ob-
tains approximately 52 lb of 10-12% fat presscake, selling for roughly
$0.50/lb, and 48 lb of cocoa butter, worth about $2.50/lb. The unique
CHOCOLATE TYPES
Chocolate liquor. Also called "baker's chocolate" or "unsweetened Baker's chocolate-An un-
chocolate, " chocolate liquor is used to give color and flavor to products sweetened form of chocolate
that is the same as chocolate
such as chocolate cookies or chocolate ice cream. It must be melted be- liquor. While having a bitter
fore addition to the mixer but protected from high heat that would taste, it is used as an ingredient
generate a burnt flavor and other off-flavors . Chocolate liquor melts at that adds color and chocolate
around 38°C (98°F); this is best done in a jacketed, continuously stirred flavor.
container heated with hot water (n o hotter than 60°C, 140°F). The
Semisweet chocolate-A form
melted liquor should be held at about 40°C (104°F) until it is added to of chocolate with added sugar.
the food in process. The amount of sugar or sweet-
Semisweet and milk chocolate. Chocolate liquor has a bitter flavor. ness can vary.
Blending it with sugar, dry milk solids , lecithin, and vanilla and/or Milk chocolate-A form of
vanillin produces the appetizing chocolate ordinarily consumed. There chocolate that has added milk
is no standard designation for different sugar levels, so "semisweet" solids, sugar, and other ingre-
chocolate from different manufacturers may vary significantly in dients. It is lighter in color than
semisweet or unsweetened
sweetness. In the absence of milk solids, the chocolate retains its native chocolate.
dark color, whereas milk components give a much lighter product.
Some of the chocolate liquor used may be dutched, particularly for dark
chocolate.
Solid chocolate is made by blending sugar, milk solids (if used),
chocolate liquor, and some cocoa butter to create a semidry paste. This
paste is ground on a five-roll refiner (to reduce particle size), then trans-
ferred to a slow mixer called a conche. Slow mixing further reduces the Conche-A mixer that slowly
particle size of the cocoa solids, sugar, and milk solids and blends the mixes a heated paste of
ingredients. It also warms the mixture, which softens the fat layer. After chocolate ingredients to re-
many hours, the viscosity of the mix increases because of the decreasing duce the particle size and in-
particle size of the solids portion. At that point, the remainder of the crease the thickness and
cocoa butter, the lecithin, and the vanillin are added. The melted smoothness.
chocolate is poured into molds and allowed to solidify.
Viscosity-The thickness of a
To illustrate the possible variations, some formulations for chocolate liquid or semiliquid mater ial.
are given in Table 7-3. The quality of the products may be judged from
these formulations, both from the percentage of more expensive ingre-
dients used, as well as from the expense of longer conching treatment
and finer particle size.
USAGE
Tempering. Tempering ensures that the coating mixture contains only
Seed crystals-Small pieces of form V seed crystals. Proper tempering gives the cocoa butter in the mix-
solid fat in a crystallineform ture the desired solidity and melting characteristics. The effects of im-
that can induce the formation proper tempering are shown in Figure 7-3. Properly tempered chocolate
of addit ional fat crystals upon coatings and compound coatings (discussed below) are resistant to the
cooling.
development of bloom. If the coating mixture is improp-
erly tempered, the rapid appearance of bloom is assured.
Several different tempering procedures are used (coating
100 -'- ...
"
, ... suppliers can provide more details).
"- '. .. In the complete melt method, the chocolate is warmed
80 \
\
.. to 45°C (113°F) and held for about 1 hr to ensure complete
rJ>
:Q
\
\
\
\
. destruction of all seed crystals. The mass is then cooled to
(5
en
60 B\,,
\
\
29-30°C (84-86°F) and stirred for about 10 min. It thickens
C
Q) ,
.
as crystals form. It is then slowly warmed to a temperature
.
just below the melting point, say 31-32°C (88- 90°F), and
0
Ii; 40 , \
\
n,
, ' \
held for several hours. Any less-stable crystals (i.e., forms II
"
20 "', \
, .. ..
and IV) melt, and only form V seed crystals are present.
The coating is then ready for use.
"
.
'
,......... In partial melt methods, pretempered chocolate is
0 '.
10 20 30 40 warmed to 31-32°C, taking care to avoid localized "h ot
Ternperature. v'C spots." Heating can be done with either a microwave oven
Fig. 7-3. Melting curves of cocoa butter tem- or a jacketed kettle. After a holding period of a few hours,
pered in various ways . A, tempered to give a the crystal seeds are stabilized, and the coating may be
mixture of forms II and IV. B, tempered to stabi- used . In a variation of this, the chocolate is heated to 38°C
lize the form IV crystals. C, tempered to stabilize (100°F) until it just melts. The heating is stopped, and a
form V crystals. Since form V is the most stable,
chunk of tempered chocolate equal to about one-fourth
proper tempering gives the curve shown in C.
the weight of the melted chocolate is added. The mixture
is stirred until the temperature of the mass has dropped to
31-32°C. The unmelted portion of the chunk is removed. The coating is
in temper and ready to use.
Enrobing. Most products are enrobed by passing them through a
"waterfall" of melted chocolate, then transporting them through a
cooling tunnel to solidify the coating. Temperature control throughout
this process is crucial to good quality of the final product. First , the
product to be enrobed should be at 24-2rC (75- 80°F). Colder product
"shock cools" the chocolate , causing formation of form II and/or form
IV crystals. Warmer product may melt the form V seeds, "breakin g the
temper" of the chocolate and promoting subsequent blooming. If the
product is thick and moist (e.g., a Swiss Roll), it should stand long
enough to allow internal moisture equilibration before being enrobed.
CHOCOLATE AND CONDFECTIONERY COATINGS \ 97
EXTENDERS
Because of the cost of cocoa butter, other fats having similar solid fat
in dex (SFI) profiles are used as partial substitutes. Palm oil, shea oil, and Shea oil-A fat obta ined from
tree seeds grown in Africa;
illipe butter are fractionated (som etimes after partial hydrogenation) to similarto cocoa butter in prop-
give fats that may be substituted for 10-50% of the cocoa butter. These erties and compos ition.
fats have a fatty acid ratio of C18:1 (30%) to C16:0 + C18:0 (60%) that
is roughly equivalent to that of cocoa butter (Table 7-4), so they cocrys- IlIipe butter-A fat obta ined
tallize in a stable ~ crystal. Figure 7-4 shows SFI curves for two such from the seeds of plants grown
hard butters. In addition, fractions of hydrogenated cottonseed or soy- in tropical Asia; similar to cocoa
bean oil have been substituted for 10-25% of cocoa butter with some butter in properties and com-
success. position.
90
Compound Coating
80 F at #2"'-.:: ~ - - ." Fat #4
70
Other fats are processed to give fractions with a high SFI
x
60 " "'. at room temperature and me lting points around body tem-
Ql
"0 " perature. These are often called hard butters or cocoa butter
E ~ '.
50 ~ ', substitutes. They are used to make coa tings ("compound
iii
LL
40 ~'. coatings") that cost less than pure chocolate and sometimes
:2 ~.
, have more desirable ch aracteristics, i.e., melting points in
a(/) 30
Cocoa ButtJ the range of 38-42°C (99- 108°F) for products in tropical
20 climates. In general, these coatin gs have minimal com-
10 patibility with cocoa butter.
20 30 40 LAURIC FATS
Temperature. 'C
Fig . 7-4 . SFI profiles of so me har d butte rs used
Coconut and palm kernel oil are the base oils for these
as cocoa butter extenders, com pared to the hard butters . The processes applied to their production are
curve for coco a butter. The tw o fats (Nos. 2 and hydrogenation, interesterification of blen ds, and fractiona-
4 in Table 7-4) are blend ed from palm, shea , tion . Fats with a wide variety of SFI profiles and melting
and illipe butter. points may be made using one or more of these techniques.
Coa tings from these fats are commonly used for frozen des-
serts. They seem to be less sub ject to "cold shock" an d re-
Cocoa butter subst it utes- sultant bloom formation than are chocolate and/or other types of com-
Hard fat sources, including
hydrogenated vegetab le oils,
pound coatings.
that have melting prop erties Crystal polym orph ism of lauric fats is much less com plex th an for
similar to those of cocoa butte r, cocoa butter, and only a min imal amount of tempering is needed to
Comp ound coatings-
ob ta in good final resu lts. Complete melt tempering is usually use d, but
Coatings cont aining fats other the holding time at 2-3 degrees C below the melting point is only an
than cocoa butter but similar to hour or so. The fatty acid composition of lauric fats is much different
regular chocolate in melting than that of cocoa butter, and the two kinds of fat are n ot at all com-
properties. patible in coatings .
quite stable in the ~ crystal and sh ows excellen t resist an ce to Fig. 7-5. SFI profiles of two vegetable oil ha rd
bloom formation. butter s compared to the curve for cocoa butter.
They are blended of hydrog enated, fraction-
ated soybean (No.1) and cottonseed (No. 2)
oils.
Troubleshooting
BLOOM
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
White, du sty Incorrect te mp ering of melted Make sure recommended tempering and seeding
appe arance chocolate coating procedu res are followed closely. Check:
- Melting temperatur e
- Cooling temperatu re
- Amount, kind of seed ing mat erial to use
- Temperature after addition of seeding mat erial
Increase time in tempering unit at 31-32°C (88-90°F).
Incorrect temperatur e of application Make sure choco late going to enrobing machine is at
31-32°C.
Adjust tempe ratu re of piece to be enrobed to
24-2rC (75-80°F).
Bottoming plate shou ld be no colder than 10°C (50°F).
Incompatible fat Do not add lauric fats to chocolate coating .
Make sure any surface fat (e.g., pan release oils) on
the piece to be enrobed is compatible with chocolate.
Incorrect storage Store enrobed pieces at 2Q-.25°C (68-77°F) for two
days for full crystallization of cocoa butter.
Do not expose to temperatures above 30°C (86°F);
preferably store below 2rC (80°F).
Suga r bloom (sugar Surface moisture on piece to be Thaw frozen pieces completely, in a low humidity
crystals on surface) enrobed atmosphere.
Cooled piece temperatu re must be above dew point
of am bient air temperature and relative humidity .
100 I CHAPTER SEVEN
COATING APPEARANCE
Symptom Cause Changes to Make
Coating too thick Coating viscosity too high Lower viscosity by adding lecithin or fat to coating
formu lation .
Coating temperature too low Increase temperatu re of coating holding tank.
Blower and shaker not set properly Increase rate of air blower and/or shaker oscillation.
Piece to be enrobed too cool Decrease cooling of centers before enrobing.
Bottom clearance too large Decrease clearance between bottoming plate and
carrier cha in.
Coating too thin Coating viscosity too low Increase viscosity by decreasing lecithin or fat in
coating formulation.
Coating temperature too high Decrease temperature of coating holding tank .
Blower and shaker not set properly Decrease rate of air blower and/or shaker oscillation .
Piece to be enrobed too warm Increase cooling of centers before enrobing.
Bottom clearance too small Increase clearance between bottoming plate and car-
rier chain.
Pin holes Coating viscosity too high Lower viscosity by adding lecithin or fat to coating
formulation .
Coating applied at too Iowa Increase temperature of coating holding tank .
temperature
Excessive stirring of melted coating Decrease agitation in holding tank.
Piece to be enrobed is porous Use a coating roller.
Cracking Centers contracting in cooling tunnel Cool centers before enrobing.
Moisture content (wafers) too high Bring moisture down to 3-5% before enrobing.
Greasiness Cooling shock in cooling tunnel Raise temperatures inside postcoating cooling tunnel.
Tails/feet on finished Coating viscosity too low Increase viscosity by decreasing lecithin or fat in
piece coating formulation.
Blower and shaker not set properly Increase rate of air blower and/or shaker oscillation.
Piece to be enrobed too warm Cool centers to 18-24°C (65-75°F) before enrobing.
Salad Dressings
A 17th century cookbook, referring to the preparation of "salattes,"
admonishes the chef to "be not too generous with the vinegar, nor yet In This Chapter:
too sparing wit h the oil." The cruet set, a pair of containe rs for wine Pourable Salad
vin egar and salad oil, is still found, but pourable salad dressings today Dressings
are sold preformulated, containing all the flavorings and additional Composition
ingredients in one bottle. Spoonable salad dressings, in their original Oil Characteristics
con cept, were not in tended for salads. Mayonnaise (created for the Emulsifiers and Thickeners
Comte de Mayon n e) was used as a sauce on seafoods such as lobster Spoonable Salad
and sh rim p. Toda y its ma in use is in potato, tuna, and chicken salads, Dressings
in tartar sauce, and as a substitute for butter or margarine in Mayonnaise
sandwiches. Starch-Based Dressings
Troubleshooting
Pourable Salad Dressings
COMPOSITION
Standardized french dressing is defined in 21 CFR 169.115 as a mix-
ture of vegetable oil (minimum 35% by weight), acidifying ingredients
(vin egar, lemon juice, or lime juice), and other permissible ingredients
(salt, sugars, spices, monosod ium glutamate, tomato products, eggs, Sequestrants-Compounds
colorants, thickeners, citric and/or malic acids, sequestrants, and crystal- that bind or form com plexes
lization inhibitors). Thus a wide range of products is included, from the with a second compound so
simplest "vinaigrette" (oil, vinegar, and a few spices) to rather complex that the second compound is
products marketed under a variety of names. no longer chem ically active.
In addition, numerous nonstandard products are availab le. For in- Positively charged meta l ions
stance, th e many "reduced-calorie" dressings contain sign ificantly such as calcium are often
sequestered by compounds
lower levels of oil. The viscosity of these products is obtained by th e
such as citric acid or EDTA.
addition of gums, emulsifiers, and ot her thickeners such as microcrys-
talline cellulose.
OIL CHARACTERISTICS
Salad dressing oil is a refined, bleached, deodorized (RBD) oil that has
been win terized. It must have a cloud point of 5.5 hr minimum, but a
good-quality salad oil has a cloud point of at least 15 hr . Salad dressings
are refrigerated between uses, and cloudiness is unsightly and gives a
waxy mouthfeel. Th e addition of a crystallization inhibitor can extend
the cloud point; a 5-hr oil may become a lO-hr oil, while a high-quality
15-hr oil may have its cloud point extended to 80 hr . Crystal inhibitors
have a molecular structure similar to that of triglycerides but differing
101
102 I CHAPTER EIGHT
in some specific m anner. They settle on the face of the gro wing fat m i-
Oxystearin-A preparation of crocr ystals , an d the difference in m olecular architecture in terferes with
oxidized and po lyme rized . the further depos ition of fat molecules. Two compounds are specifically
hydrogenated vegetable oil approved by the FDA for this use: oxys tearin and pol yglycerol esters.
that is added to oils to inhib it
Oxystearin is made by blowing air through cottonseed or soybean oil
the crystallization of
triglycerides. (hydrogen ated to an IV of about 35) at 200°C (392°F). The product con-
t ains many polymeric and breakdown products, and its exact composi-
tion is unknown. Its maximum permissible concentration is 0.125% by
weigh t. Several emulsifiers (in addition to po lyglycerol esters) also in-
hibit crystal for mation. Among those report ed to do this are sucrose
esters, glucose esters, and sorb itan tristearate.
Oxidative stability of the oil is pa rticularly important, so th at rancid
flavors don't develop afte r the bottle of dressing is opened. Stability can
be increased in several ways. The oil must be properly refined so that
th e peroxide value is less th an 1 meq/kg. Citric acid is added at th e end
of the deodorization step at 10- 50 parts per million (ppm) to sequester
metal ions . Ant ioxidants are added at a maximum level of 0.01% (100
ppm) of an yone material and 0.02% (200 ppm) of any combination.
These three factors (refin ing, citri c acid, and antioxidants) can substan-
tia lly extend the active oxygen method (AOM) value of the oil and pro-
duce a dressing with keep ing quality th at meets the consumer's expec-
tations. Calcium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and calcium
disodium EDTA may be added to the dressing (at a maximum level of
75 ppm) to sequester metal ions contributed by other ingredients in the
form ula.
TABLE 8-1 . Relationship Between Weig ht Percent the oil volu me percentage exceeded 72%, the emulsion
and Volume Percent would invert (t h e oil droplets woul d coalesce and the
Weight Percent Volume Percent emulsion would become a wat er-in -oil emulsion). Note
65 67.1 that the proportion of oil in the emulsion must be
77 78.6
given as volume percentage; because the density of oil
is about 0.91 g/ml, there is a difference between weigh t
82 83.3
percen tage and volum e percentage (Table 8-1 ).
This "filling in the spaces" also has a major effect on
Inverted emuls ion-An the rheological (flow) characteristics of the product. Mayon n aise is a
em ulsion in which the "Bingham plastic" in rheological terms (Fig. 8-2). Wh en shear stress
continuous phase becomes the (stirrin g) is applied at low levels, mayonnaise acts like a solid; that is, it
dispersed phase and the does not flow, although it may fracture (break). At some level of shear
dispersed phase becomes force, called the yield valu e, the mayonnaise begins to act like a liquid.
cont inuous.
Put another way, if a mass of mayonnaise is simply cut, the vertical
Rheological -Describing flow edge does not flow, because the shear stress of gravity is less than the
properties caused by an outsid e yield value . However, it can be spread smoothly on a slice of bread,
force or deformation.
because the shear force applied by the knife blade is greate r than the
Bingham plastic-A mater ial yield value. The size of th e yield value is related to the amount of dis-
that beha ves like a solid until it persed phase (oil) in excess of the theoretical limit of 72% (by volum e).
is stirred at a high enough rate
so tha t it starts to flow and
Th us, a mayonnaise with the legal m in imum of 65% oil by weigh t h as a
behave like a liquid. very low yield valu e and is seen by users as being too t h in . Mayo n n aise
with 80- 84% oil by weigh t has a high yield valu e and is seen as dry or
Shea r st ress-The ap plication
of a force, such as stirring, to a
ru bbery by home consumers, although it is preferred for institutional
material. use becau se it does n ot soak into bread in sandwiches or soften and
flow over salads.
Yield value-The amou nt of
shear or stirring needed to turn As mentioned above, the lipoproteins in egg yolk are the main emul-
a Bingham plastic from a solid sifying agents in mayonnaise. They are partially denatured by the low
to a liquid. pH of the vinegar used, and th eir emulsification capabilities are im-
proved. If wh ole eggs are used, the egg wh it e albumins are also dena-
tured by low pH and h ave some emulsifying properties.
The denatured albumins give the aqueous phase a
,, somewhat me ringue-like nature; the resu lting mayon-
Newton ian ,, ' naise may be slightly fluffier than mayonnaise made
, ,
Q) ,, only with yolk, and the yield valu e is slightly greater.
Ctl , The choice between the two types of product is main ly
a: , ,,
a matter of individual consumer preference.
.....
, ,,
ctl An oil with a long cloud point time is essential for
Q)
, ,, mayonnaise. Storage, after the jar is opened, is in the
.c ,
(j) , Bingha m Plastic refrigerator. If fat crystals form, the balance of emul-
,,
sion-stabilizing for ces is disrupted and the emulsion
, " Yield Value
breaks. The practice of win terizati on was first applied
,/ \ to cottonseed oil intended for making mayonnaise in
the early days of its commercial manufacture. The fac-
Shear Stress tors mentioned earlier apply here; the oil processor
Fig. 8-2. Rheology of mayonnaise. The rate of flow of
must do a good job of win terizin g the oil, and crystal
a Newto nian fluid such as wat er is directly propor- inhibitors may be used to further guard aga inst cloud-
tion al to the force appl ied (shea r stress) . A Bingham ing.
plastic does no t flow until the shear stress exceeds the
yield value; then the flow rate is directly proportional
Manu facture. The preparation of m ayon n aise is diffi-
to the add itional shear stress. cult, and science is less important than experience,
SALADDRESSINGS \ 105
STARCH-BASED DRESSINGS
Spoonable salad dressing was first developed as a low-cost alternative
to mayonnaise. Toda y it is accepted as a somewhat different product,
purchased and judged (by consumers) on its own merits. While it is
sim ilar to mayonnaise in rh eology (it is a Bingham plastic, and its yield
valu e is a factor in acceptability), these characteristics are dependent on
the nature of th e food starch used, not the state of emulsificat ion of the
oil.
Compositio n . Sta ndard ized salad dressing (21 CFR 169.150) contains
veget able oil (mini m um 30% by weight), egg yolk (mini m um 4% by
106 I CHAPTER EIGHT
Troubleshooting
MAYONNAISE .
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Emulsion breakdown Crystal form ation in the oil Use a winterized oil with a longer cloud point tim e.
Excessive subdivision of oil dropl ets Ope n cleara nce on colloid mill slightly.
Decrease viscosity of premix em ulsion.
Rancid flavor Oxida tion of oil Store oil un der N2 before use in man ufacture.
Package product un der N2 •
Use a lightly hydrog en ated, winterized oil.
SALAD DRESSING
Symptom Causes Changes to Make
Loss of "b ody" Acid hydrolysis of starch Use a highly m odified waxy m aize starch .
Add vinegar aft er starc h has been gelat inized and
coo led.
Low g el viscosity of star ch Use a modified starch with a high er co ld viscosity.
Freeze-thaw breakdown of starch gel Use a stabilized sta rch for freeze-th aw resistan ce.
Rancid flavor Oxid ation of oil Sto re oil under N2 before use in manufacture.
Packag e product und er N2 •
Use a lightly hydrog enated, winterized oil.
Nutritional Topics
Lipids are an important part of animal (in cluding human) nutrition.
Excessive dietary intake of lipids (e.g., fats or cholesterol) can lead to In This Chapter:
health problems, and numerous governmental and pro fessional groups Role of Dietary Fats
recommend that fat intake be limited so that it provides no more than Calories
30% of the total calories consumed each day. However, certain groups Membrane Structure
appear to advocate a zero level of lipid consumption, on the mistaken Vitamins
assumption that this can only improve our health. In this chapter, Essential Fatty Acids,
some of the contributions of lipids to good health are briefly discussed. Prostaglandins
It is important to recognize that research on this subject continues, and
Cholesterol and Athero-
the last word has by no means been spoken. If the reader requires more sclerosis
detailed or up-to-date information, the extensive literature on nutri- Positive Contributions of
tional aspects of fat and cholesterol intake should be consulted. Moreo- Cholesterol
ver, the guideline "Moderation in all things " is as worthwhile today as Blood Serum Lipids
it was wh en it was first given many centuries ago. Extremes of any sort,
including dietary manipulation, are not helpful and may well be dam- Polyunsaturated Fats
and Cancer
aging.
109
11 0 I CHAPTER NINE
Kilocalo ries- 1,000 calories, wide variety of foods and food components using a bomb calorimeter.
which is the amo unt of energy Thi s analytical m eth od determines t he amount of heat released when
required to raise the tempe ra- the sample is burned completely in an atmosphere of pure oxygen. At-
ture of 1 kg of water 1°C.
water also conducted feeding studies with human volunteers, assessing
When referring to the caloric
content of the diet, the kilo part what fraction of each of the foods they ate was absorbed in the gil t.
is often dropped and just the Multiplying the analyti cal heat content by the fraction absorbed, he
term calories is used, usually obtained values for the available heat content of many foods . The num-
written with a capital C. In the bers vary over a range of 0.5 kilocalories per gram for the foods in each
statement th at fat has 9 Calo- group (carboh ydrates, proteins, an d lipids), but the average for each
ries per gram, it mea ns kilo- group has been accepted as the well-known Atwater values of 4, 4, and
calories. 9 Cal/g for carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, respe ctively. The term Cal
Energy-The value derived ("big CIt calories), which is used in nutritional labelling, is approxi-
from the digestion and me- mately equivalent to kcal (kilocalories), the correct scientific designa-
tabolism of food components tion. It is convenient to reserve Cal for the results of calculations using
that is turn ed into work in a the Atwater factors (with their inherent approximations) and kcal for
body or tissue.
more exact scien tifi c calcul ations.
Metabolism-A series of reac-
tions in the body by which MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
complex food molecules are
degraded to simpler forms, Bilayer lipid structur es are important at the cellular level in animals.
energy is extracted, and com- Cell membranes consist of a double layer of phospholipid, with embed-
plex molecules are reformed by ded proteins that transport molecule s and ions acros s the cell wall (Fig.
the body. 9-1). The hydrophilic end of the phospholipid is located either at the
Adipose tissue-Tissue in inner or the outer surfa ce of the cell wall, an d the fatty acid chains of
which fat is stored. the phospholipids form the structure of the me m brane. This bilayer
structure is found not only in cell walls but also in the cell interior (in
Obes ity-The condition of microsomes, the reticular endothelium, etc.), as well as in the myelin
being overweight due to the
accumulation of fatty tissue in
nerve sheath, eye retina, and other structures.
the body . Obesity usually is
'considered being more than
20% over ideal weight.
Bomb calorime te r-An in-
strument that burns a samp le
of food and determines how
much heat energy it releases.
Gut-General term for the
digestive tract or intestinal
tract.
Available hea t-The caloric or
energy conten t of food materi-
als, taking into account the
amount of material that is ab-
sorbed from the digestive tract.
Fig. 9-1. The structu re of cell memb ranes. The main component is phospholipids,
which have their fatty acid cha ins in the inte rior of the membrane an d their
charged en d grou ps on th e surface. Some cho lestero l (solid back st ructures) is
found inserted in th e mem brane, and p roteins (cross-hatch ed and shaded struc-
tures) performi ng vario us fun ctions are attach ed to one side or th e other or else
penetrate the membrane.
NUTRITIONAL TOPICS \ 111
VITAMINS
Vitamins A, D, E, and K (Fig. 9-2) are soluble in fat and are associated
with the lipid portion of foods. A well-balanced diet normally provides
adequate vitamin intake. Th e main reasons for deficiency are: 1) inade-
Caroten es- A class of fat
quate dietary supply and 2) excessive excretion as a result of high fat
soluble compounds tha t are
content in stools ("stea torrhea," which is associated with im pai red fat yellow to red in color. Some
digestion). carotenes, such as ~ -ca roten e,
Vitamin A is for m ed by oxidative cleavage of carotenes. ~ -Carotene , are converted to vitamin A in
for example, gives rise to two molecules of vitamin A (for the stru cture the body.
Vitam in A1
Vitamin 0 3
eOOH
~
OH OH OH
PGF2a
C(,
eOOH eOOH
----7
~
OH OH
PGA 2 PGB 2
Fig. 9-3. Prostaglandins are formed from polyunsaturated fatty acids. Arachidonic acid
is first peroxidized (at position 15) by a tissue lipoxygenase; then this arachidonic hy-
droperoxide undergoes a series of further reactions to form PGE2, PGA2, and PGB2 •
PGF2 is on a separate reaction path. Prostaglandin families from other polyunsaturated
fatty acids are designated by different subscripts; those from homo-y-linolenic acid are
PGE, etc., while those from eicosapentenoic acid (C20:5 (03) are PGE3 etc.
114 I CHAPTER NINE
yH 3 /CH3
CH-CH2CH2CH2C~H
3
HO HO OH
HO
level. The effects have been considered from two standpoints: influence
on total serum cholesterol and influence on the levels of HDL and LDL.
As with any active field of research (especially medical-related research),
there are disparities in opinions. The best current consensus is summa-
rized in Table 9-3. Saturated and trans-unsaturated fatty acids lower
HDL and elevate LDL and total cholesterol. Of the saturated fatty acids, Hypercholesterolemic-
myristic (C14) is the most hypercholesterolemic; palmitic (CI 6) is some- Describing those dietary com-
ponents that tend to raise the
what less so, and lauric and stearic (C12 and C18) are mildly h ypercho- level of serum cholesterol.
lesterolemic. Polyunsaturated fatty acids lower all the categories. While
this is good in terms of total cholesterol, the decrease in the "good"
HDL is not des irable. Mon oun satur ated fatty acids have the most favor-
able influence, raising HDL, lowering LDL, and lowering total choles-
terol. The medium- and short-chain fatty acids (butyric through capric
acids ) are neutral with respect to serum cholesterol metabolism. Based
on this simplified summary of extensive, complex data, the current
emphasis on lowering saturated fat and increasing monounsaturated fat
in the diet makes sense for people who are (or may become) hypercho-
lesterolemic.
trans Fatty acids. Hydrogenation of vegetable oils converts some frac-
tion of the double bonds from the cis to the trans isomer (see the dis-
cussion of hydrogenation in Chapter 4). The daily intake of trans fatty
acids in the current U.S. diet has been estimated at 8 g/day. Some stud-
ies, using diets containing three to four times this level of trans fatty
acids, found some elevation of LDL cholesterol and lowering of HDL
cholesterol, as compared with the effects of a similar diet in which most
fat calories came from oleic acid. The effects of trans fatty acids (on HDL
and LDL levels ) appear to be about half as great as the changes brought
about by equivalent amounts of saturated fatty acids. Thus, while this
factor should be kept in mind when making dietary adjustments, it is
certainly not grounds for eliminating hydrogenated fats (e.g., marga-
rine) from the diet.
At 8 g per day, trans fatty acids contribute about 3.5% of daily caloric
intake. The recommended maximum level of calories from saturated fat
is 10%. It has been suggested that trans fatty acids should be included
with saturated fat in preparing nutritional labels for foods. Such a move
would require regulatory changes by the Food and Drug Administra-
tion, and (as of this writing) no such action has been initiated. At the
present time, trans fatty acids are included in the total fat category on
nutritional labels but are not included in the numbers for saturated fats
and are also not included in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats
(which must be cis isomers, by definition).
The age-adjusted mortality rate from cancer in the United States has
increased by about 80/0 over the last 30 years. Most of this increase is
from lung cancer, caused primarily by cigarette smoking. The incidence
of stomach cancer has decreased during this same period, while age-
adjusted mortality rates for nearly all other cancer types have been es-
Epidemiological data- sentially unchanged or have decreased slightly. Suggestions that dietary
Information gathered on fat may in some way be connected with human cancer are based on
populations rather than by epidemiological data; death rates in different countries from certain types
studying specific individuals or of cancer appear to be correlated with total fat intake or intake of ani-
laboratory experiments.
mal fat and/or cholesterol. Often, however, this correlation does not
hold up when segments of the population within a single country are
examined. Overall, there is no convincing evidence for a simple causal
relationship between dietary fat and cancer.
Animal studies have found that an elevated level of fat in the diet in-
creases the response to chemically induced carcinogenesis. In other
words, high levels of fat intake may act as a promoter of cancer but not
an initiator. This has been noticed, in particular, with breast and colon
cancers in the animals. There has been some indication that this pro-
moting activity may be more evident with polyunsaturated fats, as
compared to saturated or monounsaturated fats. The hypothesis is that
fatty acid peroxides (or hydroperoxides) are the promoter species. This
idea receives some support from findings that natural antioxidants
(vitamins A, C, and E) appear to have anticarcinogenic activity.
Carcinogenesis-The devel- While the focus has been on fat content of the diet as a factor in car-
opment of a malignancy or cinogenesis, it is likely that the level of total caloric intake may be
cancer. equally or more important. Although many different studies have ad-
dressed this factor, three points may demonstrate the range of evidence:
1) rats that have been exposed to a carcinogen develop fewer breast tu-
mors if placed on a restricted-calorie diet; 2) obese human females have
increased risk of breast and endometrial cancer; and 3) increased physi-
cal activity by humans may reduce the risk of certain cancers.
The causes of cancer are multitudinous: cigarette smoking, certain
dietary patterns, radiation, sunlight, occupational hazards, water and
air pollution, heredity, and predisposing medical conditions. Given this
high level of physiological insult to which the human body is subjected
each day, it seems unlikely that one small segment of our diet
(polyunsaturated fat) will be shown to play much of a role in carcino-
genesis.
Fat and Calorie
Reduction in Foods
As discussed in previous chapters, fats and oils play many roles in
foods . In 1988, it was estimated that fat contributed 38% of the total In This Chapter:
calories in the average u.s. diet. In line with the recommendations
Fat Substitutes
from governmental and professional groups that this number be re-
Functional Expectations
duced to 30% or less, the food industry has sought ways to reduce the
Types
fat con ten t of many foods by substituting other materials. This is not
an easy task; fat functionality is not readily imitated by other food Reduced-Fat Products
components. Reduced-Calorie Products
In addition to decreased dietary fat per se, an overall reduction in
caloric intake is desirable for those who are overweight. This entails re-
ducing the caloric density (i.e., Calories per 100 g) of many everyday
foodstuffs. Although decreasing the percentage of fat in foods helps, a
substantial portion of the components that contribute food energy (i.e.,
fat, starch, and protein) must be replaced with noncaloric components
(fiber and water) in order to achieve a significant calorie reduction.
These two approaches tend to be intermingled in the development of
tasty, appealing foods that help consumers meet the dietary goals. Of
the products recently developed toward these ends, those that have
been successful in the marketplace have taken a balanced approach. Fat Fiber-Indigestible or incom -
is reduced by 25-50% (rath er than being completely removed), and fi- pletely digested material, usu-
ally a complex carbohydrate.
ber, gums, and other functional ingredients are used. The products are
Fiber normally contributes bulk
similar in taste and texture to the ones they replace (in the estimation but few or no calories to the
of consumers) but provide a significant reduction in calories. diet.
Fat Substitutes
FUNCTIONAL EXPECTATIONS
Reduction of caloric density. Simply removing fat from a formula (for
example, decreasing fat from 40 to 20% [flour basis] in a cookie dough)
reduces the caloric density of the product. However, the weight of fat
removed must be replaced with other materials, mainly starch and pro-
tein, so the relative calorie decrease is to 4/9 of the original amount,
not 0/9 . In certain instances, however, nearly all the fat is removed; an
example is reduced-calorie white bread, in which the shortening level
typically is 0%, although there is a slight increase in emulsifier.
Fat substitutes are often formulated to rep lace fat on a one-to -one
weight basis, where th e substitute has a lower calorie count than fat .
119
120 I CHAPTER TEN
lYPES
Table 10-1 lists some materials that have been used as fat replacers.
New ones are under development, and this list should not be consid-
ered exhaustive. However, it gives an overview of the various types of
replacers presently available.
FAT AND CALORIE REDUCTION \ 121
filler fat. It has been used to substitute for these fats in products. Ca-
prenin has an SFI curve like that of a hard butter and has been used as a
replacement for cocoa butter in confectionery coatings. Application has
been made to the FDA for affirmation of GRAS status for both of these
materials.
Emulsifiers. Typically, 20/0 fat in a formula can be replaced with 10/0
emulsifier with no loss in functionality. This is not recommended on
an economic basis (cost reduction), but it does work when the goal of
fat reduction justifies a somewhat higher product cost. Polyglycerol es-
ters contribute about 6 Cal/g. They have been used for years for their
emulsifying properties but are also useful for their fat-sparing character-
istics. Monoglycerides, polysorbates, and perhaps other emulsifiers can
also be used in this way. To illustrate, half of the 100 g (900 Cal) of fat
in a cake formula may be replaced with 25 g of polyglycerol ester and
25 g of water. The final caloric contribution is then 600 Cal (9 x 50 g of
fat + 6 x 25 g of emulsifier), a significant reduction in calories with re-
tention of good product palatability.
been developed for making such fillings either with reduced fat or no Water activity- On a scale of
fat at all. Table 10-2 com pares two such fillings with a standard formula o to 1.0, the amount of wat er
for a commercial creme filling. The developer of the "emulsified" filling in a food that is chemically
active and available. Dry food s
used decaglycerol dipalmitate, an emulsifier with an HLB of 12, to help
have a level of 0.1- 0.3, and
stabilize the structure (2). This emulsifier was first dispe rsed in the wa- moist foods are in the range of
ter before being combin ed with the other in gredients. Sugar dissolved 0.95 or higher.
in the water phase reduced the water activity to the point th at the
emulsifier gelled, thus contributing some of the structure needed to Aiginate-A complex carboh y-
make a creamy, stable filling. In the "gum -stabilized" filling, alginate drate derived from seaweed
and the modified starch are gel formers, wh ile the gum arabic binds wa- and used as a thickening agent
ter strongly. Again , the gel pro vides some of the required structure, but, and gel former.
more importantly, it gives the desired smooth mouthfeel. When a high-
Gum arabic-A compl ex car-
moisture filling is used in a sandwich cookie, the water migrates to the
bohydrate derived from Acacia
base cake, causing it to lose its desired crisp eating quality. The gum trees and used to increase the
arabic binds water, pre venting this unwanted event . stability of emulsions.
Reduced-Calorie Products
Simply reducing the fat content of a food may reduce the caloric
density but it often has untoward consequences, as discus sed above.
Nowadays, consumer demand is not so much for fat reduction per se,
but rather for calorie reduction for controlling caloric in take (an d help
in losing weigh t). The strategy for developing reduced-calorie foods is
somewhat different from that used to develop reduced-fat foods. In the
latter case, fat is removed, and then process changes or ingredient addi-
tions are made to regain (as much as possible) the textural and mouth-
feel con trib utions made by fat. In calor ie redu ction, the strategy is to
repl ace caloric compo n ents (fat, carbohydrate , and protein) in the fin -
ished product with noncaloric (dietary fiber, water) or low-calorie (sugar
alcohols, polydextrose) com pone n ts, while matching the quality char-
acteristics of the product being replaced as nearly as possible. The final
formulation and product analysis may be identical; it is just a matter of
how development is approached. A few examples will demonstrate the
"calorie-reduction strategy."
Reduced-calorie white bread. A typical analysis of white bread is given
in Table 10-3 . The fat comes from three sources: the flour itself con tains
about 1.8% fat; shortening is added at 4% of the flour weight; and
emulsifiers (monoglycerides, dough stren gth-
eners) con tain fatty acids . Th e first step in TABLE 10-3. Reduced-Calorie White Bread
reducing calories is to sub stitute insoluble Control
dietary fiber (a -cellulose or a similar product) --- - - - - -Reduced
- - -Calorie
---
Component Percent Calories Percent Calories
for 20% of the flour. The amount of water
added to the dough is increased because the Moisture 38.6 o 45.6 o
fiber absorbs about three times its weight of Ash 1.8 o 1.6 o
water. The dough is weak, however, produc- Dietary fiber 1.9 o 11.5 o
ing a small final loaf, so about 11 % vital wheat Fat 3.8 34 1.4 13
gluten is substituted for an equal weight of Protein 8.3 33 9.7 39
flour, necessitating a further increase in Carbohydrate 47 .6 191 30.2 121
dough absorption to 101 % (flour basis), as Total calories 258 173
126 I CHAPTER TEN
compared to 640/0 for the regular bread. The shortening and monoglyc-
eride are omitted, but the resulting loaf is difficult to slice and is still
Vital wheat gluten- slightly weak. The addition of 0.50/0 ethoxylated monoglyceride
Concentrated wheat protein strengthens the dough and, more importantly, lubricates the slicer
that is extracted from flour and blades. Analysis of the final product (Table 10-3) shows a large increase
used as an ingredient in baked
in moisture and dietary fiber and decreases in fat and carbohydrate. The
products to improve the struc-
ture and strength of a dough. caloric density of the product is decreased by one-third.
Cake doughnuts. During frying, cake doughnuts absorb a relatively
large amount of the frying fat, roughly equal to the amount of water
evaporated from the batter rings. Thus, the batter as mixed may contain
about 13% fat, but the fried doughnut generally contains 22-24% fat.
The addition of an ingredient to the batter that holds moisture
(retarding evaporation in ·the fryer) would be expected to decrease fat
absorption. This proved to be the case (3). A long-fiber type of (X-
cellulose, which absorbs about nine times its weight in water, was the
most effective. When this fiber was substituted for 30/0 of the flour in
the batter, the fried doughnut contained 18.20/0 fat (vs. 21.80/0 in the
control doughnut) and 24.40/0 moisture (vs. 20.9% for the control).
Calorie reduction amounted to only 100/0, and no further work aimed at
this goal was reported.
Snack crackers. Crackers and cookies are low-moisture products, usu-
ally containing 2-3% moisture when packaged. Thus, increasing
(noncaloric) water in the finished product is not a feasible tactic. Calo-
rie reduction depends on increasing the dietary fiber content and de-
creasing the fat content. A typical snack cracker contains roughly 11 %
fat when it exits the oven. It is sprayed with oil, amounting to about
15% of the baked cracker weight; fat analysis of the final product is
about 23%, and the cracker has 486 Cal per 100 g. A high-fiber cracker
has been developed that contains about 280/0 total dietary fiber. In de-
veloping the formula, it was necessary to add vital wheat gluten to the
dough to provide adequate strength for the sheeting process. Because of
the gluten and the large amount of fiber, much more water in the
dough than normal was necessary, and removing this extra water al-
most doubled the baking time. The shortening in the dough was
halved, so the baked cracker contained about 5.5% fat. Spray oil was
applied to get acceptable eating qualities (in particular, a moist mouth-
feel and good clearance from mouth surfaces). However, it was found
that 5% spray oil was enough to get the desired mouthfeel and texture.
The finished cracker contained 10% fat, 280/0 fiber, and had 320 Cal per
100 g, a one-third reduction from the typical snack cracker.
Oatmeal cookies. A development project for a reduced-calorie oatmeal
cookie provides a good object lesson in the overall strategy (4). It is
particularly instructive because the necessary sensory evaluation studies
are part of the report. The base formula was separated into four seg-
ments: flour (30 % ) , sugar (260/0), shortening (18 % ) , and other ingredi-
ents (oats, whole eggs, leavening, salt, and water). Substitution aimed at
lowering calories was made in each of the first three categories. In the
sample test formula reported, the following changes were made. The
FAT AND CALORIE REDUCTION \ 127
30% flour component was replaced with 19% flour, 8% a-cellulose, and
3% oat fiber . The sugar component was replaced wit h 6.5% sugar, 6.5%
isomalt (a sugar alcohol derived from sucrose, contributing 2 Cal/g),
and 13% polydextrose. The shortening part was replaced with 10% fat,
2.7 % mono- and diglycerides, 1% diacetyltartaric ester of monoglyc-
eride (DATEM), 1.6% polydextrose, and 2;7% water. The fourth group
was used unchanged. Wh en both formulas were analyzed at 2.5% fin -
ished product moisture, the base cookie had 493 Cal per 100 g, while
the experimental cookies had 354 Cal per 100 g, a 28% reduction in
calories. Analysis of the sensory data showed that the flour and sugar
rep lacements had little or no effect on texture, and the shortening sub-
stitutes had the greatest im pact on texture attributes.
This study confirms th e statement made at the beginning of this
chapter: fat functionality is not readily imitated by other food compo-
nents. Developing a reduced-fat, reduced-calorie product requires using
all the ingredients available to the food technologist, in a well-design ed
experimental plan. The job is not easy, nor is it one of simply replacing
fat with a substitute. However, the task is not im possible, and, as time
goes on, we can expect to see more high-quality products of this type
on the supermarket shelves.
References
1. Bullens, c., Krawczyk, G., and Geithman, L. 1994. Food Technology,
48(1):79.
2. Eydt, A. 1994. Food Technology, 48(1):82.
3. Ang, J. E, an d Miller, W. B. 1991. Cereal Foods World 36:558 .
4. Campbell, L. A., Ketelsen, S. M., and An ten ucci, R. N. 1994 . Food Tech nol-
ogy, 48(5):98 .
APPENDIX A.
Nomenclature and Sources of Fatty Acids
Common Carbon Source'
Systematic Name Name Length
Butanoic Butyric C4:0 Btr
Hexanoic Caproic C6 :0 Btr
Octanoic Caprylic C8 :0 Bsu, Cnt, Pk, Btr
Decanoic Capric C10:0 Bsu, Cnt, Pk, Btr
9-Decenoic Caproleic C10:1 Btr
Dodecanoic Lauric C12:0 Bsu, Cnt, Pk, Btr, Ld
5-Dodecenoic C12:1 Sperm wha le
9-Dodecenoic Lauro leic C12: 1 Btr
Tetradecanoic Myristic C14:0 Bsu, Cnt, CIS, Plm, SIB, Btr, Ld, Tw
5 -Tetradecenoic Physteric C14:1 Sperm whale
9- Tetradecenoic Myristoleic C14:1 Btr, Ld, mTw
Pentadecanoic C15 :0 Ld, mTw
Hexadecanoic Palm itic C16:0 Bsu, Cnt, Coc, Crn, CIS, Olv, Plm, Pnt, Sat, Sun, SIB, Btr, Ld,
Tw
9-Hexadecenoic Palmito leic C16:1 Cnt, CIS, Olv, Btr, Ld, Tw
Heptadecanoic Margaric C17:0 Ld, Tw, mTw
Octadecanoic Stearic C18:0 Bsu, Cnt, Coc, Crn, CIS, O lv, Plm, Pnt, Sat, Sun, SIB, Btr, Ld,
Tw
9-0ctadecenoic O leic C18:1 Same as for C18 :0
9, 12-0ctadecadienoic Linoleic C18:2 Same as fo r C18 :0
9, 12,15- Li nole nic C18 :3 SIB, Crn, HEAR, LEAR, Btr, Ld , mTw
Octadecatrienoic
Eicosanoic Arachidic C20:0 Olv, Plm, Pnt, Sat, SIB, Ld, Tw
9-Eicosenoic Gado leic C20:1 Marine oils
5,8,11 ,1 4- Arachidonic C20:4 Marine oils
Eicosatetraenoic
Eicosapentaenoic C20:5 Herring, menhaden, salmon
Docosanoic Behenic C22 :0 Pnt, HEAR, LEAR
1 3-Docosenoic Erucic C22:1 HEAR
4,8,12, 15,19- Clupanodonic C22:5 Marine oils
Docosapentenoic
4,7,10,13,16,19- Nisinic C22:6 HEAR, menhaden, sa lmon
Docosahexenoic
a Bsu = babassu, Btr = butter, Cnt = coconut, Coc = cocoa butter, Crn = corn, CIS = cott o nseed, HEAR = rapeseed (high erucic acid
ra pe), Ld = lard, LEAR = canola (low erucic acid rape), Olv = olive, Plm = palm, Pk = pa lm kerne l, Pnt = pe anut, Saf = safflower, SIB =
soybean, Sun = su nflowe r, Tw = tallow (beef) , mTw = mutton ta llow.
129
APPENDIX B.
Composition of Fats and Oils
Iodine
Value C8:0 C10:0 C12 :0 C14:0 C16:0 C17:0 C18 :0 C20 :0 C22:0C16:1 C18 :1 C20 :1 C18:2C18:3
lauric fats
Babassu 13-18 6.0 5.1 42.4 16.8 9 .3 3.5 0.1 14.2 2.4
Coconut 7-12 7.1 6.0 47 .1 18.5 9.1 2.8 0.1 6.8 1.9 0.1
Palm kernel 14-19 3.3 3.4 48.2 16.2 8.4 2.5 0.1 15.3 0.1 2.3
Vegetable oils
Cocoa butter 33-40 0.1 26.3 0.3 33.8 1.3 0.2 0.4 34.4 0.1 3.1
Corn 118-128 0.1 10 .9 0.1 2.0 0.4 0.1 0.2 25.4 59.6 1.2
Cottonseed 98-118 0.1 0.7 21.6 0.1 2.6 0.3 0.2 0.6 18.6 54.4 0.7
Olive 76-88 9.0 2.7 0.4 0.6 80.3 6.3 0.7
Palm 50-55 0.3 1.1 212.9 0 .1 4.6 0.3 0.1 0.2 39.3 10.7 0.4
Peanut 84-100 0.1 11.1 0.1 2.4 1.3 2.9 0.2 46.7 1.6 32.0
Rapeseed 0.1 3.8 0.1 1.2 0.7 0.5 0.3 18.5 6.6 14.5 11.0
Canol a 0.1 ~.1 0.1 1.8 0.7 0.3 0.3 60 .9 1.0 21.0 8.8
Safflower 0.1 6.8 2.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 12 .0 0.1 77.7 0.4
(High oleic) 0.1 3.6 5.2 0.4 1.2 0.1 81.5 0.2 7.3 0.1
Soybean 0.1 10.6 0.1 4.0 0.3 0.3 0.1 23.2 53.7 7.6
Sunflower 0.1 7.0 0.1 4.5 0.4 0.7 0.1 18.7 0.1 67.5 0.8
(High oleic) 3.7 5.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 81 .3 9.0
Animal fats
Butter oil 25-42 1.2 2.5 2.9 10.8 26.9 0.7 12.1 2.0 28.5 0.1 3.2 0.21
74-80 0.1 0.8 25.3 0.1 6.5 0.2 7.2 37.7 0.3 20.6 0 .8
Lard 48 -65 0.1 0.1 1.5 26 .0 0.4 13 .5 0.2 3.3 43 .9 0.7 9.5 0.4
40-55 0.1 3.2 24.3 1.5 18.6 0.2 3.7 42.6 0.3 2.6 0.7
Fish oil
0.1 10.8 23.2 4.2 0.4 0.1 11.4 10.6 1.3 1.8 1.7
0.1 10.5 24 .1 5.2 0.7 0.3 15.0 12.5 4.9 2.4 0.2
a Certain fats and oils have significant amounts of fatty acids other than those listedabove.
Butter oil: C4:0, 3.6%; C6:0, 2.2%;C1 5:0, 2.1%; C14:1, 0.8%.
Tallow (beef): C17:1, 0.8%.
Peanut oil: C24:0, 1.5%.
Rapeseed (high erucic acid rape) oil:C24:0, 1.0%; ( 22:1, 41.1%; C20:2, 0.7%.
Canola (low erucic acid rape): C24:0, 0.2%; (22:1, 0.7%; C20:2, 0.0%.
Menhaden oil: C16:2-4, 4.7%; C18:4, 2.1 %; ( 20:2-4, 3.2%; C20:5, 11.9%; C22:1 , 0.2%; C22:4-6, 9.0%.
Menhaden partly hydrogenated oil (PHO): C16:2, 0.9%; C20:2-4, 10.5%; C22:1, 1.7%; C22:2-4, 7.9%.
131
APPENDIX C.
Suggested Specifications for Industrial Shortenings and Margarines
133
134 I APPENDIX C
All-Purpose Shortening
AOM stability: 75 hr Solid fat profiles:
Oil stability index: 30 hr °C SFC OF SFI
Wiley rnp: 46 ± 1°C 10 38 ± 3 50 28 ± 3
15 29 ± 3 70 20 ± 2
20 22 ± 3 80 17 ± 1
25 17 ± 2 92 13 ± 1
30 12 ± 2 104 7 ±1
35 8 ±1
40 4 ±1
AcetylCoA- A meta bolic form of carbo n in the body tha t is Antioxidants- Comp ounds th at ca n inhibit the
a basic build in block for th e f orm ation of more com plex dev elopme nt of lipid ox idation.
molecules.
Atherosclerosls-A disease of th e circulato ry system
Active filtration-Using pressure to force ma terial thr ough caused by clogg ing of the arteries.
a filter.
Autocatalytic-Describing reacti on that is indu ced by one
Active oxygen m ethod- A proce dure to d etermine how if its own products.
rapidly an oil or fat oxidizes to form peroxides.
Auto xldatlon- A reaction in whic h fats und erg o oxidative
Adipose tis sue-Tissue in which fat is sto red. changes d ue to th e do uble bonds in th eir st ructu re. The
reaction can initiate and proceed witho ut o utside
Alcoholysis- A che mical reaction in which fatty acids react influen ces.
with alcoho l to for m an este r.
Availab le heat-The caloric or ene rgy content of food
Aiginate- A co mplex ca rbo hyd rate de rived from seaweed materials, taking into acco unt th e amount of material that
a nd used as a thic kenin g ag ent a nd gel form er. is abso rbed from the digest ive tract.
Alph a (a )-t en d ing emulslflers-c-Oil-soluble emulsifiers Baker 's margarine- A product similar in co mposition to
tha t form a solid film at th e oil-wate r int erface. bu tter but contai ning hydrogen at ed vegeta b le oil rather
Aliphatic-Describing a straight cha in of carbo ns with no th an butterfat.
branch ing or ring struct ure. Baker' s choc olate- An unswee tened form of choco late
Alkalized (clut ched ) coco a-Cocoa produc ts that are that is the same as chocolate liquor. While h aving a bitte r
treated with an alkali agent to raise th e pH and produce a taste, it is used as an ingredient that adds colo r and
da rker color. choco late flavor.
Amphiphilic-Describing a com pound that possesses both Basecake- The baked prod uct or surface to which a filling
lipophil ic ("fat. loving ") and hydrophilic (vwate r-lovlnq") or icing is ap plied.
reg ions. Basest ocks-Fats with ce rtain composition an d melting
Amphoteric-Describing a co mpo und such as a prot ein characteristics that are mixed in orde r to get desirable
th at has bo th positive and negative cha rges . melting p roperties in a margarine or shorte ning .
Amylopectin-The type of sta rch mo lecule that has Bingham p lastic-A mat erial that beh aves like a solid un til
branches. it is stirred at a high eno ug h rate so it starts to flow and
behave like a liqui d.
Amylose-The typ e of sta rch mo lecule that occu rs as a
linea r coil witho ut branching . Bleaching-Rem oving colore d substances from an oil by
abso rbing th em on to a solid ma terial such as clay.
Animal fats-F at s (like butte r, lard, an d tallow) de rived
from animals. Bloom-A du sty white appea ranc e on the surface of
choco late caused by th e formation of certain ty pes of fat
Anionic-Describing a negatively cha rged compo und . crysta ls.
Anisidine value- A test to determ ine the amo unt of Bomb calorimeter-An instrum ent t hat burns a samp le of
reaction prod ucts produc ed by lipid oxida tion . food and determines how mu ch heat ene rgy it releases.
137
138 I GLOSSARY
Calori e s-The ene rgy contained in food componen ts that Conche-A mixer tha t slowly mixes a heated p aste of
gets released and absorbed by the body du ring ch oc olat e ingred ie nts to reduce t he particle size and
meta bo lism . O ne calorie is th e a mou nt of energy required increase the thickn ess a nd smoot hness.
to raise the tempe rat ure of 1 9 of wate r by 1DC.
Con e st ress index-A method of measuring the soft ness or
Capilla ry melting point-The temp eratur e at which a solid pliability of a fat.
fat t urns into a liquid, measured by warming a fat sam ple
in a small t ub e an d obse rving th e temperatur e at which the Conjugated-Describin g a situation in w hich d ouble
solid cha racter of th e fat disappea rs. bon ds between ca rbo n ato ms occ ur in a series w ith one
single bond in between (C=C-C=C).
Carboxyl gr ou p-The chemi cal functiona l g roup on one
end of a fat ty acid . This is th e same as a carbox ylic acid Continuous br ead proces s- A met hod of d oug h
(CaO H), which can lose a proton and becom e COO~I or formation a nd brea d pre para tion in w hich ing redi en ts are
combine with an alcohol grou p to form an ester. added, mixed, a nd ferm ented w it ho ut stopping poi nts in
the pr ocess.
Carcin o genesis-The development of a malign ancy or
cancer. Creaming- l ) High -spe ed mixing of a p lastic sho rte ning
co ntain ing sugar in ord er to incorp orate air. 2) In an
Carotenes-A class of fat so luble compound s tha t are em ulsion, th e collection of t he lig hter ph ase in th e upper
yellow to red in color. Some carote nes, such as p-caro ten e, part of th e mixtu re (e.q. , oil dro plets o n top of w ate r).
are co nve rted to vitam in A in the body.
Cros s-linked starch-Starch that is ch emically modified by
Caroten oid s-Red an d yellow co loring ag e nts found in linking th e starc h molecule chai ns togeth er late rally wit h a
vegeta b les a nd grains . che mical rea gent.
Casein-The major prote in found in milk. Crumb-The interior of a baked pro d uct as distinct from
the crust.
Chocolate liquor- Th e solid ma ss obta ined whe n th e
gro und, liqu ified cacao nib s a re coo led. Crystals, ct, p, P'-Whe n triglycerid e m olecules in a fat turn
from a liquid to a solid as a result of decreasing
Cho lesterol- A fat- solubl e co m pou nd found in a nimal temperature, th ey pac k int o one of t hree differe nt types of
products that is requi red by human s, is pro duced by th e a rrange me nt. Crystal form s exist only w he n th e fat is in th e
bod y, and, if presen t at high levels in th e blood strea m, is solid state . They can affect th e physica l prop erties and
associated with inc reased risk of disea ses of th e circulat ory func tion ality of th e fat.
syste m.
Denaturation-Any process in w hich prote in molecules
Chy lomicra- An e mu lsified form of fat developed in the irreversibly change th eir native shape as a result of for ces
int estin e to tran sp ort the abso rb ed fat in the blood to ot he r such as heat, agitat ion, or so lve nts .
organs.
Deod ori zation-Rem oval of odors from an oil by injecti ng
Cloud p oint-The amou nt of tim e an oil remains liqu id ste am . The undes irable odors are carried away because of
whe n cooled to refrig erato r te m perature . t heir volatility.
Coc o a butter-The fat from coco a be ans used in Dietary fib er-Fiber in food s th at is not d igested or
chocolate . It has a sharp me lting poin t just below body absorb ed by th e bo dy. Insoluble dieta ry fibe r co nta ins no
tem perature. caloric value, w hile so luble dieta ry fibe r is con side red to
Coc oa butter sub stit utes- Hard fat sources, including have some caloric value.
hydrog enated vegetable oils, th at have me lting pro pe rties D1g lycerid e- A compound with a glycerol molecu le
simila r to those of cocoa butter. attached to two fatty acids.
92 0 Coconut oi l- Coconut oil tha t has been pa rtially Dilatometry-A techn ique for measuring th e a mo un t of
hydr o genat ed to atta in a me lting po int of 92 °F (33 °C). solid or liquid in a fat based on small vo lume c ha nges that
Colloid mill- A high -speed g rind er th at red uces the size of oc cur w hen go ing from th e solid to th e liquid sta te .
the pa rticles to a fine dispersion . Distilled monog lycerides- A pr epa rat ion of
Compound co ating s- Coatin g s co nt ain ing fats other th an mon oglyce rides that is prepa red by d istillation to se pa rate
coc oa butter but similar to reg ular cho co late in melting t he monoglycerides from othe r co mponents, pr imarily
prop e rties. diglycer ides.
GLOSSARY \ 139
Dough development-The process of forming gluten from doub le bonds in the chain. When they exist unatta ched to
wheat flour with the addit ion of wate r and mixing . other compounds, they are called free fatty acids.
Dough strengthener- An ingredient such as a surfactant Fiber- Indigestible or incompl etely digested material,
that is added to a d ough in low levels to improve the usually a complex carb ohydrate. Fiber normally cont ributes
doug h properties. bulk but few or no calories to the d iet.
Dried fish meal-The mate rial remaining when fish tissue Fire point-The temperature at which a heated oil burns
is heated to remove the fat and then dried . with a flame when ignited.
Dro p ping melting point- The temperature at which a Flash point-The temperature at which a heat ed oil gives
solid fat turn s into a liquid, measured by warming the fat flashes of burning when exposed to a flame.
until it forms a dro p of liquid.
Flour ba sis- When determining the percentage of an
Emulsified sh ortenlng- A sho rtening th at is ma nufact ured ing redient In a formula, the weig ht is compared to th e
with add ed emulsifiers (surfactants). weigh t of the flour as a percenta ge. A formula with 50 Ib of
flour and 5 lb of fat wo uld conta in 10% fat on a flour basis.
Emulslfier-A material that lowers the interfacial energy
betw een two imm iscible phases (e.g., oil and water), thus Foam- A gaseous phase, such as air, dispersed and held In
facilitating the d ispersion of one phase into the ot her. a liquid phase, such as water.
Emulslon- A ho moge neous dispersion of two dissi milar Food additive-A food ingredient catego ry in which
imm iscible liquid phases. If oil is d ispersed in wat er, it is an certain restrictions on use apply (a regul ator)' term).
oil-In-water (O/W) emulsion. If water is dispersed in oil, it is
a water-in-oil em ulsion (W/ O) . Free fatty acids- Fatty acids with an acid g roup that is not
chemically bound to an alcohol g roup. Usually fatty acids
Energy-The value derived from the digestion and are bo und to glycerol to form triglycerldes and are
metabolism of food com ponents that is turn ed into work in therefore not free.
a body or tissue.
Free radic al- An unpa ired electron that is an unst able
Enro blng - The process of covering a base food material intermediate in the developm ent of lipid oxida tio n and
with a melted coating that hardens to form a solid rancidity.
surro unding laye r.
Gelatin izatio n-The process in which starch molecu les
Epidemiolog ical da ta- Information ga thered on swell and lose crystallinity in the presence of water and
populations rath er th an by studying specific individuals or heat.
laboratory experimen ts.
Ghee- The fat remaining when the water and other
Essential fatty acid s-A class of fatty acids requir ed in the components are removed from butter. Also termed
diet of humans. li no leic and a -linolenic acids are essential an hydrous milkfat, it is nearly 100% fat .
fatty acids.
Glycerides-Compo unds that have one or more fatty acids
Ester-The chemical linkage that holds an alcoho l group attached to glycerol.
(OH) and an acid g roup (such as e OOH) toget her. An ester
bo nd is the co nnection between a fatty acid and glycerol in Glycerol- A three-carbon chain, with each ca rbon
g lyce rides. containing an alcohol group. One, two, or three fatty acids
may be attached to glycerol to give a rnono-, di-, o r
Esterification-The formation of ester bond s by joining triglyceride.
hyd roxyl gro ups on glycerol o r sugars with carboxylic acids
o n fatty acids. Glycerol monostearate (GMS)- A monoglyceride made
of one stearic acid molecule atta ched to glycerol.
Extrusion - The pro cess of putting a product under
pressure and someti mes heat and then forcing it out of a Glycer olysis- A che mical reaction in which glycerol is
combined with one or mo re fatty acids to form a glyceride .
barrel th roug h an o rifice.
Grain (vinegar)-A mea sure of the streng th of vinegar in
Fatty acids- A gr oup of chemic al compo unds
characterized by a chain mad e up of carbon and hydrogen which 10 g rains is equ al to 1% acetic acid .
ato ms and having a carboxylic acid (CaO H) group on on e Gum arabic- A compl ex carbohydrate derived from Acacia
end of the molecule . They differ from each other in the trees and used to increase the stability of em ulsions.
num ber of carb on ato ms and the num ber and location of
Gut-General term for th e digestive tract or intestinal tract.
140 I GLOSSARY
Hard butters-Specialty fats that have me lting compon en ts that tend to raise th e level of serum
cha racte ristics sim ilar to tho se of da iry butte r or cocoa cholesterol.
butte r. Used in conf ectionery p roducts and imitatio n dai ry
products. IIl1pe butter-A tat obtained from the see ds of plants
gro wn in tropic al Asia; sim ilar to cocoa butter in properties
Hard flake - A hard fat hydro g enated to an iodin e value of a nd co mpos itio n .
ab out S and having a melting po int of abo ut S7'e (13S' F).
Interesterification-Changing th e positio ns of the fatty
HDL-High -de nsity lipo protei ns. Molecular comp lexes acids on triglyceri des. This is a comm ercial processing ste p
found in th e blood tha t ca rry choles terol. Cho leste rol to cha nge th e ph ysical properties of a fat.
bo und to HDLis bein g transp orted and is considered a
go od type of cho lesterol Inte rface- A surface tha t forms th e co mmon bounda ry
between two bo dies, spaces, or pha ses.
Hellx- A linearly coiled structure w ith a regular patt ern of
turns. Interfacia l region- The are a w here two d issi milar
materials are in contact with each oth er.
Humectant- A material th at hold s wate r in a finished
prod uct . Int erfacial tension-Th e forces th at cause two dissim ilar
liquids such as oil and water to separate from eac h ot he r.
Hydrated monoglycerides- A mon oglyceride prep aration Surface tension is th e force that causes two dissim ilar
that contains mon og lycerides, water, and othe r surfactants phas es such as air and wate r to sepa rate . While some tim es
to kee p the mixture homogen eou s. used interch angeably, interfa cial tensi on is betwe en two
liquids or solids wh ile surface ten sion is be tween a liquid
Hydrocarbons-Lipid com pounds found in trace amoun ts and a gas.
in fats and oils. They are unsatur ated carbon chains such as
the com pound squa lene . Inte rn at ional Unit (IU)-The am ount of a vita min th at
exhibits a specific effect when fed to anima ls.
Hydrogenation -The che mical proce ss of adding
hydrog en at om s to the dou ble bo nds between carbo n Intest in al mucosa-Tissue on th e walls of the intestine
atoms in a fatty acid. The result is the conversion of a th at controls the trans po rt of d igested mat erial into th e
doubl e bond (unsaturate d) to a sing le bond (sat urated). blood strea m .
Hydrolysis-A che mical reaction in whic h a molecu le splits Inve rted emu lsion - An e mulsion in w hich the continuous
into two part s. A molecu le of wa te r also splits into H an d phase becomes th e dispersed p hase and th e dispersed
OHI w hich are added to the places whe re the origina l bond phase becomes co nt inuous.
was broken . A fatty acid is rem oved from a glyceride by Io din e val ue-A test to measure th e number of doubl e
hydr olysis of th e ester bo nd . bond s in a fat or oil. A high er value means mor e double
bon ds.
Hydroperoxide- An inte rme diate in lipid oxida tion in
which th e fatty acid ha s added tw o oxygen at om s and a Isoelect ric point-The pH level at w hich th e number of
hyd rogen ato m at the point of oxidation . It is no longer a positive cha rge s is eq ual to the nu mb er of neg at ive cha rges
free rad ical bu t eve ntually deg rade s to flavor compounds (e.g ., on a protein).
associated w ith ra ncid ity.
Keyhollng- A pro cess in w hich wea k side walls of a bread
Hydrophilic-Att racted to wate r o r polar regions of loaf collapse inward so tha t the final prod uct is sha pe d like
molecu les. This chemical property result s from the a keyh ole.
occ urre nce of oxygen or nitrog en g roups and means that
Kilocalo ries- l, OO O calories, w hich is the amount of
there is no att raction to fat or nonp olar groups.
energy required to raise th e tem pera tur e of 1 kg of wa te r
Hyd ro philic-lipo p hilic ba lance (HLB)-A system of 1°(, When referring to th e caloric content of the diet, the
classifying surfacta nt s or emulsifie rs by ho w much "w ate r kilo pa rt is often dropped and just th e term calories is used ,
loving" and how mu ch "fat loving " character th e usually written with a cap ital C, In the state me nt that fat
molecules have. On a scale of 0-20 1 a high number means has 9 Calories per g ram, it mean s kilocalories.
mor e hydr o ph ilic. laminated dough-A dough system th at has horizontal
layers of dough sepa rated by laye rs of fat, resulting in a
Hydrophobic - Water-hating o r nonp olar.
flaky baked pro du ct.
Hypercholesterolemic-Describing th ose dietary l auric fats-A group of fat sources th at are high in lauric
acid as a com po nent of th e triglycerides.
GLOSSARY \ 141
lDl- l ow·density lipopr ot eins. Molecular complexes Miscella- The mixtur e of solvent and oil tha t results from
found in the blood that attach to cholesterol. Cholesterol the solvent extraction of oil from oil seeds.
bou nd to LDL is cons idered bad cholesterol beca use it
depos its on the wa lls of arteries. Mon oglycerid e- A compound with a glycero l molecu le
attached to one fatty acid.
Lecithln s-A ph osph olipid found in egg yolk and soybeans
and also used as a food ingredie nt . It is a surfacta nt that Monounsaturated-Describing a fatty acid that has one
can stabilize em ulsions. doubie bond (C=C) in the carbon chain . Oleic acid is the
most co mmon of the se.
Light (Iitel - Form of a produ ct that has 50% less fat than
the regular product. Nibs-The insides or kerne ls of cacao beans when th e hulls
are removed.
Lipas e-An enzyme tha t hyd rolyzes glycerides.
Nonionic- Describing a com po und with no positive or
llplds- A class of compound s found in natu re that are neg ative cha rge.
soluble in orga nic (nonpolar) solvents such as ether or
hexan e. Triglycerides, cholesterol, and vitamin A are Nonpolar lipids-Fat com ponents that are like organic
exam ples. solvents and not like water in their solubility prope rties.
Unaltered tr iglycerides are usually very no npo lar.
Lipophilic-Attracted to fat or nonpolar regions of
molecules. This chemical property results from the Nontempering coatings-Coatings that are made of fats
occurrence of CH2 g roups and the absence of oxygen or that do not readily undergo crystal form changes and
nitro gen groups. therefore do not need tempering to inhibit chocolate
bloom .
lipoproteins-Com pounds that co ntain a prot ein
molecule attached to a lipid molecule. Obesity- The condition of being overweight due to th e
accumulation of fatty tissue in the body. Obesity usually is
lubrlclty-A desirab le slippery sensation in the mouth considered being more than 20% over ideal weight.
imparted by fats.
Oil stability index-An automa ted procedure for
Margarine- A prod uct category similar to dairy butt er in de termining the speed at which oxidized produ cts develop
co mp osition and color. It contains 80% fat, 16% water, in a heated oil when air is bub bled through.
and 4% other ing redients such as salt .
Omega fatty acids - A met hod of nom enclat ure that
Melting point-The tem perature at which a solid turns designates the number of carbo ns betw een the terminal
into a liquid. Becau se they are a mixture of compounds, -CH. g roup and the last doubl e bond in the fatty acid. This
fats ap pear to melt over a ran ge of temperatur e. A specific is useful is d iscussing the physiological role of certa in
melting temperat ure is de termined by warming a fat and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
reco rding the tempe rature at which an observable event
coincid ing with conversion to a liquid occurs. Organolep t ic eval uatio n-Evaluating qu ality by using a
sense, such as taste o r smell.
Met a bo lism-A series of reactions in the body by which
comple x food mo lecu les are deg raded to simpler forms, Oven -spring-The increase in volume that occurs when
energy is extracted , and comp lex molecules are reformed baked prod ucts are first put into the oven. It results from
by th e body. the release or expansion of gases that takes place before
the structure of the prod uct is set .
Methylen e-interrupted-Describing a situation in which
doubl e bond s between carbon atoms occur in a series with Oxidation-Chemical reaction in which the d ouble bon d
two single bond s in between (C=C- C- C=Cl. on a lipid molecule reacts with oxygen to produce a variety
of chemical products. The consequences of th is reaction
Mice lles-Structures in wh ich similar or dissimilar are loss of nutritional value and formation of the off-flavors
molecules are arranged in an orderly manner. associated with rancidity.
Microp artlculated protein- Protein material that has been Oxidat ive rancidity- Oft-flavors in a fat or oil du e to the
processed to produce small particles that, when mixed with react ion of oxygen with fat molecules.
wate r, produce a creamy, fatlike sensation in the mouth.
Oxygen bo mb - A procedu re to measure the spee d at
Milk chocolate-A fo rm of choco late that has added milk which a heated samp le cons umes oxygen due to lipid
solids, sugar, and ot her ingred ients. It is lig hter in color oxidation .
than semisweet or unsweetened chocolate.
142 I GLOSSARY
Oxystearin~A preparation of oxidized and polymerized Press cake-The solid residue remaining when cocoa
hydrogenated vegetable oil that is added to oils to inhibit butter is removed from chocolate liquor by pressing.
the crystallization of triglycerides.
Press meal-The material remaining when oil is extracted
Passive filtration-Running material through a filter using by mechanical means from oil seeds.
gravity.
Processing-Removing or otherwise extracting a fat or oil
Peroxide value-A number that indicates the level of from its natural matrix.
peroxides in a fat or oil that has developed as a result of
oxidation. Peroxides are considered intermediates in the Proofing-A step in preparing yeast-leavened products in
lipid oxidation reaction scheme. which the dough is warmed and allowed to rise. It takes
place after an initial fermentation and before baking.
Peroxides-Oxidized fat molecules that eventually
degrades to off-flavors. Prostaglandins-A group of specialized lipids that play
important metabolic roles in humans. They are formed in
Peroxyl radical-An intermediate in lipid oxidation in the body from dietary essential fatty acids.
which the fatty acid radical has added two oxygen atoms
and is still a free radical. It is characterized by the structure Protonated-Describing a chemical group that can
COO·. reversibly add a hydrogen ion (proton) to its structure. If
the hydrogen is present, the chemical group is in the
Phenolphthalein end point-A color indicator used to protonated form. COOH is the protonated form of COO-.
determine when all the acid groups have been reacted with
basic groups from sodium hydroxide added during a Rancidity-An off flavor in a fat or oil caused either by
titration. oxidation or by the release of flavorful fatty acids from the
triglyceride.
Phospholipids-Natural components of fat that have
phosphorous associated with the glycerides. Phospholipids RBD oil-Refined, bleached, and deodorized oil. These
are surfactants that assist in emulsification. three treatments are frequently applied in series to convert
extracted oils into more desirable products.
Planetary mixer-A mixer with a bowl and paddle
arrangement that uses circular motion. Reduction-Changing an acid group on a fatty acid to an
alcohol group. This is done with metal reducing agents to
Plaque-A deposit on the inner walls of arteries that grows create fatty alcohols for industrial uses.
and eventually causes blockage.
Refining-Removing impurities from an extracted fat or
Plastic fat (shortening)-Fat that contains both solid and oil.
liquid triglycerides and at room temperature has a
consistency that will hold its shape but is soft and pliable. Refractive index-A physical property of a substance that
relates to how light is refracted from the material. Usually
Plasticity-A physical property of a fat that describes how used to indirectly measure some other property such as
soft, pliable, and moldable it is at a given temperature. concentration.
Polar lipids-Fat components that are more like water and Rendering, dry- Heating and dehydrating animal tissue
less like fat in their solubility properties. Introduction of to extract and separate the fat. This process results in
oxygen or nitrogen atoms into lipid molecules makes them products with increased color and flavor, so it is not
more polar. commonly used for edible animal fats.
Polyglycerols-A group of emulsifiers that contain Rendering, wet-Heating animal tissue by steam under
polymerized glycerol and various types and amounts of pressure so the fat is released to allow separation.
fatty acids.
Retardation of dough-A cooling step that slows down
Polysorbates-A group of emulsifiers that each contain the development of dough and the growth of yeast and
sorbitans, various types and amounts of fatty acids, and allows fats to become more solid.
polyoxyethylene chains.
Reversion flavor-Mild off-flavor developed by a refined
Polyunsaturated-Describing a fatty acid that has more oil when exposed to oxygen. Reversion occurs rather easily,
than one double bond (C=C) in the carbon chain. Linoleic and the off-flavor, while undesirable, is not as objectionable
acid is an example. as rancidity caused by oxidation.
Precursors-Compounds that are the basis for the Rheological-Describing flow properties caused by an
formation of other compounds. outside force or deformation.
GLOSSARY \ 143
Rotary-molded cookies-Cookies formed by pressing This index relates the proportion of liquid to solid fractions
dough into a mold engraved on a cylinder. in a fat.
Salad oil-A refined liquid oil that does not cloud when Specifications-A set of chemical and physical quality
stored under refrigeration conditions. requirements that a product or ingredient must meet
before it is acceptable.
Saponification-A chemical reaction caused by addition of
alkali in which the fatty acids attached to a glycerol are Spent flakes-The material remaining when the oil is
cleaved off to produce soap (fatty acid salts) and a glycerol removed from oil seeds.
molecule.
Stability-The resistance of a fat source to the formation of
Saturated-Describing a carbon chain in which the rancidity.
carbons are connected to each other by single bonds,
drawn as C-C. It has no carbon-to-carbon double bonds. Staling-The firming of baked products that occurs during
storage. The loss of soft texture and flavor is related to
Seed crystals-Small pieces of solid fat in a crystalline form changes in the starch after baking.
that can induce the formation of additional fat crystals
upon cooling. Sterols-Lipid compounds found in trace amounts that
have ring structures rather than the straight chains
Semisweet chocolate-A form of chocolate with added associated with fatty acids. Examples are cholesterol in
sugar. The amount of sugar or sweetness can vary. animal products and phytosterols in plant products.
Sequestrants-Compounds that bind or form complexes Sucrose esters-Emulsifiers manufactured by adding fatty
with a second compound so that the second compound is acids to a sucrose molecule.
no longer chemically active. Positively charged metal ions
such as calcium are often sequestered by compounds such Surfactant-A chemical compound that concentrates at
as citric acid or EDTA. the interface between two dissimilar phases such as oil and
water. The surface tension is lowered by the presence of a
Serum-The liquid fraction of the blood that remains after surfactant.
clotting. Cholesterol is measured in the serum portion of
the blood. Sweet goods-Baked products such as Dan ish pastries that
are high in sugar and often have added icing.
Shea oil-A fat obtained from tree seeds grown in Africa;
similar to cocoa butter in properties and composition. Tallow-A hard white fat obtained from beef or sheep.
Shear stress-The application of a force such as stirring on Tempering-During the manufacture of shortenings,
a material. holding the package product at carefully controlled
temperatures to make slight changes in the crystals of fat.
Sheeting-Stretching dough horizontally to develop the This extends the temperature range over which a
gluten structure. shortening remains plastic.
Shortening-A type of fat used in baking or frying. The 2-Thiobarbituric acid value-A measure of lipid oxidation
name comes from the ability to tenderize or "shorten" that determines the concentration of certain end products
baked products. of lipid oxidation.
Slip point-The temperature at which a solid fat becomes Thixotropy-A physical property that makes a gel or
more liquid-like. It is measured by warming a fat sample in semisolid turn into a liquid and flow when stirred.
a small tube and observing the temperature at which it
moves. Tocopherol-A class of fat soluble compounds that have
vitamin E activity and function as antioxidants.
Smoke point-The temperature at which a heated oil
begins to give off smoke. Totox number-A measure of the total amount of
intermediate compounds (peroxides) and end-product
Solid fat content-A measure of the amount of solid fat in compounds that result from lipid oxidation.
a fat at various temperatures, determined by nuclear
magnetic resonance. It is considered a more direct measure Triglyceride-Three fatty acids attached to a glycerol
than the solid fat index. molecule. If the three fatty acids are the same, it is a simple
triglyceride; if they are different from each other, it is a
Solid fat index-A measure of the amount of solid fat in a mixed triglyceride. Mixed triglycerides are the most
fat at various temperatures. It is determined by the volume common chemical components in fats and oils.
changes that occur as a result of melting or crystallization.
144 I GLOSSARY
Varni sh-An inso luble residu e that results from the Wa xy ma ize starch-Corn sta rch th at is hig h in th e
polymerization and buildup of fat on a hot surface. am ylopectin typ e of sta rch and low in the amylose type of
starch .
Veg etable fats - Fats and oils derived from plant sources.
Wiley melting point-The tem p erature at whic h a so lid fat
Visco sity-The thickness of a liquid or semiliquid materi al. turns into a liq uid, measured by warming a fat until it loses
Vita l wh eat gluten- Con cen trated w heat pro tein that is its shape.
ext racted from flour and used as a n ingredi ent in bake d Winterization- A process in which salad oils a re coo led
products to improve t he struc ture and st reng th of a do ug h. until high-melting-point triglycerides form crystals. These
Votating- A process that mixes, cools, and whips air or crysta ls are removed so that the next time the oil is cooled,
othe r gas into a fat . th e clo udiness that comes with crystallization will no t
occur.
Wate r a ctivity-On a scale of 0 to 1.0, the amount of
wa ter in a food th at is ch em ically active and available. Dry Wire·cut cookles-A type of cook ie prepared from a
foods have a level of 0 .1-0.3, and mo ist foods are in the dough in w hich th e individual cookies are cut from the
range of 0.95 or high er. dou gh piece with a wire be fore baking .
Wa xes-Lipid co mpo unds th at a re fatty acids linked to Yield valu e-The amount of she ar or stirring need ed to
lon g-ch ain fatty alcoho ls. They occur natur ally in unr efined turn a Bingham plastic from a solid to a liqu id .
oils.
Index
Absorption of fat, 66, 77,82-83,89 Biscuits, 72, 78 processing, 92-94
AcetylCoA,114 Bleaching, of crude oil, 48-49 tempering, 96
Acetyl-monoglycerides, 43, 67-68 Blood serum, lipids in , 116-118 types, 95-96
Active oxygen method (AOM), stability Bloom, on chocolate, 91, 92, 96, 99 Chocolate liquor, 93, 95
test, 19,20,25, 58, 72 Bomb calorimeter, 110 Ch olestero l, 14
Adipose tissue, 50 Bonds, between carbon atoms, 4-7, 11, and atherosclerosis, 114-118
Air 14 dietary, 114
in frying fat, 86 Bread,75 high-density lipoprotein (HOL), 114,
incorporation in batters, 62, 66-69, crumb strength, 64 116,117
71 dough strengtheners in , 42-43 low-density lipoprotein (LOL), 114,
Alcoholysis, 11 reduced-calorie, 125-126 116,117
Alginate, 125 softness, 64-64 positive contributions, 112 , 114-115
Aliphatic group, in fatty acids, 4 volume, and fat, 62-63 in blood serum, 114
Alkalized cocoa, see Outched cocoa Butter, 114 cis configurati on, of double bonds, 5-6
Alpha-tending emulsifiers, 32, 43 consumption , 1, 50 Citric acid, 88, 102
Amylopectin, 35, 36, 63, 106 in croissants, 66 Citrus pectin, 121
Amylose, 36, 63 manufacturing, 50-51 Cloud point, 19, 101, 104
Analytical tests Butter fat fractions, 124 Coatings, 70, 73-74,98, 135
chemical, 22-27 Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), 12 chocolate, 92-97
physical, 15-22 Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), 12 compound, 98-99
Animal fats, 13-14, 131 nontempering, 99
consumption, 1, 13-14 Cacao trees, 92-93 Cocoa butter, 10,91 ,97,100,131
processing, 50-51 Cakes, 76 crystal structures, 92
Animal feed, 51 batter, 2, 66-67 processing, 93-94
Animal/vegetable shortenings, 55 devil's food, 94 substitutes, 98
Anisidine value, measurement of, 23 packag ed mixes, 68 Cocoa powder, 93
Antioxidants, 112, 118 icings, 73-74 Coconut oil, 72, 98, 131
in frying fat, 88 production, 66-69 Colloid mill , 105, 106
in salad dressings, 102 shortening for, 68, 134 Color
types, 12-13 Calcium stearoyllactylate, 42, 43 of chocolate, 93-94
Arachidonic acid, 112, 113, 129 Caloric density, reduction, 119-120, of shortening/oil, 25, 59
Atherosclerosis, 114, 116 126 test for, 21
Atwater values, 110 Cancer, and polyunsaturated fats, 118 of fried product, 82, 83, 86, 89
Autoxidation Canola oil, 88, 131 problems, 59, 89
factors contributing to, 12 Caprenin, 122, 123 of salad dressings, 103
process, 11-12 Carbohydrates, as fat substitutes, 121- Colorants, for oil products, 57
tests for, 19-20 122 Commercial use of fats and oils, 1-2
Carbon chains, in fatty acids, 4 Complete (capillary) melting point, 17
Baker's chocolate, see Chocolate liquor Carb oxyl group, in fatty acids, 4 Complexing, of lipid and starch, 35-36
Bakery products Carotenes, 111-112 Composition, of fats and oils , 13-14,
characteristics, role of fats and oils, a-Cellulose, 125 131
61-62 Cheese, 124 Compound coatings, 98-99
processing, role of fats and oils, 62 Chocolate Conche,95
Base oils, modification, 51-54 chips, 96 Con e stress index, 22
Basestocks, 16,50,53,55 crystal structure, 92 Confectionery coatings, see Coatings
Beta-tending fat, 72 extenders, 97 Conjugated fatty acids, 4
Bile acids, 115, 116 origin, 92-93
145
146 I INDEX
Glucose est ers, 102 Lipoprotein, 50, 116 Nitrogen gas, 50, 55, 56, 57
Gum arabic, 125 Lipoxygenase, 22 Nontempering coatings, 99
Gums, 41, 47, 62 Liquid fracti on of fat Nutrition, role of fat s an d oils, 3, 109-
as fat substitutes, 121 cloud point, 19 118
m easurement of, 23-24 and product texture, 3
rem oval,48 and solid fat index, 10 Obesity, 109
for viscosity, 102, 123, 124 Lubricati on Odo r, of oil, 21, 25
Glycerides, 7- 8 of bakin g pan s, 62, 74 Oil
Glycerol monostearate (GMS), 32, 33, of cutt ing equipment, 71, 126 composition, 131
34,36, 38 of the mouth, 61, 120 defined,3
Glycerol trist ear ate, 9 Lubricity, 61 Oil stability index, 19-20, 25
Glycerolysis, 11 Ole ic acid, 4, 7, 52, 129
Margarine, 134 Oleic fats, 13
Hard butters, 16, 97, 98, 135 in bak ed goo ds, 66 Olestra, 122
Hard flake, 55, 58, 74 consum ption, 1 Olive oil, 2-3, 13 1
for do ugh stre ng th, 62, 64 defin ed,3 Omega fatt y acids, 4-5, 112-113
Heat transfer, by fats , 62, 81-86 manufacture, 38, 56-5 7 Oven-spring, 62
Horm ones, 3, 115 soft (tub ), 8 Oxidation
Hydrocarbons, 14, 24 specifications, 57, 65, 135- 136 during fryin g, 86
Hydrogenation, 51-53,117 Mayonnaise, 107 pro cess, 11-1 2
Hyd rogen gas, 51 com position, 103-104 products, and flavor, 2
Hydrolysis, 11, 86 manufacture, 104-105 Ox idativ e degrad ati on, tests for, 23
Hydroperoxide, 12 rh eolo gy, 104 Oxida tive ran cidity, 21
Hyd rophilic-lipophilic balan ce (HLB) Menhaden oil, 14, 131 Ox ida tiv e stability, 61
of specific emulsifiers, 29, 33, 40 , 41 Melting point ana lytical test s for, 19-20
and stabilization of emulsions, 35 of fats in baked good s, 65, 66, 70 and good m anufacturing practices, 12
of fatty acids , 7- 8 an d antioxidants, 12-13
Icin gs, 62, 68, 72- 74, 79, 134 of frying fats, 88 of salad oil, 102
IIlipe butter, 97 of triglycer ides, 7,8-9,51 Oxyge n bomb, stability test, 20
Interesterification, 11, 40, 53- 54 an alytical tests for,1 7-1 9 Oxystearin, 102
In terfa cial tension, 29, 32, 33 Metal ions , 86, 8 7, 102
Iodine value, 51, 52, 74 Methionine, 99 Palm oil, 55, 97, 98, 131
m easurement of, 22- 23 Methylene-interrupted fatt y acids, 5, flavors in, 21, 88
for monoglycerides, 39 22 Palm kernel oil, 98, 131
for n atural fats and oils, 131 Micellization, 82, 86 Palmitic acid , 4, 7, 11, 117, 129
Microcrystalline cellul ose, 103, ·124 Palmitooleoste arin, 7
Keyho ling ,62,64, 75 Micro pa rticulated protein, 120, 123 Pan -release agen ts, 74
Kiloc alori es, in fats, 1 Milk cho colate, 95 Pean ut oil, 58, 88, 131
Milk fat, 50-5 1 Pem mican, 3
Lac tyl-monoglycerides, 43, 68 Min eral oil, 74 Peroxide value, 19, 23, 25, 49
Laminat ed dou gh s, 65-66, 75 Miscella,4 7 Phen olphthalein end point, 22
Lard , 11, 50, 11~ 131 Moisture, on coa tings, 97 Ph osphatidylcholine (PC), 41
Lauric acid, 13, 117, 129 Molecular weight of proteins, Phosphatidylethanolamin e (PE), 41
Lauri c fats, 13, 98, 13 1 estima tion, 34 Ph osphatidylinositol (PI), 41
Lecithins, 14 Mon oglycerid e Phosph olipids, 14
ethanol fractionat ion of, 41 in batters, 67-68 functi on, 3, 110
m easur em ent of, 23-24 distilled, 38 measur em ent, 23-24
us es, 41, 69, 83 , 9 7 fatty acid compositi on, 39 Phosph or us, 23-24, 25
"Light" products, 123, 124 form ati on, commercial, 8 Ph yt osterols, 14
Lin oleic acid, 4, 52, 112 , 113, 129 form s, 8 Pie crust, 72, 78
Linoleic fats, 13 hydr ated, 38 Plaque, 114, 116
Lin olenic acid, 4, 52, 113, 129 in icings , 73 Plastic shortening, 1, 62, 65, 67, 68, 71
Lipase, 8, 54, 122 in process ed oil, 50 Plasticity, 61
Lipid s uses, 38-39 measur em ent of, 22
and foam, 33 1-Monoste arin (n-mo no stea rin), 38 and solid fat in dex, 2 1
n onca loric , 122-1 23 Mon ounsaturated fatt y acids, 4 Plasticizing, 54- 55, 56
an d nutrition, 109-118 Myristic acid , 117, 129 Polar lipids, test for, 21
pol ar, 21 Polyd extrose, 122, 12 7
in serum, 116-118 N-Flate, 122 Polyglycerol esters , 40, 102, 123
148 / INDEX